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Templeogue is Where the arsehole who took my girlfriend is from.
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[[Image:Rok Stone.jpg|thumb|Younger Futhark inscription on the [[Rök Stone]]]]
The '''Runic alphabets''' are a set of related [[alphabet]]s using letters known as '''runes''', formerly used to write [[Germanic languages]], mainly in [[Scandinavia]], and the [[British]] Isles. In all their varieties, they may be considered an ancient writing system of [[Northern Europe]]. The Scandinavian version is also known as '''Futhark''' (from the first six letters, ᚠᚢᚦᚨᚱᚲ), and the Anglo-Saxon version as '''Futhorc'''. The earliest runic inscriptions date from ca. [[2nd century|150]], and the alphabet was generally replaced by the [[Latin alphabet]] with [[Christianisation]], by ca. [[6th century|700]] in central Europe, and by ca. [[11th century|1200]] in Scandinavia. However, the use of runes persisted for specialized purposes, mainly in Scandinavia, in rural [[Sweden]] until the early [[20th century]] (used mainly for decoration as [[Dalecarlia|Dalecarlian]] runes, and on [[Runic calendar]]s).
The three best known runic alphabets are:
*the [[Older Futhark]] (ca. 150–500)
*the [[Anglo-Saxon]] Futhorc (400–1100)
*the Younger Futhark (800–1910)
The Younger Futhark is further divided into:
*the [[Danish]] futhark script
*the [[Swedish]]-[[Norwegian]] runic script (also: Short-twig or Rök Runes)
*the Hälsinge Runes (staveless runes)
*the latinised Dalecarlian futhark script (ca. 1500–1910)
The most likely candidates for the origins of runic scripts are the [[5th century BC|5th]] to [[1st century BC]] [[Northern Italic alphabet]]s, [[Lepontic]], [[Rhaetic]] and [[Venetic alphabet|Venetic]], all closely related to each other and themselves descended from the [[Old Italic alphabet]]. These scripts bear a remarkable resemblance to the Futhark in many regards.
== Background ==
The runes were introduced to, or invented by, the Germanic peoples in roughly the [[2nd century]]. While at this time the Germanic language was certainly not at the [[Proto-Germanic]] stage any longer, it may still have been a continuum of dialects not yet clearly separated into the three branches of later centuries, viz. [[North Germanic]], [[West Germanic]] and [[East Germanic]]. Most of the early runes from the [[Scandinavia]]n countries are assumed to be in the [[Old Norse language]], the common ancestor language of the modern North Germanic languages. No distinction is made in surviving runic inscriptions between long and short vowels, although such a distinction was certainly present phonologically in the spoken languages of the time. As Proto-Germanic evolved into its later language groups, the words assigned to the runes and the sounds represented by the runes themselves began to diverge somewhat, and each culture would either create new runes, rename or rearrange its rune names slightly, or even stop using obsolete runes completely, to accommodate these changes. Thus, the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc has several runes peculiar unto itself to represent [[diphthong]]s unique to (or at least prevalent in) the Anglo-Saxon dialect. The fact that the younger Futhark has sixteen runes, while the Elder Futhark has twenty four, is in all probability likewise a reflection of some six hundred years of sound changes in the [[North Germanic]] language group.
The name given to the signs, contrasting them with Latin or Greek letters, is first attested on a 6th century [[alamanni|alamannic]] runestaff as ''runa''. The name is from a root ''run-'' (Gothic ''runa'') meaning "secret" (c.f. also the chapters of the [[Kalevala]], called ''runo'', plural ''runot'', a loan from North Germanic).
===Origins===
In [[Norse mythology]], the invention of runes is attributed to [[Odin]]: The [[Havamal]] (stanzas 138, 139) describes how Odin receives the rune through his self-[[sacrifice]] :
{|
| ''Veit eg að eg hékk vindgameiði á''
|I know that I hung on a windy tree
|-
| ''nætur allar níu,''
| nine long nights,
|-
| ''geiri undaður og gefinn Óðni,''
| wounded with a spear dedicated to Odin,
|-
| ''sjálfur sjálfum mér,''
| myself to myself,
|-
| ''á þeim meiði er manngi veit hvers af rótum renn.''
| on a tree of which no man knows from where its foots stem
|-
|
|-
| ''Við hleifi mig sældu né við horni-gi.''
| No bread did they give me nor a tree from a horn,
|-
| ''Nýsta eg niður,''
| downwards I peered,
|-
| ''nam eg upp rúnar,''
| I took up the runes,
|-
| ''æpandi nam,''
| screaming I took them,
|-
| ''féll eg aftur þaðan.''
| then I fell back from there
|}
The runes developed comparatively late, centuries after the Central European alphabets from which they are probably descended. There are some similarities to alphabets of [[Phoenician]] origin (Latin, Greek, Italic) that cannot possibly all be due to chance: ᚠ - [[Digamma|F]], ᚢ - [[V]], ᚱ - [[R]] , ᚺ - [[H]], ᛁ - [[I]], ᛊ - [[S]], ᛏ - [[T]], ᛒ - [[B]], ᛗ - [[M]], ᛚ - [[Lambda|Λ]], ᛞ - [[Delta (letter)|Δ]], ᛟ - [[Omega|Ω]]. However, other letters seem to be independent. The [[Northern Italic alphabet]] is usually quoted as a candidate for the origin of the runes. Their angular shapes are generally interpreted as an adaptation to the practice of carving in wood (rather than writing with a reed or a brush).
Another theory is that the runes originated directly from the [[Middle East]], and are related to the [[Nabataean alphabet]], a variant of the [[Semitian alphabet]]. The introduction of runes is in this scenario ascribed to the [[Roman legion|Roman legions]], which left [[Syria Palaestina]] during the 2nd century. This theory is based on discovery of early runes on weapons, such as [[longbow]]s, and [[arrow head]]s, characteristically belonging to these soldiers. (The historical [[Nabataean|Nabataean kingdom]], spanning [[Jordan]], [[Sinai]], and [[Israel|South Israel]], corresponds to early [[Arabia]].)
The "[[West Germanic]] hypothesis" assumes an introduction by West Germanic tribes. This hypothesis is based on the earliest inscriptions of ca. [[200]], found in bogs and graves around Jutland, which exhibit West Germanic name forms, e. g. ''wagnija'', ''niþijo'', and ''harija'', possibly names of tribes located in the [[Rhineland]]. However, some tribes of Jutland ([[Angles]] and [[Jutes]]) appear to have been speaking West Germanic rather than North Germanic dialects at this time, something that can still be traced in local dialects of Danish.
Runes are a popular field for scientific speculation, and many other theories have been advanced, e. g. a claim by [[Olof Rudbeck|Olaus Rudbeck Sr]] in ''[[Atlantica (book)|Atlantica]]'' that ''all'' writing system orginate from proto-runic scripts.
In the later Middle Ages, runes were mostly used in the [[Runic calendar|Clog almanacs]] (sometimes called ''Runic staff'', ''Prim'' or ''Scandinavian calendar'') that became standard equipment within Northern Europe with the introduction of Christianity. The authenticity of some monuments bearing Runic inscriptions found in Northern America is disputed, but most of them date from modern times.
===Divination===
The earliest runic inscriptions were certainly not coherent texts of any length, but simple markings on artefacts (e.g. [[bracteate]]s, combs, etc.), giving the name of either the craftsman or the proprietor, or, sometimes, remaining a linguistic mystery. Because of this, it is possible that the early runes were not so much used as a simple writing system, but rather as [[magic|magical]] signs to be used for charms, or for [[divination]]. The name ''rune'' itself, taken to mean "secret, something hidden", seems to indicate that knowledge of the runes was originally considered esoteric, or restricted to an elite. However, it has proved difficult to find unambiguous traces of such runic "oracles": Although [[Norse]] literature is full of references to runes, it nowhere contains specific instructions on divination or magic. There are two sources on divination with rather vague descriptions that may or may not refer to runes. The first is [[Tacitus|Tacitus']] ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'', which describes "signs" chosen in groups of three. The second appears in [[Rimbert]]'s ''[[Vita Ansgari]]'', which describes how a renegade Swedish king [[Anund Uppsale]] first brings a Danish fleet to [[Birka]], but then changes his mind and asks the Danes to ''draw lots''. This ''drawing of lots'' is quite informative, telling them that attacking Birka would bring bad luck and that they should attack a Slavic town.
There are some inscriptions suggesting a medieval belief in the magical significance of runes, such as the [[Franks Casket]] (AD [[700]]) panel.
This lack of knowledge has not stopped modern authors from extrapolating entire systems of divination from what few specifics exist, usually loosely based on the runes' reconstructed names. Perhaps the most popular of these is [[Ralph Blum]], whose ''Book of Runes'' comes with a set of runes on [[ceramic]] tiles, that are loosely based on the runes of the Elder Futhark. Another author is [[Edred Thorsson]], whose best known books are ''Futhark'', ''Runelore'' and ''Runecaster's Handbook (The Well of the Wyrd)''.
===Common use===
Later runic finds are mainly monuments ([[rune stone]]s) and often contain solemn inscriptions about people who died or performed great deeds. For a long time it was assumed that this kind of grand inscription was the primary use of runes, and that their use was associated with a certain societal class of rune-carvers.
However, in the middle of the [[1950s]], about 600 inscriptions known as the [[Bryggen inscriptions]] were found in [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]]. These inscriptions were made on wood and bone and contained several phrases of a profane and sometimes even vulgar nature. Following this find, it is nowadays commonly assumed that at least in late use, Runic was a widespread and common writing system.
=== Gothic runes ===
Theories of the existence of Gothic runes have been advanced, even identifying them as the original alphabet from which the Futhark were derived, but these have little support in actual findings. If there ever were genuinely Gothic runes, they were soon replaced by the [[Gothic alphabet]]. The letters of the Gothic alphabet, however, as given by the [[Alcuin]] manuscript ([[9th century]]), are obviously related to the names of the Futhark. The names are clearly Gothic, but it is impossible to say whether they are as old as, or even older than, the letters themselves.
== Elder Fuþark ==
''main article: [[Elder Futhark]].''
[[Image:Old_Futhark_Runic_alphabet.png|300px|thumb|the Older Futhark]]
The Elder Futhark, sometimes also called proto-Nordic (''urnordiska''), consist of twenty-four runes, often arranged in three rows of eight. The earliest known full sequential listing of the alphabet dates from ca. [[400]] and is found on the [[Kylver Stone]] in [[Gotland]].
:<font size=5> ᚠ ᚢ ᚦ ᚨ ᚱ ᚲ ᚷ ᚹ </font>
:<font size=5> ᚺ ᚾ ᛁ ᛃ ᛇ ᛈ ᛉ ᛊ</font>
:<font size=5> ᛏ ᛒ ᛖ ᛗ ᛚ ᛜ ᛞ ᛟ </font>
The letter values, and their common [[transliteration]] are: ᚠ [f], ᚢ [u], ᚦ [þ], ᚨ [a], ᚱ [r], ᚲ [k], ᚺ [h], ᚾ [n], ᛁ [i], ᛃ [j]; ᛇ [ï] ([ei]), ᛈ [p], ᛉ [R], ᛊ [s], ᛏ [t], ᛒ [b], ᛖ [e], ᛗ [m], ᛚ [l], ᛜ [ŋ], ᛞ [d], ᛟ [o].
===Names===
Each rune most probably had a name, chosen to represent the sound of the rune itself. The names are, however, not directly attested for the Elder Futhark themselves. Reconstructed names in [[Proto-Germanic]] have been suggested for them, based on the names given for runes of the later alphabets in the [[rune poem]]s and the names of the letters of the [[Gothic alphabet]].
ᚠ '''f'''ehu "wealth, [[cattle]]",
ᚢ '''û'''ruz "[[aurochs]]" (or '''û'''ram "[[water]] / [[slag]]"?),
ᚦ '''th'''urisaz "[[jotun|giant]]",
ᚨ '''a'''nsuz "oe of the [[Aesir]]" (or '''a'''hsam "ear (of corn)"?),
ᚱ '''r'''aidô "ride, journey",
ᚲ '''k'''aunan "[[ulcer]], illness",
ᚷ '''g'''ebô "gift",
ᚹ '''w'''unjô "[[joy]]",
ᚺ '''h'''aglaz "[[hail]]",
ᚾ '''n'''audiz "[[poverty|need]]",
ᛁ '''î'''saz "[[ice]]",
ᛃ '''j'''era "[[year]]",
ᛇ '''î'''gwaz / '''ei'''hwaz "[[yew]]",
ᛈ '''p'''erþô? "[[pear]]"?,
ᛉ algi'''z''' "[[moose|elk]]"?,
ᛊ '''s'''ôwilô "Sun",
ᛏ '''t'''îwaz (a god),
ᛒ '''b'''erkanan "[[birch]]",
ᛖ '''e'''hwaz "[[horse]]",
ᛗ '''m'''annaz "[[Human|man]]",
ᛚ '''l'''aukaz "[[lake]]",
ᛜ i'''ng'''waz (a god),
ᛞ '''d'''agaz "[[day]]",
ᛟ '''ô'''þalan "estate, [[inheritance]]"
== Frisian and Anglo-Saxon Fuþorc ==
The Futhorc are an extended alphabet, consisting of 29, and later even 33 characters. It was used probably from the [[5th century]] and onward, having been developed in [[Frisia]] and later spread to [[England]]. Futhorc inscriptions are found e. g. on the [[Thames scramasax]], in the [[Vienna Codex]], in [[Cotton MS Otho B]] (†) and on the [[Ruthwell Cross]].
[[Image:Anglosaxonrunes.JPG|thumb|300px|The Fuþorc]]
The [[Anglo-Saxon rune poem]] has: ᚠ feoh, ᚢ ur, ᚦ thorn, ᚩ os, ᚱ rad, ᚳ cen, ᚷ gyfu, ᚹ wynn, ᚻ haegl, ᚾ nyd, ᛁ is, ᛄ ger, ᛇ eoh, ᛈ peordh, ᛉ eolh, ᛋ sigel, ᛏ tir, ᛒ beorc, ᛖ eh, ᛗ mann, ᛚ lagu, ᛝ ing, ᛟ ethel, ᛞ daeg, ᚪ ac, ᚫ aesc, ᚣ yr, ᛡ ior, ᛠ ear.
The expanded alphabet has the additional letters ᛢ cweorth, ᛣ calc, ᛤ cealc and ᛥ stan.
Feoh, þorn, and sigel stood for [f], [þ], and [s] in most environments, but voiced to [v], [ð], and [z] between vowels or voiced consonants. Gyfu and wynn stood for the letters [[yogh]] and [[wynn]] which became [g] and [w] in [[Middle English]].
== Younger Fuþark ==
The Younger Fuþark, also called Scandinavian Fuþark, are a reduced form of the Elder Futhark, consisting of only 16 characters. They are found in Scandinavia and [[Viking Age]] settlements abroad, probably in use from the 9th century onward.
=== Danish Fuþąrk (long-branch runes)===
[[Image:Danish_Futhork_(long-branch_runes).png|thumb|280px|the Younger Futhark (long-branch runes)]]
The Icelandic and Norwegian [[rune poem]]s have 16 runes,
:<font size=4>ᚠ ᚢ ᚦ ᚬ ᚱ ᚴ ᚼ ᚾ ᛁ ᛅ ᛋ ᛏ ᛒ ᛘ ᛚ ᛦ</font>
with the letter names ᚠ fe ("wealth"), ᚢ ur ("iron"/"rain"), ᚦ [[Thurs]], ᚬ [[aesir|As]]/Oss, ᚱ reidh ("ride"), ᚴ kaun ("ulcer"), ᚼ hagall ("hail"), ᚾ naudhr/naud ("need"), ᛁ is/iss ("ice"), ᛅ ar ("plenty"), ᛋ sol ("sun"), ᛏ [[Tyr]], ᛒ bjarkan/bjarken ("birch"), ᛘ madhr/madr ("man"), ᛚ logr/lög ("water"), ᛦ yr ("yew").
=== Swedish-Norwegian Fuþąrk (short-twig runes) ===
[[Image:Swedish-Norwegian_Futhork_(short-twig_runes).png|280px|thumb|short-twig runes]]
The short-twig runes (or Rök runes) are clearly a simplified version of the long-branch runes, consisting of the following sixteen signs:
:<font size=4>ᚠ ᚢ ᚦ ᚭ ᚱ ᚴ ᚽ ᚿ ᛁ ᛆ ᛌ ᛐ ᛓ ᛙ ᛚ ᛧ</font>
=== Hälsinge Runes (staveless runes) ===
[[Image:Haelsinge_Runes_(staveless_runes).png|280px|thumb|staveless runes]]
Hälsinge runes are found in the [[Hälsingland]] region of [[Sweden]], used between the [[10th century|10th]] and [[12th century|12th]] centuries. The runes seem to be a simplification of the Swedish–Norwegian runes and lack vertical strokes, hence the name 'staveless.' They cover the same set of letters as the other Younger Futhark alphabets. This variant has no assigned Unicode range (as of Unicode 4.0).
=== Dalecarlian Runic script===
[[Image:Middle_Age_Runes.png|410px|thumb|the Dalecarlian runes]]
Named after the Swedish province [[Dalecarlia]] (see [[Dalecarlian language]]), the Dalecarlian runic script is an alphabetic script influenced by both long-branch and short-twig runes. It introduces dotted variants of voiceless signs to denote the corresponding voiced consonants, or vice versa, voiceless variants of voiced consonants. It came into use in the late Middle Ages (or in the early 16th century) and remained in some use up to the 20th century. Its inventory is suitable for transcribing modern [[Swedish language|Swedish]]:
ᛆ a, ᛒ b, ᛍ c, ᛑ d, ᚦ þ, ᚧ ð, ᛂ e, ᚠ f, ᚵ g, ᚼ h, ᛁ i, ᚴ k, ᛚ l, ᛘ m, ᚿ n, ᚮ o, ᛔ p, ᚱ r, ᛌ s, ᛐ t, ᚢ u, ᚡ v, ᛦ y, ᛎ z, ᛅ æ, ᚯ ø
There are other varieties of the Younger Futhark, in particular the [[Edward Larsson Runic Script|''Edward-script'']] which can be considered as a variant of the Dalecarlian runes (see [[:Image:Edward Larsson 1885 I.jpg|Image of Edward-script]]). In total, about 380 objects dating from 1500–1910 have been found in the provinces of [[Dalecarlia]], [[Gestricia]] and [[Herdalia]]. The Edward-script was in use until the 1910s in [[Älvdalen]], [[Dalecarlia]], and also appears on the [[Kensington runestone]], which to most researchers indicates its status as a hoax.
==Modern use==
===Fascist symbolism===
[[Image:De_hfss.gif|thumb|100px|From [[1933]], the Nazi [[SS unit insignia|SS badge]] displayed two "Sig runes".]]
In addition to the above-mentioned extrapolations from their supposed use in ancient divination, runes have been used in [[fascist symbolism]] by [[Nazism]] and [[neo-Nazi]] groups that associate themselves with Scandinavian traditions. An example is the use of the [[Odal rune]] (see [[Odalism]]). See also [[Thor Steinar]].
=== Popular culture ===
Runes are used for divination and ritual in varying ways in [[occultism]] and [[neo-paganism]] (e.g. [[Ásatrú]], [[Wicca]]). Unfortunately, it is sometimes difficult to draw a precise boundary line between these and [[Nazi mysticism]], but the mere use of runes should not be construed as sufficient proof of any connection to fascist ideas.
[[J. R. R. Tolkien]] popularized runes by his use of the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc in ''[[The Hobbit]]'', and he also invented his own fictional runic aphabet, the [[Cirth]]. In Tolkien's wake, runes appear frequently in [[Fantasy]] literature.
In [[role-playing game]]s, paper- or computer-based (such as the online game [[Runescape]]), runes are often used to cast magic spells. There are typically many kinds (Air, Mind, Water, Earth, Fire, Body, Cosmic, Chaos, Nature, Death, Law, Blood, Soul) and sophisticated magical effects may often be achieved by combining them during the casting or enchantment.
== Unicode ==
Runic alphabets are assigned [[Unicode]] range 16A0–16FF. This block is intended to encode all shapes of runic letters. Each letter is encoded only once, regardless of the number of alphabets in which it occurrs.
The block contains 81 symbols: 75 runic letters (16A0–16EA), three punctuation marks
(Runic Single Punctuation 16EB ᛫, Runic Multiple Punctuation 16EC ᛬ and Runic Cross Punctuation 16ED ᛭), and three runic symbols that are used in mediaeval calendar staves ("Golden number Runes", Runic Arlaug Symbol 16EE ᛮ, Runic Tvimadur Symbol 16EF ᛯ and Runic Belgthor Symbol 16F0 ᛰ). Characters 16F1–16FF are presently (as of Unicode Version 4.0) unassigned.
Table of runic letters (U+16A0–U+16EA):
{|
| 16A0
| <font size=4>ᚠ</font>
| fehu feoh fe f
| 16B0
| <font size=4>ᚰ</font>
| on
| 16C0
| <font size=4>ᛀ</font>
| dotted-n
| 16D0
| <font size=4>ᛐ</font>
| short-twig-tyr t
| 16E0
| <font size=4>ᛠ</font>
| ear
|-
| 16A1
| <font size=4>ᚡ</font>
| v
| 16B1
| <font size=4>ᚱ</font>
| raido rad reid r
| 16C1
| <font size=4>ᛁ</font>
| isaz is iss i
| 16D1
| <font size=4>ᛑ</font>
| d
| 16E1
| <font size=4>ᛡ</font>
| ior
|-
| 16A2
| <font size=4>ᚢ</font>
| uruz ur u
| 16B2
| <font size=4>ᚲ</font>
| kauna
| 16C2
| <font size=4>ᛂ</font>
| e
| 16D2
| <font size=4>ᛒ</font>
| berkanan beorc bjarkan b
| 16E2
| <font size=4>ᛢ</font>
| cweorth
|-
| 16A3
| <font size=4>ᚣ</font>
| yr
| 16B3
| <font size=4>ᚳ</font>
| cen
| 16C3
| <font size=4>ᛃ</font>
| jeran j
| 16D3
| <font size=4>ᛓ</font>
| short-twig-bjarkan b
| 16E3
| <font size=4>ᛣ</font>
| calc
|-
| 16A4
| <font size=4>ᚤ</font>
| y
| 16B4
| <font size=4>ᚴ</font>
| kaun k
| 16C4
| <font size=4>ᛄ</font>
| ger
| 16D4
| <font size=4>ᛔ</font>
| dotted-p
| 16E4
| <font size=4>ᛤ</font>
| cealc
|-
| 16A5
| <font size=4>ᚥ</font>
| w
| 16B5
| <font size=4>ᚵ</font>
| g
| 16C5
| <font size=4>ᛅ</font>
| long-branch-ar ae
| 16D5
| <font size=4>ᛕ</font>
| open-p
| 16E5
| <font size=4>ᛥ</font>
| stan
|-
| 16A6
| <font size=4>ᚦ</font>
| thurisaz thurs thorn
| 16B6
| <font size=4>ᚶ</font>
| eng
| 16C6
| <font size=4>ᛆ</font>
| short-twig-ar a
| 16D6
| <font size=4>ᛖ</font>
| ehwaz eh e
| 16E6
| <font size=4>ᛦ</font>
| long-branch-yr
|-
| 16A7
| <font size=4>ᚧ</font>
| eth
| 16B7
| <font size=4>ᚷ</font>
| gebo gyfu g
| 16C7
| <font size=4>ᛇ</font>
| iwaz eoh
| 16D7
| <font size=4>ᛗ</font>
| mannaz man m
| 16E7
| <font size=4>ᛧ</font>
| short-twig-yr
|-
| 16A8
| <font size=4>ᚨ</font>
| ansuz a
| 16B8
| <font size=4>ᚸ</font>
| gar
| 16C8
| <font size=4>ᛈ</font>
| pertho peorth p
| 16D8
| <font size=4>ᛘ</font>
| long-branch-madr m
| 16E8
| <font size=4>ᛨ</font>
| icelandic-yr
|-
| 16A9
| <font size=4>ᚩ</font>
| os o
| 16B9
| <font size=4>ᚹ</font>
| wunjo wynn w
| 16C9
| <font size=4>ᛉ</font>
| algiz eolhx
| 16D9
| <font size=4>ᛙ</font>
| short-twig-madr m
| 16E9
| <font size=4>ᛩ</font>
| q
|-
| 16AA
| <font size=4>ᚪ</font>
| ac a
| 16BA
| <font size=4>ᚺ</font>
| haglaz h
| 16CA
| <font size=4>ᛊ</font>
| sowilo s
| 16DA
| <font size=4>ᛚ</font>
| laukaz lagu logr l
| 16EA
| <font size=4>ᛪ</font>
| x
|-
| 16AB
| <font size=4>ᚫ</font>
| aesc
| 16BB
| <font size=4>ᚻ</font>
| haegl h
| 16CB
| <font size=4>ᛋ</font>
| sigel long-branch-sol s
| 16DB
| <font size=4>ᛛ</font>
| dotted-l
|-
| 16AC
| <font size=4>ᚬ</font>
| long-branch-oss o
| 16BC
| <font size=4>ᚼ</font>
| long-branch-hagall h
| 16CC
| <font size=4>ᛌ</font>
| short-twig-sol s
| 16DC
| <font size=4>ᛜ</font>
| ingwaz
|-
| 16AD
| <font size=4>ᚭ</font>
| short-twig-oss o
| 16BD
| <font size=4>ᚽ</font>
| short-twig-hagall h
| 16CD
| <font size=4>ᛍ</font>
| c
| 16DD
| <font size=4>ᛝ</font>
| ing
|-
| 16AE
| <font size=4>ᚮ</font>
| o
| 16BE
| <font size=4>ᚾ</font>
| naudiz nyd naud n
| 16CE
| <font size=4>ᛎ</font>
| z
| 16DE
| <font size=4>ᛞ</font>
| dagaz daeg d
|-
| 16AF
| <font size=4>ᚯ</font>
| oe
| 16BF
| <font size=4>ᚿ</font>
| short-twig-naud n
| 16CF
| <font size=4>ᛏ</font>
| tiwaz tir tyr t
| 16DF
| <font size=4>ᛟ</font>
| othalan ethel o
|}
==See also==
* [[Older Futhark]]
* [[Rune poem]]
* [[Rune stone]]
* [[Gothic alphabet]]
* [[Hungarian runes]]
* [[Orkhon]]
* [[Cirth]]
==Reference==
* Erik Brate: ''Sveriges runinskrifter'', [[1922]] ([http://www.runor.se/ online text] in [[Swedish language|Swedish]])
* Orrin W. Robinson ''Old English and its Closest Relatives: A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Languages'' Stanford University Press, [[1992]]. ISBN 0804714541
==External links==
*[http://ancientscripts.com/futhark.html the Futhark] (ancientscripts.com)
*[http://www.ub.rug.nl/eldoc/dis/arts/j.h.looijenga/ Runes around the North Sea and on the Continent AD 150-700] by J. H. Looijenga (dissertation, Groningen University)
* "''[http://home.att.net/~jameskass/ Code2000.ttf]''" - a font containing nearly 35,000 glyphs (shareware) by James Kass
*[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U16A0.pdf Unicode Code Chart (PDF)]
{{Runes}}
[[Category:Runic alphabets]]
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Scandinavia]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon England]]
[[da:Runealfabet]]
[[de:Runen]]
[[eo:Runaj alfabetoj]]
[[es:Runa]]
[[fr:Alphabet runique]]
[[ja:ルーン文字]]
[[lv:Rūnu raksts]]
[[nl:Rune]]
[[nn:Runer]]
[[no:Runer]]
[[pl:Runy]]
[[ru:Руны]]
[[sv:Runor]]
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