Peppered moth and Talk:Super Smash Bros. Brawl/Archive 19: Difference between pages

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<table style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em;" border="1" cellspacing="0" align="right" cellpading="2" width=205pt>

<tr><th bgcolor=pink>Peppered Moth<br>{{msg:StatusSecure}}</th></tr>

<tr><td align="center">[[Image:Peppered moth Biston betularia betularia f typica.jpg|thumb|none|200px|]] <small>Figure 1. A posed photograph of a non-melanic European peppered moth (<i>Biston betularia betularia</i> f. <i>typica</i>). Caught 18th May 2002 in [[Berkshire]] in Heath trap. From http://www.bioimages.org.uk, with permission and thanks to Malcolm Storey.

{{msg:copyrighted}}</small></td></tr>

<tr><td align="center">[[Image:Peppered moth Biston betularia betularia f carbonaria.jpg|thumb|none|200px|]] <small>Figure 2. A posed photograph of melanic European peppered moth (<i>Biston betularia betularia</i> f. <i>carbonaria</i>). Caught 28th July 2001 in [[Berkshire]] at a light trap. This is a particularly dark particularly dark melanic http://www.bioimages.org.uk, with permission and thanks to Malcolm Storey.

{{msg:copyrighted}}</small></td></tr>

==Archive==

<tr><td align="center">[[Image:Peppered_moth_larva.jpg|thumb|none|200px|Figure 2. A larva of the peppered moth from North America. By Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. Taken from www.insectimages.org.]]{{msg:copyrighted}}</td></tr>

The talk page was 63kb long; I've archived it to Archive 17. --[[User:Son|Son]] 01:03, 21 July 2007 (UTC)

<tr><th bgcolor=pink>[[Scientific classification]]</th></tr>

<tr><td><table align="center">

<tr><td>Kingdom:</td><td>[[Animalia]]</td></tr>

<tr><td>Phylum:</td><td>[[Arthropoda]]</td></tr>

<tr><td>Superclass:</td><td>[[Hexapoda]]</td></tr>

<tr><td>Class:</td><td>[[Insecta]]</td></tr>

<tr><td>(no rank)</td><td>[[Pterygota]]</td></tr>

<tr><td>Subclass:</td><td>[[Neoptera]]</td></tr>

<tr><td>Infraclass:</td><td>[[Endoptery]]</td></tr>

<tr><td>Order:</td><td>[[Lepidoptera]]</td></tr>

<tr><td>Suborder:</td><td>[[Glossata]]</td></tr>

<tr><td>(no rank)</td><td>[[Ditrysia]]</td></tr>

<tr><td>Superfamily:</td><td>[[Geometroidea]]</td></tr>

<tr><td>Family:</td><td>[[Geometridae]]</td></tr>

<tr><td>Subfamily:</td><td>[[Ennominae]]</td></tr>

<tr><td>Genus:</td><td>'''''[[Biston]]'''''</td></tr>

<tr><td>Species:</td><td>'''''betularia'''''</td></tr>

<tr><td>Subspecies:</td><td>'''''betularia'''''</td></tr>

<tr><td></td><td>'''''cognataria'''''</td></tr>

<tr><td></td><td>'''''parva'''''</td></tr>

</td></tr>

</table>

</td></tr>

<tr><th bgcolor=pink>[[Binomial name]]</th></tr>

<tr><td align="center">'''''Biston betularia'''''<br><small>[[Linnaeus]], 1758</small></th></tr>

</table>

Gracias compadre. --[[User:Atomic Religione]]

== Sonic in Brawl ==

The '''peppered moth''' (<i>Biston betularia</i> (L.)) is a temperate species of [[nocturnal|night-flying]] [[moth]] notable for [[industrial melanism]] in Europe and North America, but particularly in [[Great Britain]]. It is often cited as an example of [[Charles Darwin]]'s theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]] in action. However, the experimental work is [[criticism|constructively criticised]] by many scientists. In addition, the peppered moth story is strongly criticised by a few scientists and and is widely attacked by [[creationists]].

Theres a rumour going about that Sonic's already included in Brawl, but Sega are taking to long to reply. From some mexican mag.

=Nomenclature=

But thats it, it's a rumour, the sources are [http://nesonline.blogspot.com/2007/07/rumor-sonic-in-brawl-news-on-26th.html devious at best]. Looks like a hoax. --[[User:ACE Spark|ACE Spark]] 04:33, 21 July 2007 (UTC)

==Common Names==

In the [[English language]], ''Biston betularia'' is known as the "peppered moth" because of speckles on the wings of the ''typica'' morph that make it look like it is dusted with [[pepper]]. An older name is the "salt and pepper moth". In the [[German language]] it is known as "Birkenspanner", in the [[Dutch language]] "Berkespanner" and in the [[French language]] "Phalène du bouleau" - all meaning "birch moth" (the [[birch]] tree being one of its principle food sources). In the [[Japanese language]] it is known as "Oo-shimofuri-eda-shaku" meaning "frosted branch-measuring moth".

Well I suppose we wait till the 26th, thats all we can do.--[[User:Atomic Religione]]

==Taxonomy==

For a full scientific classification see the table on the right. There are has three [[subspecies]], one in each of the continents that is occupied:

Interesting...Well, like Atomic said, only time will tell if its real or not. 6 more days... --[[User:Kenny2k|Kenny2k]] 05:56, 21 July 2007 (UTC)

* ''Biston betularia betularia'' is the [[Europe|European]] subspecies.

* ''Biston betularia cognataria'' is the [[North America|North American]] subspecies.

* ''Biston betularia parva'' is the [[Japan|Japanese]] subspecies.

The 26th would be a Thursday, and big announcements are usually on Friday, but again, we'll just have to wait. [[User:Depressio|Depressio]] 06:03, 21 July 2007 (UTC)

These were previously identified as separate [[species]], so in older texts are occasionally written as ''Biston cognataria'', etc.

:[http://www.smashbros.com/en_us/info/info01.html Actually, there have been some pretty good Thursday updates.] But then again, that was during E3. --[[User:Kenny2k|Kenny2k]] 10:22, 21 July 2007 (UTC)

There is also one synonymous name [note to self; put in. see Kettlewell 1973]

It was also stated on Sonic Stadium, whcih is very reliable. But the artcile has since been taken down, not a good sign. [[User:MindWraith|MindWraith]] 11:00, 21 July 2007 (UTC)

=Melanism=

* See [[melanism]], [[melanism in the lepidoptera]]

:It was taken down from there because some comments proved that it was fake by linking to the original source. [[User:Gurko|Gurko]] 12:09, 21 July 2007 (UTC)

==Descriptions and nomenclature==

There are different morphs of this moth which has melanic and non-melanic forms. This has importance to the case study of evolution mentioned below. A particular morph can be indicated in a standard way by following the species name in the form "f. ''morph''".

::The original source? [[User:Jeff Silvers|Jeff Silvers]] 14:28, 21 July 2007 (UTC)

NB: It is a common mistake to confuse the name of the morph with that of the species or subspecies, hence mistakes such as "''Biston carbonaria''" and "''Biston betularia carbonaria''". This might lead to confusion that there has been demonstrable [[speciation]] in the case study mentioned below. This is not the case; individuals of each morph can breed with individuals of all other morphs, and hence there is only one [[species]].

Is this a website that gives fake information[[User:The Wii Guy|The Wii Guy]] 03:44, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

In Europe, there are three morphs:

I suggest we hold all questions about this and simply wait till the 26th. Then we'll know, until then lets not fill up this talk page anymore. --[[User:Atomic Religione]]

* f. <i>typica</i>; the typical white morph (also known as f. <i>betularia</i>)

:How about we note the spelling errors in the posted article, the fact that there's no such magazine as "Ventendo", and that they used screenshots far too recent to be thrown in to a recently published magazine, and forget this ever happened? --[[User:Guess Who|Guess Who]] 06:11, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

* f. ''carbonaria'' the melanic black morph, (also previously known as f. ''doubledayaria'')

* f. ''medionigra'', an intermediate semi-melanic morph.

How about we wait, and see like I said. If there isnt anything on the 26th, then we'll know that it was a hoax. Its so simple yet i find my self repeating it time and time again...--[[User:Atomic Religione]]

In North America, the typical white morph is also known as f. ''typica''; the melanic black morph is f. ''swettaria''.

apparently people suck at reading. at the cost of lengthening this page... '''STOP DISCUSSING and WAIT.''' why would a Mexican mag share something that the Dojo didn't tell us? 07:53, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

In Japan, no melanic morphs have been recorded; they are all f. ''typica''.

==Genetics==

* See [[genetics]], [[Mendelian genetics]]

Breeding experiments have shown that in ''Biston betularia betularia'', the [[allele]] for melanism producing f. ''carbonaria'' is controlled by a single [[locus]]. The melanic allele is dominant to the non-melanic allele. This situation is however, somewhat complicated by the presence of three other alleles that produce indistinguishable morphs of f. ''medionigra''. These are of intermediate dominance, but this is not complete. See Majerus (1998).

In ''Biston betularia cognataria'', the melanic allele (producing f. ''swettaria'') is similarly dominant to the non-melanic allele. There are no intermediate morphs.

==Biochemistry==

* See [[biochemistry]]

Unfortunately, the precise pathways that cause melanism are at present unknown. However, True (2003) gives a summary of this.

=Ecology=

* See [[ecology]], [[behaviour]]

==Larvae==

* see [[larva]]

First [[instar]] larvae hang themselves from a silk thread and as such can disperse as part of the [[aerial plankton]].

==Pupae==

* see [[pupa]]

==Adults==

* see [[imago]]

Peppered moths inhabit woodland canopies. They are night-flying and the flight period is from May to August. During flight they are subject to predation by [[bat|bats]].

Males fly every night, and may travel large distances. They will be attracted by [[pheromones]] released by females, and so will tend to fly upwind.

Females only fly one night after [[eclosion]] which tends to be short (Brakefield and Liebert, 1990).

During the day peppered moths rest. Moths in general are predated by [[birds]] during the day. It is believed that the peppered moth is no exception, and birds have been observed predating them (see predation experiments below).

Evidence for the precise resting ___location is provided by a data set collected by Majerus (2004) slide 42, an earlier version of which is interpreted in Howlett and Majerus (1987). From these data, Howlett and Majerus concluded that peppered moths generally rest in unexposed positions, using three main types of site. Firstly, a few inches below the a branch-trunk joint on a treetrunk where the moth is in shadow; secondly, on the underside of branches and thirdly on foliate twigs.

It is however worth noting the problems with this is sample. Like any sample rather than a [[census]], it is a biased sample. This however has the added problem of its small size. As moths on trunks are easier to spot, this sample might tend to be biased against moths resting on the trunks of trees. On the other hand, moths resting on tree trunks would probably be more susceptible to predation by birds, and if they were eaten before the lepidopterist walked by, they would not be recorded. See [[ecological sampling techniques]].

This is further supported by experiments watching captive moths taking up resting positions in both males (Mikkola, 1979; 1984) and females (Liebert and Brakefield, 1987).

=Evolution=

[[Evolution]], more specifically [[microevolution]] is defined as "a change in the frequency of an [[allele]] within a [[gene pool]]" ([[Theodosius Dobzhansky|Dobzhansky]], 1937); see [[population genetics]]. Since the genetics of how the morphology is controlled are known (see above), changes in [[phenotype]] frequency changes indicate such allele frequency changes.

==Rise and fall of phenotype frequency==

Melanism has appeared in the European and North American populations. This considers Britain and Europe first, then North America, then Japan.

The first ''carbonaria'' was found in [[Manchester]], [[England]] in [[1848]], but was only reported 16 years later in [[1864]] by Edleston. Edleston notes that by 1864 it was the commoner morph in his garden in Manchester. Steward ([[1977]]) compiled data for the first recordings of the peppered moth by locality, and deduced that carbonaria morph was the result of a single [[mutation]] that subsequently spread. In Manchester by 1895 it had reached a reported frequency of 98%.

From c.1962 to present (2004), the phenotype frequency of ''carbonaria'' has fallen. Its decline has been measured more accurately than its rise; see [[moth trapping]]. See Grant ''et al'' (1995).

Similar results in America.

Melanic forms have not been found in Japan. It is believed that this is because peppered moths in Japan do not inhabit industrialised regions.

==Mechanisms of evolution==

[[Evolution]] in the wild is caused by two mechanisms; [[natural selection]]; and [[genetic drift]].

[[J.B.S. Haldane]] in 1924 calculated the selective advantage necessary for the evolution that had been recorded, based on the assumption that in 1848 the frequency was 2% and by 1895 95%. The melanic form would have to be one and a half times as fit as the typical form. This reasonably excluded the stochastic process of [[genetic drift]] because the changes were too fast.

[[J.W. Tutt]] first proposed the "differential bird predation hypothesis" in 1896, as a mechanism of natural selection. The melanic morphs were better camouflaged against the bark of trees without foliose [[lichens|lichen]], whereas the ''typica'' morphs were better camouflaged against trees with lichens. As a result, birds would find and eat with increased frequency those morphs that weren't camouflaged.

=Experimental Work=

==Predation Experiments==

[[Bernard Kettlewell]] conducted predation experiments, including direct observation of bird predation on moths (under controlled conditions and in the wild), and [[mark-release-recapture]] experiments, where moths are released into a forest and then recaptured. Kettlewell performed reciprocal experiments in polluted and unpolluted woods, and found that ''typica'' moths were more likely to survive predation in unpolluted woods, and ''carbonaria'' moths in polluted woods (Kettlewell, 1955a; 1956; see also Kettlewell (1973)).

These experiments have been criticised for their artificiality. Kettlewell placed dead morphs on the trunks, not the branches of the tree, at too high density He marked them for conspicuousness himself, thus violating the [[double-blind]] principle. In addition, it has subsequently been found that bird [[eye]] detect [[Ultra-Violet]] radiation whereas human eyes do not.

==Resting background choice experiments==

* Kettlwell's Experiments

* Sargent's Experiments

* Howlett and Majerus theory of co-evolution.

=Attacking the Peppered Moth Paradigm=

==Alternative Selection Mechanisms==

===Selection is differential===

Several alternatie selection mechansism have been proposed. Note again that evolution can be defined as "a change in an allele frequency within a gene pool" (Dobzhansky, 1937). This change, be it caused by [natural selection]], [[mutation]], [[migration]] or [[genetic drift]] by definition, is differential (see [[differentiation]]). However, the magnitude of the changes observed can only be accounted for by natural selection. It can be seen from [[population genetics]] that a non-differential change will not cause evolution. If the allele frequencies are denoted by the [[algebra|algebraic]] terms <i>p</i> and <i>q</i>, and (say) <nobr><i>p</i> = 0.6</nobr> and <nobr><i>p</i> = 0.4</nobr>, then a non-differential reduction in population size from say 2000 to 100 individuals, will still produce the same values of <nobr><i>p</i> = 0.6</nobr> and <nobr><i>p</i> = 0.4</nobr>.

===Selection for resistance to pollution===

Selection for resistance to pollution. Possible, but unlikely. Note is correlated. Advocating this would however, appear to violate [[Occam's razor]].

===Differential squirrel predation===

Selection by predation by squirrels? Possible, but seems mostly birdies.

===Differential bat predation===

It has been suggested by Hooper (2002) that the agent of selection was not birds on adult moths but bats on adult moths. From [[population genetics]], it can be shown that only differential selection could cause the changes observed. A non-selective reduction in population size would keep the allele frequencies as they were before the reduction. This "differential bat predation" hypothesis has been tested by Mike Majerus (2004), who found that predation by [[pipestrel bats]] was non-selective.

[NB: I have these data. need to do significance tests on them]

===Differential predation on larvae===

A similar suggestion was made by Hooper regarding predation on larvae (and a similar suggestion could be made regarding predation on the pupae).

==The Phenotypic Induction Theory==

The phenotypic induction theory was first proposed by John William Heslop Harrison in 1920. He rejected Tutt's differential bird predation hypothesis, instead advocating the idea.

It is important to consider the historical context of such work. [[Ronald Fisher]]'s 1918 model showing that discontinuous variation was the result of variation at many loci is traditionally seen as the start of the [[modern synthesis]], which developed through the 1920s. Though this difficult paper was often ignored by non-mathematical biologists at the time [find a suitable quotation]. Lamarckism

This theory however appeared to be falsified by breeding experiments. Even if this model were true, differential bird predation would still be a selection.

==Allegations of Fraud==

It has been suggested by the [[journalist]] [[Judith Hooper]] in her book <i>Of Moths and Men</i> (Hooper, 2002) that Kettlewell committed scientific [[fraud]]. Her justification is (1) Kettlewell's mark-release-recapture rates rose, (2) that weather patterns in Birmingham at the time based on records from [[Birmingham Airport]] did not change (and therefore, by her reasoning, could not account for the change in recapture rates); and (3) a letter to Kettlewell from [[E.B. Ford]] dated 1st July 1953 included the phrase "It is disappointing that the recoveries are not better... ...however, I do not doubt that the results will be very worthwhile...", which Hooper implies made Kettlewell fabricate his results. Also, she appears to have a mistrust of [[lepidopterists]]. See also [[conspiracy theory]].

However, the physicist Matt Young (2004) has shown that the changes in recapture rates are not [[statistics|statistically significant]], and has also shown that the changes [[inversely correlate]] to levels of [[moonlight]]. Further, the dates of the letter and the increase in recapture rates do not match well, with the increase recapture rates preceeding the arrival of the letter. Also because of the unnaturally high release rates in Kettlewell's experiment, local birds may have become satiated and thus predation rates would have fallen. In addition, later experiments would appear to support Kettlewell's conclusions.

==Creationism==

Traditionally, claims have been limited to pointing out that the "peppered moth story" showed only [[microevolution]] rather than [[macroevolution|macroevolutionary]] trend of [[speciation]] (e.g. Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1985) but this is not disputed by scientists. As previously noted, the peppered moth - at present - has only one species.

From 1998 onwards however, this changed. A review by evolutionary biologist [[Jerry Coyne]] of Majerus's 1998 book ''Melanism: Evolution in Action'' was published in ''Nature''. It famously included the following:

: [He compared his reaction to] "the dismay attending my discovery, at age 6, that it was my father and not Santa who brought the presents on Christmas Eve."

: "For the time being we must discard Biston as a well-understood example of natural selection in action&#8230;

However, it appears that Coyne was actually . Secondly, he claims he is misquoted.

This was subsequently picked up by [[Sunday Telegraph]] journalist [[Robert Matthews]], who wrote:

:"Evolution experts are quietly admitting that one of their most cherished examples of Darwin&#8217;s theory, the rise and fall of the peppered moth, is based on a series of scientific blunders. Experiments using the moth in the Fifties and long believed to prove the truth of natural selection are now thought to be worthless, having been designed to come up with the &#8220;right&#8221; answer."

Subsequently, the [[creationism|creationist theologian]] and [[biochemist]] [[Jonathan Wells]] wrote reviews (2000; 2001; 2002). One of which appeared in ''The Scientist'' A search using a [[search engine]] will produce a wealth of similar results.

Then, Hooper's <i>Of Moths and Men Came out</i>, which claimed that Bernard Kettlewell had committed scientific fraud.

There are too many online reviews to list here. Notably though, common terms include "piltdown moth" (a reference to [[piltdown man]]), and slightly humourously "peppered myth".

=The social importance of ''Biston betularia''=

The peppered moth has become part of "[[scientific mythology]]". Why?

Along with his conclusions, Kettlewell published striking photographs of each type of moth against the trunk of different trees. These photographs are often reproduced in biology textbooks. There is also Tinbergen's film.

=Recommended Further Reading=

===Detailed Reviews===

For a detailed review see Majerus (1998)

===Short reviews===

For a short online review see Grant (1999) in ''Heredity'' (available http://faculty.wm.edu/bsgran/melanism.pdf).

=References=

* Brakefield P.M. and Liebert T.G. (1990). The reliability of estimates of migration in the peppered moth ''Biston betularia'' and some implications for selection-migration ''Biological Journal of the Linnean Society'' '''39''' 327-334.

* Coyne, J.A. (1998). Not black and white. Review of ''Melanism: Evolution in Action'' by Michael E.N. Majerus. ''Nature'' '''396''':35-36.

* '''Dobzhansky T.G.''' (1937). ''Genetics and the Evolutionary Process''

* '''Edleston R.S.''' ([[1864]]) Untitled (first f. ''carbonaria'' melanic morph ''Biston betularia''). ''Entomologist'' '''2''':150

* '''Fisher, R.A.''' (1918). The correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian inheritance Transaction of the Royal Society of Edinburgh <b>52</b>:399-433.

* '''Grant B.S.''' (1999). Fine tuning the peppered moth paradigm. ''Evolution'' '''53''':980-984

http://faculty.wm.edu/bsgran/melanism.pdf

* Grant B.S. Owen D.F. and Clarke C.A. (1995). Decline of melanic moths. ''Nature'' '''373''':565

* '''Haldane J.B.S.''' (1924). A mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection. ''Transactions of the Cambridge Philosopical Society'' '''23''':19-41

* '''Harrison, J.W.H.''' (1920).

* '''Harrison, J.W.H.''' (1926a). The inheritance of wing colour and pattern in the Lepidopterous genus ''Tephrosia'' (Ectropis).II. Experiments involving melanic ''Tephrosia bistortata'' and typical ''T. crepuscularia''. ''Journal of Genetics'' '''17''':1-9

* '''Harrison, J.W.H.''' (1926b). Miscellaneous observations on the induction,incidence and iheritance of melanism in the Lepidoptera. ''Entomologist'' '''59''':121-123

* '''Harrison, J.W.H.''' (1927a). The inheritance of melanism between continental ''Tephrosia crepuscularia'' and British ''T. bistortata'', with some remarks on the origin ofparthenogensis in interspecific crosses. ''Genetics'' '''9''':467-480

* Hooper J. (2002). ''Of Moths and Men''.

* '''Howlett R.J. and Majerus, M.E.N.''' (1987) The understanding of industrial melanism in the peppered moth (''Biston betularia'') (Lepidoptera: Geometridae). ''Biological Journal of the Linnaean Society'' '''30''':31-44.

* '''Kettlewell H.B.D.''' (1955a). Selection experiments on industrial melanism in the Lepidoptera. ''Heredity'' '''9''':323-242.

* '''Kettlewell H.B.D.''' (1956). Further selection experiments on industrial melanism in the Lepidoptera. ''Heredity'' '''10''':287-301.

* '''Kettlewell H.B.D.''' (1973). ''Melanism''.

* ''''Kirby W.F.''' (1882). ''European Butterflies and Moths'' Cassel, Petter,

Galpin & Co: London.

* '''Liebert and Brakefield P.M. (1987). Behavioural studies in the peppered moth ''Biston betularia'' and a discussion on the role of pollution and epiphytes in industrial melanism. ''Biological Journal of the Linnean Society'' '''31''' 129-150.

* '''Majerus M.E.N.''' (1998) ''Melanism - Evolution in Action''. Oxford University Press, New York.

* '''Majerus M.E.N.''' (2004) ''The Peppered moth: decline of a Darwinian disciple''. [[British Humanist Association]] [[Darwin Day]] Lecture. http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/newdept/research/labs/Majerus/

* '''Mikkola K.''' (1979). Resting site selection of ''Oliga'' and ''Biston'' moths (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae and Gemoteridae). ''Acta Entomologica Fenici'' '''45''' 81-87.

* '''Mikkola K.''' (1984). On the selective force acting in the industrial melanism of ''Biston'' and ''Oliga'' moths(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae and Gemoteridae). ''Biological Journal of the Linnean Society'' '''21''' 409-421.

* Porritt G.T. (1926). The induction of melanism in the Lepidoptera and its subsequent inheritnce. ''Entomologist's Monthly Magazine'' '''62''':107-111

* '''Steward R.C.''' (1977). Industrial and non-industrial melanism in the peppered moth ''Biston betularia'' (L.) ''Ecological Entomology'' '''2''' 231-243.

* '''True, J.R. (2003). Insect melanism: the molecules matter. ''Trends in Ecology and Evolution'' <b>18</b>:640-647

* '''Tutt J.W.''' (1896). ''British Moths'''. George Routledge: London.

* Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, (1985). ''Life--How Did It Get Here?'' Brooklyn, NY. See http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CB/CB910_2.html

* '''Wells J. (2000) ''Icons of Evolution: Science or Myth? Why Much of What We Teach About Evolution is Wrong''. Regnery Press, Washington, D.C.

* '''Wells, J.''' (2001) Second thoughts about peppered moths: This classical story of evolution by natural selection needs revising. ''The True Origin Archive'' http://trueorigin.org/pepmoth1.htm

* '''Wells, J.''' (2002) Moth-eaten statistics: A reply to Kenneth R. Miller. ''Discovery Institute: Center for Renewal of Science and Culture &#8211; Article Database'', http://www.discovery.org/viewDB/index.php3?command=view&id=1147&program=CRSC

* <b>Young, M.</b> (2003). Moonshine: Why the Peppered Moth Remains an Icon of Evolution. http://www.talkreason.org/articles/moonshine.cfm or http://www.talkreason.org/articles/moonshine.cfm

=Appendices=

==Appendix 1. Significant Persons==

The following are significant persons.

===Important historical figures==

* [[E.B. Ford|Ford, E.B. "Henry" Ford]]

* [[J.W. Tutt|Tutt, J.W.]]

===Peppered moth researchers===

* [[Laurence M. Cook|Cook, Laurence M.]]

* [[Bruce Grant|Grant, Bruce]]

* [[Bernard Kettlewell|Kettlewell, Bernard]]

* [[Michael E. N. Majerus|Majerus, Michael E.N. "Mike"]]

===Scientific Critics===

* [[Ted Sargent|Sargent, Ted]]

*

*

* [[Jonathon Wells|Wells, Jonathon]]

===Journalists===

* [[Judith Hooper|Hooper, Judith]]