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'''Extrajudicial punishment''' is [[physical]] punishment without the permission of a court or legal authority, and as such, constitutes a violation of basic human rights (such as the right to [[due process]] and [[humane]] treatment). [[Agents]] of a [[state apparatus]] may sometimes carry out this type of punishment if they come to the conclusion that a person is an imminent threat to security. The existence of extrajudicial punishment is considered proof that some governments will break their own [[legal code]] if deemed necessary. [[Non-governmental]] or non-state actors, including private individuals, have also resorted to different forms of extrajudicial punishment, though such actions are more properly called [[assassination]], [[murder]] or [[vigilantism]] instead.
There are a variety of positions on the '''[[ordination]] of [[woman|women]]''' among different [[religion]]s, [[sect]]s and [[Religious denomination|denomination]]s within each religion.
==Existence==
Within [[Christianity]], the various denominations have different understandings of the nature of ordination - and thus see different issues as being significant in the debate. [[Roman Catholic]]s, [[Eastern Orthodox|Orthodox]], [[Anglican]]s, and others are discussing the nature of [[priest|priesthood]], while other denominations reject the notion of a specifically ordained priesthood altogether. Further, although all Christians look to the [[Bible]] for guidance, denominations take differing views of the importance of the historical traditions of the Church in such matters.
Although the legal use of [[capital punishment]] is generally decreasing around the world, individuals or groups deemed immediately threatening — or even, in times of comparative stability, simply "undesirable" — to a government's ability to govern may nevertheless be targeted for killing [[extra-judicially]] by some regimes or their representatives. Such killing typically happens quickly, with skilled secret security forces on a covert basis, performed in such a way as to avoid massive public outcry and international criticism that would reflect badly on the state.
Another possibility is for [[overt]], [[uniformed security forces]] to kill the target, but often under circumstances that make it appear as [[self-defense]], such as by planting recently-fired weapons near his body, or [[fabricating evidence]] suggesting [[suicide by cop]]. In such cases, it can be surprisingly difficult to prove that the shooters acted wrongly. Because of the dangers inherent in any armed confrontation, even police or soldiers who would strongly, genuinely prefer to take their target alive may still kill him to protect themselves or civilians. Only in the most obvious cases, such as the [[Operation Flavius]] triple killing or the shooting of [[Jean Charles de Menezes]] will the authorities admit that [["kill or capture"]] was replaced with [["shoot on sight"]].
Christians generally do not use the term "ordination" to refer to the process of entering [[Religious order|consecrated life]], becoming either a [[monk]] or a [[nun]], although (like priests) monks or nuns must train at a [[seminary]], be approved by the church hierarchy, dedicate their lives' work to the church and adopt a role of spiritual authority. There is a tradition of nuns within Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Anglicans, and even among some [[Lutheran]]s, and [[Calvinist]]s.
Extrajudicial punishment is a typical feature of [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] and other [[political repression|politically repressive]] regimes using [[death squad]]s for this purpose, but even self-proclaimed or internationally recognized [[democracies]] have been known to use extrajudicial punishment under certain circumstances. In some cases, extrajudicial punishment may be planned and carried out [[covertly]] by a particular branch of a state and its specific agents, without previously informing other sectors or even without having been secretly ordered to commit such acts. The other branches of the state can tacitly approve of it after the fact, but they can also directly disagree with it depending on the circumstances, especially when complex intragovernment or internal policy struggles exist within a state's policymaking apparatus.
Within [[Buddhism]], the legitimacy of ordaining women as [[bhikkhuni]] (nuns) has become a significant topic of discussion in recent years. It is widely accepted that [[Buddha]] created an order of bhikkuni, but the tradition has died out in some Buddhist regions such as [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]], while remaining strong in East Asia, particularly [[Taiwan]].
In times of [[war]], [[natural disaster]], [[societal collapse]], or in the absence of an established system of [[criminal justice]], there may be an increased incidence of extrajudicial punishment. In such [[extreme circumstances]], police or military personnel may be authorised to [[summary execution|summarily execute]] individuals involved in [[rioting]], [[looting]] or [[violent acts]], especially if caught '' [[in flagrante delicto]]''.
Orthodox [[Judaism]] does not permit women to become [[Rabbi]]s, but female Rabbis have begun to appear in recent years among more liberal Jewish movements.
A [[forced disappearance|"disappearance"]] occurs where someone who is believed to have been targeted for [[extrajudicial execution]] does not reappear alive. Their ultimate fate is thereafter unknown or never fully confirmed.
==Christianity==
===Roman Catholic Church===
The ordination of women is much discussed in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] today, as [[vocations]] to the priesthood decline and with them access to the [[sacraments]], most immediately the [[Eucharist]]. The official teaching of the Church is presented first, followed by the arguments for ordaining Catholic women and a few facts about the movement for change.
==Around the world==
The Church teaching on the ordination of only men holds that [[gender|maleness]] was integral to the personhood of both [[Jesus]] and the men he called as [[Twelve Apostles|apostles]]. The Roman Catholic Church sees maleness and femaleness as two different ways of expressing common humanity. The common phrase "[[gender role]]s" implies that the phenomenon of the sexes is a mere surface [[phenomenon]], an accident; however, the Roman Catholic Church teaches that there is an ontological (essential) difference between humanity expressed as male humanity and humanity expressed as female humanity. While many functions are interchangeable between men and women, some are not, because maleness and femaleness are not interchangeable.
See [[NKVD troika]] and [[Special Council of the NKVD]] for examples from the history of the Soviet Union , where extrajudicial punishment "[[by administrative means]]" was part of the state policy. Most Latin American dictatorships have regularly instituted extrajudicial killings of their enemies; for one of the better-known examples, see ''[[Operation Condor]].''
<ref> http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3821/is_200610/ai_n17195860 </ref>
Some consider the killing of [[Black Panther Party|Black Panther]] [[Fred Hampton]] to have been an extrajudicial killing ordered by the [[United States]] government. Also, the U.S. has been accused of exercising a covert prison system set up by the [[CIA]] in several countries, especially [[Egypt]], to evade [[U.S. jurisdiction]]. <ref> http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/01/AR2005110101644.html </ref> The deaths of the leaders of the leftist urban guerilla group Red Army Faction [[Ulrike Meinhof]], [[Andreas Baader]], [[Gudrun Ensslin]], and [[Jan-Carl Raspe]] is by some regarded as extrajudicial killings, a theory partly based on the testimony of [[Irmgard Möller]] .
The government of Israel has also been accused of carrying out extrajudicial killings, which they term "targeted assassinations," against leaders of organisations involved in carrying out attacks against Israel. The Israeli government and its defenders, however, consider these people to be [[enemy combatant]]s and not [[civilians]]; claiming they are legitimate military targets as per the [[Laws of war|rules of engagement]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
Relevant Church documents on the subject include:
During the [[apartheid]] years [[South Africa|South Africa's]] security forces were also accused of using extra-judicial means to deal with their political opponents. After his release, [[Nelson Mandela]] would refer to these acts as proof of a [[Third force (South Africa)|Third Force]] . This was denied vehemently by the administration of [[F.W. de Klerk]]. Later the [[South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission]], led by Archbishop [[Desmond Tutu]] would find that both military and police agencies such as the [[Civil Cooperation Bureau]] and [[C10]] based at [[Vlakplaas]] were guilty off gross [[human rights violations]]. This led the [[International Criminal Court]] to declare apartheid a [[crime against humanity]].
*"Declaration ''Inter Insigniores'' on the question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood." [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], October 15, 1976.
*"Apostolic Letter ''Ordinatio Sacerdotalis'' (On Ordination to the Priesthood)." [[Pope John Paul II]], May 22, 1994.
*"Apostolic Letter ''Mulieris Dignitatem'' (On the Dignity of Women)." Pope John Paul II, August 15, 1988.
*[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]].
==Extra-judicial killings==
The official Roman Catholic view is that the priest is not the only [[prayer]] leader possible. Prayer leaders may be women (a woman can and often does lead at a public recitation of the [[Rosary]], for example).
:''For extrajudicial executions see also [[Assassination]] ''
While [[Pope Benedict XVI]] has not written on the subject since beginning his pontificate, he did so as Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (see above) and joins his predecessor's opposition to the ordination of women. He is thus extremely unlikely to reopen the subject during his [[Papacy]].
Extrajudicial killings are the illegal killing of leading political, trades union, dissident and/or social figures by either the state government, [[state authorities]] like the armed forces and police (as in [[Liberia]] under [[Charles G. Taylor]] ), or by [[criminal outfits]] like the [[Italian]] [[Mafia]].
[[Pope John Paul II]], in ''Ordinatio Sacerdotalis'', explained the Roman Catholic understanding that the priesthood is a special role specially set out by [[Jesus]] when he chose a dozen men out of his group of male and female followers. John Paul notes that Jesus chose the Twelve (cf. Mk 3:13-14; Jn 6:70) after a night in prayer (cf. Lk 6:12) and that the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] themselves were careful in the choice of their successors. The priesthood is "specifically and intimately associated in the mission of the Incarnate Word himself (cf. Mt 10:1, 7-8; 28:16-20; Mk 3:13-16; 16:14-15)".
Extrajudicial killings and [[death squads]] are most common in the Middle East (mostly in Palestine and [[Iraq]]) <ref> http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=viewArticle&code=FUL20051124&articleId=1315 </ref> <ref> http://www.electronicintifada.net/bytopic/extrajudicial-killings.shtml </ref> <ref> http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engamr510792005 </ref> <ref> http://www.brusselstribunal.org/FullerKillings.htm </ref> <ref> http://soccerdad.baltiblogs.com/archives/2007/06/24/extrajudicial_killings_hamas_style.html </ref>, Central America<ref>http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/US_ThirdWorld/deathsquads_ElSal.html</ref>
[[Pope Paul VI]], quoted by Pope John Paul II in ''Ordinatio Sacerdotalis'', wrote, "[The Church] holds that it is not admissible to ordain women to the priesthood, for very fundamental reasons. These reasons include: the example recorded in the Sacred Scriptures of [[Christ]] choosing his Apostles only from among men; the constant practice of the Church, which has imitated Christ in choosing only men; and her living teaching authority which has consistently held that the exclusion of women from the priesthood is in accordance with God's plan for his Church."
<ref>http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAMR290151996?open&of=ENG-SLV</ref>
<ref>http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nsa/publications/elsalvador2/index.html</ref> , [[Afghanistan]], [[Bangladesh]] <ref> http://www.allamericanpatriots.com/48723123_world_bangladesh_release_journalist_and_rights_activist </ref>
, [[India]] and Kashmir <ref> http://usa.mediamonitors.net/content/view/full/44302 </ref>
<ref> http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/6367917.stm </ref>
<ref> http://www.gharib.demon.co.uk/reports/ustates.htm </ref>
<ref> http://sangam.org/taraki/articles/2006/09-19_Extrajudicial_Killings.php?uid=1954 </ref> <ref> http://www.tamilnation.org/intframe/us/060529ustamils.htm </ref>
<ref> http://www.hrdc.net/sahrdc/hrfeatures/HRF71.htm </ref> several nations or regions in [[Equatorial Africa]]<ref>http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/30001/story.htm</ref>
, many parts of [[South America]] <ref> http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAMR190082007 </ref>, [[Chechnya]] , <ref> http://news.independent.co.uk/world/asia/article2293482.ece </ref>, [[Russia]]<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6163502.stm</ref>
, [[Uzbekistan]], [[North Ossetia]], parts of [[Thailand]] <ref> http://www.ahrchk.net/ua/mainfile.php/2003/407/ </ref>
<ref> http://newsinfo.inq7.net/breakingnews/nation/view_article.php?article_id=11686 </ref> and in the [[Philippines]] <ref> http://www.pinoyhr.net/ </ref> <ref> http://hrw.org/reports/2007/philippines0607/ </ref> <ref> http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article2692483.ece} </ref> <ref> http://www.radiopinoyusa.com/radiopinoy_news.php?id=NEWS-00592} </ref>
<ref> http://www.pcusa.org/pcnews/2007/07271.htm </ref> <ref> http://newsinfo.inq7.net/breakingnews/nation/view_article.php?article_id=11686 </ref>.
The 3 different modern examples are listed in the sub-headings below, along with the 'Cold War' to help to illustrate the point.
However, the Roman Catholic Church states that ordination is not required for [[salvation]], nor does it effect salvation in the one ordained. In other words, a priest can go to [[Hell]] just as easily as a layperson. The [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] structure that includes the ordained ministerial priesthood is ordered to benefit the holiness of the entire body of the faithful, and not to ensure the salvation of the ordained minister. There is no additional benefit in terms of automatic holiness that comes about through ordination.
===Cold war usage===
Pope John Paul II wrote, in ''Mulieris Dignitatem'': "In calling only men as his Apostles, Christ acted in a completely free and sovereign manner. In doing so, he exercised the same freedom with which, in all his behaviour, he emphasized the dignity and the vocation of women, without conforming to the prevailing customs and to the traditions sanctioned by the legislation of the time."
[[Image:Nguyen.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[General]] [[Nguyễn Ngọc Loan]] summarily executes [[Nguyễn Văn Lém]].]]
In ''Ordinatio Sacerdotalis'', John Paul wrote: "the fact that the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]], [[Mother of God]] and Mother of the Church, received neither the mission proper to the Apostles nor the ministerial priesthood clearly shows that the non-admission of women to priestly ordination cannot mean that women are of lesser dignity, nor can it be construed as discrimination against them. Rather, it is to be seen as the faithful observance of a plan to be ascribed to the wisdom of the Lord of the universe."
The former [[Soviet Union]] and [[Communist Bloc]] country used to also killed dissidents this way to, during the [[Cold War]]. Those who were not killed were sent to '[[Gulag]]' prison camps.
John Paul II concluded his Apostolic Letter by saying: "I declare that the Church has no authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judgment is to be definitively held by all the Church's faithful." (''Declaramus Ecclesiam facultatem nullatenus habere ordinationem sacerdotalem mulieribus conferendi, hancque sententiam ab omnibus Ecclesiae fidelibus esse definitive tenendam.'' The word ''facultatem'' is more accurately translated as ''power'' or ''ability''.)
[[Nguyễn Văn Lém ]] (referred to as Captain Bay Lop) (died 1 [[February 1968]] in Saigon ) was a member of the [[Viet Cong]] who was summarily executed in [[Saigon]] during the [[Tet Offensive]]. The picture of his death would became one of may an anti- [[Vietnam War]] icons in the [[Western World]]. <ref> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_V%C4%83n_L%C3%A9m </ref>
The document ''Ordinatio Sacerdotalis'' was not issued under the [[magisterium|extraordinary papal magisterium]] and hence is not considered [[infallible]] in itself. There is, however, a case for its contents to be infallible under the [[magisterium|ordinary magisterium]], as this doctrine has been held consistently by the Church.
During the 1960s throughout the 1970s death squads were used against the [[Viet Cong]] cadre as well as supporters in neighbouring countries notably [[Cambodia]]. See also [[Phoenix Program]] (also known as Phung Hoang). The [[Viet Cong]] also used death squads of their own against civilians for political reasons. {{Facts|date=February 2007}}
Arguments for the [[ordination of women]] are manifold, but are based mainly on demanding equality. Some sacramental theologians have argued that ordaining men only creates two classes of [[baptism]], contradicting [[Saint Paul]]'s statement that all are equal in [[Christ]]. This argument doesn't accept the distinction between equal dignity and different services within the Church.
The use of computers by the American forces to compile lists of 'suspects' as well as the indefinite detention of 'suspects' in 'black' locations as well as their detention, torture, and execution without judicial oversight or protection is typical of American [[black ops]] in the Post World War II era.
[[Argentina]] used extrajudicial killings as way of crushing the [[liberal]] and [[communist]] opposition to the military [[Junta]] during the '[[Dirty war]]' <ref> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirty_War </ref> of the late [[1960's]] and most of the [[1970's]]. The [[Chilean]] Junta of [[1972]] to [[1992]] also committed such killings to. See [[Operation Condor]] for examples.
In 1976 the Pontifical Biblical Commission dismissed [[Bible|biblical]] arguments against the ordination of women, but its arguments were not accepted by the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], which issued ''Inter Insigniores''.
Also during the [[Communist]] versus [[Capitalist]] [[Salvadoran civil war]], death squads achieved notoriety when [[far-right]] [[vigilantes]] [[assassinated]] [[Archbishop Óscar Romero]] for his social activism in [[March 1980]]. In [[December 1980]], three [[United States|American]] [[nuns]] and a lay worker were raped and murdered by a [[military unit]] later found to have been acting on specific orders. [[Death squads]] were instrumental in killing hundreds of peasants and activists. Because the death squads involved were found to have been soldiers of the [[Salvadoran military]], which was receiving U.S. funding and training from American advisers during the Carter administration. <ref> http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/US_ThirdWorld/deathsquads_ElSal.html</ref>During the [[El Salvador Civil War|Salvadoran civil war]], death squads achieved notoriety when far-right vigilantes assassinated Archbishop [[Óscar Romero]] for his social activism in March 1980 . In December 1980, three American nuns and a lay worker were raped and murdered by a military unit later found to have been acting on specific orders. Death squads were instrumental in killing hundreds of peasants and activists. Because the death squads involved were found to have been soldiers of the Salvadoran military, which was receiving U.S. funding and training from American advisors during the [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration, these events prompted outrage in the U.S. and led to a temporary cutoff in military aid from the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration.
Some supporters of women's ordination have claimed that there have been ordained [[priests]] and [[bishops]] in antiquity, based on only scant evidence [http://www.catholicculture.org/docs/most/getwork.cfm?worknum=141]. What can be verified is that the Church had [[deaconess|deaconesses]] in the past; the word, like "deacon", comes from the Greek word ''diakonos'' (διάκονος), meaning "one who serves". The [[First Council of Nicea]] stated in [[325]] that deaconesses did not receive the sacrament of ordination and were to be considered as part of the laity (Canon 19).
One of the earliest cases of extradudical killings was in Wiemar [[Germany]] <ref> http://econ161.berkeley.edu/movable_type/2003_archives/001832.html </ref>.
Setting aside these theological considerations, advocates of the ordination of women have pointed to [[vocations]] declining in Europe and North America and have made the [[utilitarian]] argument that women must be ordained in order to have enough priests to administer the [[Sacraments]] in those areas. Supporting this argument, they made public the story of a Czech woman [[Ludmila Javorova]], who in the 1990s came forward to say that she and four or five other women had been ordained by Bishop [[Felix Maria Davídek]] in the 1970s, to serve as priests in the underground Catholic Church in Czechoslovakia. Bishop Davidek had died in 1988, and Bishop [[Jan Blaha]] declared that such ordinations could not have been valid. Javorova ceased to practice as a priest.
[http://www.beliefnet.com/story/79/story_7967_1.html][http://www.womenpriests.org/called/javo_rep.asp]
[http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=586]
===Middle east===
The movement for the ordination of Catholic women includes [[clergy]], [[religious]], and [[laity]], and extends throughout Europe, Asia, and North and South America. In October 2005, to coincide with a [[Holy See|Vatican]] [[Synod]] on the Eucharist, a large group of [[Australian]] priests released a public call for the ordination of women and married men.
The [[Israeli intelligence]] and [[Hamas]] [[Militants]] have been in a steady war of attrition with each other, regularly killing local officials since the [[Fatah]] / Hamas [[civil war]] began in early [[2007]]. [[Iraq]] has also suffered badly since the post-invasion insurgency of [[2005]].
===Eastern Orthodox===
The [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches follows a similar line of reasoning as the Roman Catholic Church with respect to ordination of priests and deacons.
===Philippines===
The official view is that this issue would be most properly addressed by an [[ecumenical council]].
Death squads were especially active in this country during the American invasion of the [[1950s]] and the regime in the 1980s; they continue to be active as of 2007.
There is a strong monastic tradition, pursued by both men and women in the Orthodox churches, where monks and nuns lead identical spiritual lives. Unlike Roman Catholic religious life, which has myriad traditions, both contemplative and active (see [[Benedictine monks]], [[Franciscan|Franciscan friars]], [[Jesuits]]), that of Eastern Orthodoxy has remained exclusively [[ascetic]] and [[monasticism|monastic]].
The [[New People's Army]] ('''NPA''') groups known as "[[Sparrow Units]]" were active in the mid-1980s, killing government officials, police personnel, military members, and anyone else they targeted for elimination. They were also supposedly part of an NPA operation called "[[Agaw Armas]]" ([[Filipino]] for "[[Stealing Weapons]]
===Anglican Communion===
"), where they raided government armories as well as stealing weapons from slain military and police personnel. A low level [[civil war]] with south [[Moslems]], [[Al-Qaeda]] sympathizers and [[communist]] insurgents has lead to a general break down of [[law and order]]. The [[Politics_of_the_Philippines#National_Government_of_the_Philippines|Philippines government]] has promised to curb the killings, but is itself implicated in many of the killings. <ref>http://www.pinoyhr.net/</ref>
The majority of Anglican provinces ordain women as both deacons and priests; however, only a few provinces have consecrated women as Bishops (although the number of provinces where women bishops are canonically possible is much greater). The breakdown within the Anglican communion (and United Churches in full communion) as of February 2004 can be seen in the following table:
====Extrajudicial Killings Summit====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! No ordination !! Deacons !! Priests !! Bishops<br>(none yet ordained) !! Bishops
|-
| [[Church of the Province of Central Africa|Central Africa]] || [[Church of the Province of the Indian Ocean|Indian Ocean]] || [[Anglican Church of Australia|Australia ]] || [[Church of Bangladesh|Bangladesh]] || [[Anglican Church in Aotearoa%2C New Zealand and Polynesia|Aotearoa, NZ and Polynesia]]
|-
| [[Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East|Jerusalem and the Middle East]] || [[Iglesia Anglicana del Cono Sur de las Americas|Southern Cone]] || [[Church of the Province of Burundi|Burundi]] || [[Igreja_Episcopal_do_Brasil|Brazil]] || [[Anglican Church of Canada|Canada]]
|-
| [[Anglican Church of Korea|Korea]] || [[Province de L'Eglise Anglicane Du Congo|Congo]] || [[Church of England|England]] || [[Iglesia Anglicana de la Region Central America|Central America]] || [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|United States]]
|-
| [[Church of the Province of Melanesia|Melanesia]] || [[Church of Pakistan|Pakistan]] || [[Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui|Hong Kong]] || [[Church of Ireland|Ireland]]
|-
| [[Church of Nigeria|Nigeria]] || || [[Anglican Church of Kenya|Kenya]] || [[Nippon Sei Ko Kai|Japan]]
|-
| [[Church of the Province of Papua New Guinea|Papua New Guinea]] || || [[Church of the Province of Rwanda|Rwanda]] || [[Anglican Church of Mexico|Mexico]]
|-
| [[Church of the Province of South East Asia|South East Asia ]] || || [[Church of South India|South India]] || [[Church of North India|North India]]
|-
| [[Anglican Church of Tanzania|Tanzania]] || || [[Church of Uganda|Uganda]] || [[Phillipine Episcopal Church|Philippines]]
|-
| || || [[Church in Wales|Wales]] || [[Scottish Episcopal Church|Scotland]]
|-
| || || [[Church of the Province of West Indies|West Indies]] || [[Church of the Province of Southern Africa|Southern Africa]]
|-
| || || || [[Episcopal Church of the Sudan|Sudan]]
|-
|}
The 22nd [[PUNO Supreme Court]] is set to hold a [[National Consultative Summit on extrajudicial killings]] on July 16 and 17, [[2007]] at the [[Manila Hotel]]. Invited representatives from the three branches of the government will participate (including the [[AFP]], the [[PNP]], [[CHR]], [[media]], [[academe]], [[civil society]] and [[other stakeholders]]).
Some [[ecclesiastical province|provinces]] within the [[Anglican Communion]], such as the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]] (ECUSA), the [[Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia|Anglican Church of New Zealand]], and the [[Anglican Church of Canada]], ordain women as deacons, priests and [[bishop]]s. Several other provinces (such as the [[Church of Ireland]] and the [[Scottish Episcopal Church]]) have removed canonical bars to women bishops—but have not yet consecrated any.
[[Puno]] will give the [[keynote speech]] and [[closing remarks]]. [[Puno]] searches for major solutions to solve forced disappearances.
Other provinces ordain women as deacons and priests but not as bishops—this was the stance of the [[Church of England]] for many years and remains that of the [[Anglican Church of Australia]]. Some provinces ordain women to the diaconate only. Other provinces, including several [[Africa]]n churches, ordain only men.
During the first day of the summit, the speakers will present their respective papers comprising significant inputs from their respective sectors, while on the second day, the participants will break out into 12 groups (chaired by a Justice) and take part in a workshop. Local and international observers (the diplomatic corps and representatives from various international organizations) will be accredited.
The first woman ordained to the priesthood in the Anglican Communion was [[Florence Li Tim-Oi]], who was ordained on [[25 January]] [[1944]] by the bishop of [[Hong Kong]]. It was thirty years before the practice became widespread.
Puno announced that "the summit highlight will be a plenary session where each of the 12 groups shall report to the body their recommended resolutions. The reports and proposals will be synthesized and then transmitted to the concerned government agencies for appropriate action".
In [[1974]] eleven women were ordained to the priesthood in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], by three retired ECUSA bishops. These ordinations were ruled "irregular" because they had been done without the authorisation of ECUSA's [[General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America|General Convention]]. Two years later, General Convention authorised the ordination of women to the priesthood and the episcopate. The first woman bishop in the Communion was [[Barbara Clementine Harris]], who was ordained bishop [[suffragan]] of [[Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts|Massachusetts]] in [[1989]]. The first woman to head a diocese was [[Penny Jamieson]] of the diocese of [[Dunedin]] in the [[Anglican Church of New Zealand]].
The earlier slated [[Malacañang]]-sponsored "Mindanao Peace and Security Summit (July 8-10, 2007 at Cagayan de Oro City), focussed on how to make the anti-terror law, or the Human Security Act (HSA) of 2007, more acceptable to the public. <ref>[http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/nation/view_article.php?article_id=75094 Inquirer.net, SC slates summit on extrajudicial killings]</ref><ref>[http://www.gmanews.tv/story/49959/SC-slates-summit-on-extrajudicial-killings GMA NEWS.TV, Chief Justice unfazed by Palace meet]</ref>
The [[Church of England]] authorised the ordination of woman priests in [[1992]] and began ordaining them in [[1994]]. This was the premise of the [[television program|television programme]] ''[[The Vicar of Dibley]]''. On [[11 July]] [[2005]] the [[General Synod]] of the Church of England, in [[York]], voted to "set in train" the process of removing the legal obstacles preventing women from becoming bishops; debate on formal legislation was scheduled for [[February 2006]] but the first ordinations were not expected for several years after that.
On July 16, 2007, Justices, activists, militant leaders, police officials, politicians and prelates attended the Supreme Court's two-day summit at the Manila Hotel in [[Manila City]] to map out ways to put an end to the string of extrajudicial killings in the [[Philippines]]. Bayan was set to launch their "[[silent protest]]", but expressed support for the high court's initiative. Director Geary Barias, chief of the police's anti-killings Task Force Usig, Sen. Panfilo Lacson, [[Manila Mayor Alfredo Lim]], Caloocan Bishop Deogracias Yñiguez, re-elected party-list Representatives Satur Ocampo (Bayan Muna) and Crispin Beltran (Anakpawis) attended. Supreme Court Chief Justice Reynato Puno said that the "National Consultative Summit on Extrajudicial Killings and Forced Disappearances: Searching for Solutions," would help stop the murders. Delegates were given 12 to 15 minutes each to share their insights and knowledge about the matter. Yniguez accused the government of failing to actively pursue investigations on the hundreds of killings and the Catholic Church was alarmed that victims have been denied their "fundamental right" to live.
Ordination of women has been a controversial issue throughout the Communion. The [[Continuing Anglican Movement]] was started in [[1977]] after women began to be ordained in ECUSA.
Based on Yniguez-church's count, the number of victims of extrajudicial killings has reached 778, while survivors of "political assassinations," was pegged at 370. He also noted 203 "massacre" victims, 186 people who involuntarily disappeared, 502 tortured, and others who were illegally arrested. Yniguez similarly criticized the government's alleged insistence on implementing its Oplan Bantay Laya I and II (the military's counter-insurgency operation plans which militants have said consider legal people's organizations as targets).
Within provinces which permit the ordination of women, there are some dioceses, such as the [[Sydney Anglicans|Diocese of Sydney]] in Australia and [[Episcopal Diocese of Quincy|Diocese of Quincy]], [[Illinois]] in the USA, which do not. The Church of England has instituted "[[flying bishops]]" to cater to parishes who do not wish to be under the supervision of bishops who have participated in the ordination of women.
Meanwhile, Bayan urged the Supreme Court to "check serious threats to civil liberties and basic freedoms" including the anti-terror law or the Human Security Act of 2007, which took effect on July 15 despite protests from leftist groups.
===Other communions===
A key [[theology|theological]] doctrine for most Protestants is the '[[priesthood of all believers]]'. The notion of a priesthood reserved to a select few is seen as an [[Old Testament]] concept, inappropriate for Christians. Prayer belongs equally to all believing women and men.
Vice President Teofisto Guingona Jr. will join Bayan and other leftist groups as petitioners in their formal pleading before the Supreme Court challenging the constitutionality of the law. Human rights lawyer Atty. Edre Olalia of the International Association of People’s Lawyers (IAPL) will serve as lead counsel. Bayan chair Carol Araullo said the respondents will include members of the Anti-Terrorism Council headed by Executive Secretary Eduardo Ermita and Raul Gonzalez. Earlier, [CBCP president Angel Lagdameo] pointed out at least 5 provisions of the law that may threaten civil liberties: Sec. 19 allows detentions of mere suspects for more than three days in the event of an actual or terrorist attack, while Section 26 allows house arrest despite the posting of bail, and prohibits the right to travel and to communicate with others; Sec. 39 allows seizure of assets while Sec. 7 allows surveillance and wiretapping of suspects; Sec. 26 allows the investigation of bank deposits and other assets. <ref>[http://www.gmanews.tv/story/51197/Justices-activists-prelates-map-out-ways-to-end-killings GMA NEWS.TV, Justices, activists, prelates map out ways to end killings]</ref>
However, most (although not all) Protestant denominations still ordain church leaders, who have the task of equipping all believers in their Christian service (Ephesians 4:11-13). These leaders (variously styled, elders, pastors, ministers etc) are seen to have a distinct role in teaching, pastoral leadership and the administration of [[sacrament]]s. Traditionally these roles were male preserves, but over the last century, an increasing number of denominations have begun ordaining women.
===United Kingdom (UK)===
The debate over women's eligibility for such offices normally centres around interpretation of certain Biblical passages relating to teaching and leadership roles. This is because Protestant churches usually view the Bible as the primary authority in church debates, even over established traditions (the doctrine of ''[[sola scriptura]]''). Thus the Church is free to change her stance, if the change is deemed in accordance with the Bible. The main passages in this debate include [[Galatians]] 3.28, [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1st Corinthians]] 11.13-35, 14.34-35 and [[1st Timothy]] 2.11-14. Increasingly, supporters of women in ministry also make appeals to evidence from the New Testament that is taken to suggest that women did exercise ministries in the apostolic Church (e.g. [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 21:9,18:18; [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 16:3-4,16:1-2, Romans 16:7; 1st Corinthians 16:19, and [[Philippians]] 4:2-3).
In [[Northern Ireland]], various [[paramilitary]], [[terrorist]], [[quasi-political]], [[pseudo-religious]], and ''ad hoc'' state institutions killed without lawful excuse during [[The Troubles]].
<ref> http://www.btinternet.com/~chief.gnome/gordon16.htm </ref>
<ref> http://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/WR93/Hsw-09.htm </ref> <ref> http://www.sptimes.com/2007/06/24/Opinion/A_grim_lesson_from_Ul.shtml </ref> <ref> http://naclaoimhtesolais.com/Reject%20The%20PSNI.htm </ref>
In [[England]] ''ad hoc'' [[racist]] and [[criminal]] [[gangs]] are also believed to behind most of the recent [[racist]] and [[Black-on-Black urban killings]]. The British state has apparently paid little attention to either the problems of [[gangland]] or [[racist killing]]s in the UK. <ref> http://customxml.com/rssnews/index.php?blog=3&title=damilola_killer_loses_attempt_to_quash_c&more=1&c=1&tb=1&pb=1 </ref> <ref> http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/2773771.stm </ref>
====Examples of other communions' practices====
<ref> http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1792334.stm </ref>
*'''The [[United Methodist Church]] in America'''
<ref> http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4791094.stm </ref>
In 1880, Anna Howard Shaw was ordained by the [[Methodist Protestant Church]]; Ella Niswonger was ordained in 1889 by the [[Church of the United Brethren in Christ|United Brethren Church]]. Both denominations later merged into the United Methodist Church. In [[1956]], the Methodist Church in America granted ordination and full clergy rights to women. Since that time, women have been [[Holy Orders|ordained]] full [[Elder (religious)|elders]] (pastors) in the denomination, and several have been promoted to the [[Bishop|episcopacy]].
<ref> http://kcl.ac.uk/phpnews/wmview.php?ArtID=982 </ref>
== Human rights groups==
*'''The [[Church of Scotland]]'''
Women were commisioned as deacons from 1935, and allowed to preach from 1949.
In 1963 Mary Levison petitioned the General Assembly for ordination.
Woman elders were introduced in 1966 and women ministers in 1968.
The first female Moderator of the General Assembly was Dr Alison Eliot in 2004.
See main article: [[Ordination of women in the Church of Scotland]].
Many [[human rights]] organisations like [[Amnesty International]] along with the [[UN]] are campaigning against extrajudicial punishment . <ref>
*'''The [[United Church of Canada]]'''
http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/ </ref>
Divided during the 1930s by this issue inherited from the churches it brought together, the United Church ordained its first woman minister, Lydia Gruchy, in 1936. [http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_ucc.htm]
<ref> http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=22046&Cr=rights&Cr1=council </ref>
<ref>http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAMR290151996?open&of=ENG-SLV</ref>
<ref>http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6814001/site/newsweek/</ref>
<ref>http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6802629/site/newsweek/</ref>
==In popular culture==
*'''The [[Presbyterian Church]]'''
In 1888 Louisa Louisa Woosley licensed to preach. She was ordained in 1889. In 1893 Edith Livingston Peake was appointed Presbyterian Evangelist by First United Presbyterian of San Francisco. Between 1907 and 1920 five more women became ministers.
The subject of extrajudicial punishment was examined in the stage play and subsequent film '' [[A Few Good Men]] ''. In this film, two marines are put on trial for the death of another marine due to their administering of a ''[[Code Red]]'' (a [[military colloquial speech]] term for [[extrajudicial punishment]]) on him. The [[film]] sees the [[U.S. Marines]] acquitted of the crime, as it is shown that they were [[acting under orders from their superiors]], and therefore [[could not be held responsible for the consequences]].
*The '''[[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] (ELCA)'''
The church bodies that formed the ELCA in [[1988]] began ordaining women in [[1970]] when the [[Lutheran Church in America]] ordained the Rev [[Elizabeth Platz]]. The ordination of women is now non-controversial within the ELCA. However, the [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]], the next largest [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] body in the [[United States]] does not ordain women.
==[[Judaism]] See also ==
* [[Assassination]]
:''See also [[Role of women in Judaism]]''
* [[Death squad]]
Jewish tradition and law does not presume that women have more or less of an aptitude or moral standing required of [[rabbi]]s. However, it has been the longstanding practice that only men become rabbis. This practice continues to this day within the [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] community but has been revised within non-Orthodox organizations. [[Reform Judaism]] created its first woman rabbi in [[1972]], [[Reconstructionist Judaism]] in [[1974]], and [[Conservative Judaism]] in [[1985]], and women in these movements are now routinely granted [[semicha]] on an equal basis with men.
* [[Extraordinary rendition]]
* [[Lynching]]
* [[Outlaw]]
* [[Human rights]]
* [[Summary execution]]
* [[Posse]]
* [[Prison rape]]
* [[Selective assassination]]
* [[Summary execution]]
* [[Summary justice]]
* [[Terrorism]]
* [[Vigilante]]
The issue of allowing women to become rabbis is not under active debate within the Orthodox community, though there is widespread agreement that women may often be consulted on matters of Jewish religious law. There are reports that a small number of Orthodox [[yeshiva]]s have unofficially granted semicha to women, but the prevailing consensus among Orthodox leaders (as well as a small number of Conservative Jewish communities) is that it is not appropriate for women to become rabbis.
The idea that women could eventually be ordained as rabbis sparks widespread opposition among the Orthodox rabbinate. Norman Lamm, one of the leaders of Modern Orthodoxy and Rosh Yeshiva of the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological [[Seminary]], totally opposes giving semicha to women. "It shakes the boundaries of tradition, and I would never allow it." (Helmreich, 1997) Writing in an article in the ''Jewish Observer'', Moshe Y'chiail Friedman states that Orthodox Judaism prohibits women from being given semicha and serving as rabbis. He holds that the trend towards this goal is driven by [[sociology]], and not [[halakha]].
==[[Islam]]==
:''From introduction to article [[Women as imams]]. See entire article, and [[Women in Islam]], for more detail.''
Although Muslims do not formally ordain religious leaders, the [[imam]] serves as a spiritual leader and religious authority. There is a current controversy among Muslims on the circumstances in which [[women]] may act as imams — that is, lead a congregation in [[salah|salat]] (prayer). Three of the four [[Sunni]] schools, as well as many [[Shia]], agree that a woman may lead a congregation consisting of women alone in prayer, although the [[Maliki]] school does not allow this. According to all currently existing traditional schools of [[Islam]], a woman cannot lead a mixed gender congregation in [[salat]] (prayer). Some schools make exceptions for [[Tarawih]] (optional [[Ramadan]] prayers) or for a congregation consisting only of close relatives. Certain medieval scholars — including [[Al-Tabari]] (838–932), [[Abu Thawr]] (764–854), [[Al-Muzani]] (791–878), and [[Ibn Arabi]] (1165–1240) — considered the practice permissible at least for optional ([[nafila]]) prayers; however, their views are not accepted by any major surviving group.
Some Muslims in recent years have reactivated the debate, arguing that the spirit of the [[Qur'an]] and the letter of a disputed [[hadith]] indicate that women should be able to lead mixed congregations as well as single-sex ones, and that the prohibition of this developed as a result of [[sexism]] in the medieval environment, not as a part of true Islam.
==[[Buddhism]]==
This ordination of women is currently and historically practised in some Buddhist regions and not in others.
The tradition of the ordained monastic community ([[sangha]]) began with [[Buddha]], who established orders of [[Bhikkhu]] (monks) and later, after an initial reluctance, of Bhikkuni (nuns). The stories, sayings and deeds of some of the distinguished Bhikkhuni of early Buddhism are recorded in many places in the [[Pali Canon]], most notably in the [[Therigatha]]. However, not only did the Buddha lay down more rules of discipline for the bhikkhuni (311 compared to the bhikkhu's 227), he also made it more difficult for them to be ordained.
The tradition flourished for centuries throughout South and East Asia, but appears to have died out in the [[Theravada]] traditions of India and Sri Lanka in the [[11th century]] C.E. However, the [[Mahayana]] tradition, particularly in [[Taiwan]] and [[Hong Kong]], has retained the practice, where nuns are called 'Bhikṣuṇī' (the [[Sanskrit]] equivalent of the [[Pali]] 'Bhikkhuni'). Nuns are also found in [[Korea]] and [[Vietnam]].
There have been some attempts in recent years to revive the tradition of women in the sangha within Theravada Buddhism in [[Thailand]], [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]], with many women ordained in Sri Lanka since the late [[1990s]].
===Thailand===
:''See also [[Buddhism in Thailand]]''
In [[1928]], the [[Supreme Patriarch of Thailand]], responding to the attempted ordination of two women, issued an edict that monks must not ordain women. The two women were reportedly arrested and jailed briefly. In a more recent challenge to the Thai sangha's ban on women, Dhammananda Bhikkhuni, previously a professor of Buddhist philosophy known as Dr Chatsumarn Kabilsingh, was controversially ordained as a nun in Sri Lanka in [[2003]]. Despite some support from inside the religious hierarchy, the sangha remains fiercely opposed to the ordination of women.
==See also==
*[[Christian views of women]]
*[[Role of women in Judaism]]
*[[Women as imams]]
*[[Stained-glass ceiling]]
==External links==
===Monitoring organizations===
===Christian===
*[[Amnesty International]]
'''Evangelical -- For'''
*[http://www.ansarburney.org/ Ansar Burney Trust] (Pakistan and the Middle East)
*[http://www.cbeinternational.org/new/index.shtml Christians for Biblical Equality] - Egalitarian Evangelical perspective on gender issues
*[[Human Rights Watch]]
'''Evangelical -- Against'''
*[http://www.cbmw.org Council of Biblical Manhood and Womanhood] - Complementarian Evangelical perspective on gender issues
'''Presbyterian churches -- For'''
*[http://www.firstpresby.org/womenelders.htm Women Elders - From a Presbyterian Church (USA) site]
'''Presbyterian churches -- Against'''
*[http://66.152.6.103/pdf/WomenInTheChurch.pdf Position Paper Approved by the General Synod of the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church (.pdf)]
'''Roman Catholic and Anglo-Catholic -- For'''
*[http://www.womenpriests.org/index.asp Womenpriests.org] Website advocating the ordination of women to the Roman Catholic priesthood.
'''Roman Catholic and Anglo-Catholic -- Against'''
*[http://www.forwardinfaith.com Forward in Faith] - Anglo-Catholic Anglicans in Opposition to Women in the Priesthood
===Buddhist===
* [http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/equality.htm ordination of women] - Buddhism
* [http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0417/p07s01-woap.html challenge to Thai Sangha's ban on women] - Christian Science monitor
==References==
[[Category:Anglicanism]]
<references/>
[[Category:Buddhism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Clergy]]
[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Judaism and women]]
[[Category:Lutheranism]]
[[Category:Methodism]]
[[Category:Protestantism]]
[[Category:Religious feminism]]
[[Category:Capital punishment]]
[[fr:Ordination des femmes dans l'Église catholique romaine]]
[[Category:Criminal law]]
[[Category:Human rights abuses]]
{{Category:Extrajudicial killings}}
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