Social Darwinism and Extrajudicial punishment: Difference between pages

Revision as of 13:10, 26 February 2006

Revision as of 03:25, 23 July 2007

Line 1:

'''Extrajudicial punishment''' is [[physical]] punishment without the permission of a court or legal authority, and as such, constitutes a violation of basic human rights (such as the right to [[due process]] and [[humane]] treatment). [[Agents]] of a [[state apparatus]] may sometimes carry out this type of punishment if they come to the conclusion that a person is an imminent threat to security. The existence of extrajudicial punishment is considered proof that some governments will break their own [[legal code]] if deemed necessary. [[Non-governmental]] or non-state actors, including private individuals, have also resorted to different forms of extrajudicial punishment, though such actions are more properly called [[assassination]], [[murder]] or [[vigilantism]] instead.

'''Social Darwinism''' is a term used to describe a style or trend in [[social theory]] which holds that [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s theory of [[evolution]] of biological traits in a population by [[natural selection]] can also be applied to derive an [[ethics|ethic]] and underpin a [[Ideologies of parties|political ideology]] and to critique human [[social institution]]s. Initially expressed in the writings of English philosopher and author [[Herbert Spencer]], and [[William Graham Sumner]], Social Darwinism first became popular in the late [[19th century]] and continued in popularity until the end of [[World War II]], though some claim that contemporary [[sociobiology]] could be classified as a form of Social Darwinism. The application of the term to 19th and 20th century modes of thought, however, generally did not occur until after the publication of American historian [[Richard Hofstadter]]'s ''Social Darwinism in American Thought'' in [[1944]], which codified the concept in the sense it is generally used today. Thus the term is an [[anachronism]], although it is still widely used by [[historian|historians]].

==Existence==

Historically, proponents of Social Darwinism often used the theory to justify [[social inequality]] as being [[meritocratic]], and it has also been used to justify [[racism]] and [[imperialism]], in a cultural application of [[Herbert Spencer]]'s idea of the "[[survival of the fittest]]." Thus, Herbert Spencer's notion of the evolution of society and man's moral faculty had been altered to something quite contrary to his philosophy. Social Darwinism itself does not necessarily engender a political position. Some Social Darwinists argue for the inevitability of progress and social reform, while others emphasize the potential for the degeneration of humanity. To a certain extent, Social Darwinism, like Darwinian evolution, has been associated with the controversial field of [[eugenics]].

Although the legal use of [[capital punishment]] is generally decreasing around the world, individuals or groups deemed immediately threatening — or even, in times of comparative stability, simply "undesirable" — to a government's ability to govern may nevertheless be targeted for killing [[extra-judicially]] by some regimes or their representatives. Such killing typically happens quickly, with skilled secret security forces on a covert basis, performed in such a way as to avoid massive public outcry and international criticism that would reflect badly on the state.

Another possibility is for [[overt]], [[uniformed security forces]] to kill the target, but often under circumstances that make it appear as [[self-defense]], such as by planting recently-fired weapons near his body, or [[fabricating evidence]] suggesting [[suicide by cop]]. In such cases, it can be surprisingly difficult to prove that the shooters acted wrongly. Because of the dangers inherent in any armed confrontation, even police or soldiers who would strongly, genuinely prefer to take their target alive may still kill him to protect themselves or civilians. Only in the most obvious cases, such as the [[Operation Flavius]] triple killing or the shooting of [[Jean Charles de Menezes]] will the authorities admit that [["kill or capture"]] was replaced with [["shoot on sight"]].

While Social Darwinism applies the concept of [[evolution]] and [[natural selection]] to human [[cultural system]]s, the extent to which the [[ideology|ideologies]] related to it are a part of [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s [[biology|biological]] theory of [[evolution]] or Spencer's [[classical liberal]] philosophy is arguable.

Extrajudicial punishment is a typical feature of [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] and other [[political repression|politically repressive]] regimes using [[death squad]]s for this purpose, but even self-proclaimed or internationally recognized [[democracies]] have been known to use extrajudicial punishment under certain circumstances. In some cases, extrajudicial punishment may be planned and carried out [[covertly]] by a particular branch of a state and its specific agents, without previously informing other sectors or even without having been secretly ordered to commit such acts. The other branches of the state can tacitly approve of it after the fact, but they can also directly disagree with it depending on the circumstances, especially when complex intragovernment or internal policy struggles exist within a state's policymaking apparatus.

== History ==

=== Darwinism and theories of social change ===

Theories of [[social evolution]] and [[cultural evolution]] are common in European thought. The [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thinkers who preceded Darwin, such as [[Hegel]], often argued that societies progressed through stages of increasing development. Earlier thinkers also emphasized conflict as an inherent feature of social life. [[Thomas Hobbes]]'s [[17th century]] portrayal of the [[state of nature]] seems analogous to the competition for natural resources described by Darwin. Social Darwinism is distinct from other theories of social change because of the way it draws Darwin's distinctive ideas from the field of biology into social studies.

In times of [[war]], [[natural disaster]], [[societal collapse]], or in the absence of an established system of [[criminal justice]], there may be an increased incidence of extrajudicial punishment. In such [[extreme circumstances]], police or military personnel may be authorised to [[summary execution|summarily execute]] individuals involved in [[rioting]], [[looting]] or [[violent acts]], especially if caught '' [[in flagrante delicto]]''.

Darwin's unique discussion of evolution was distinct in several ways from these previous works: Darwin argued that humans were shaped by biological laws in the same way as other animals, particularly by the pressure put on individuals by population growth, emphasizing the natural over the supernatural in human development. Unlike Hobbes, he believed that this pressure allowed individuals with certain physical and mental traits to succeed more frequently than others, and that these traits accumulated in the population over time to allow the emergence of a new species.

A [[forced disappearance|"disappearance"]] occurs where someone who is believed to have been targeted for [[extrajudicial execution]] does not reappear alive. Their ultimate fate is thereafter unknown or never fully confirmed.

However, Darwin felt that 'social [[instinct]]s' such as 'sympathy' and '[[moral philosophy|moral sentiments]]' also evolved through [[natural selection]], and that these resulted in the strengthening of societies in which they occurred, so much so that he wrote about it in [[Descent of Man]]:<ref>"<cite>..at some future period, not very distant as measured by centuries, the civilised races of man will almost certainly exterminate, and replace, the savage races throughout the world.</cite>"[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&vid=ISBN0140436316&id=SOiEo1tEnsoC&pg=PA183&lpg=PA183&dq=Descent+of+Man+%22certainly+exterminate%22&prev=http://books.google.com/books%3Fq%3DDescent%2Bof%2BMan%2B%2522certainly%2Bexterminate%2522&sig=hlWQnduxAHm6F1SEJZ7q3FC3BOY Descent of Man], chapter 6 ISBN 1573921769</ref> Thus it seems Darwin did believe that social phenomena were shaped by natural selection.

==Around the world==

=== Theorists and sources of Social Darwinism ===

See [[NKVD troika]] and [[Special Council of the NKVD]] for examples from the history of the Soviet Union , where extrajudicial punishment "[[by administrative means]]" was part of the state policy. Most Latin American dictatorships have regularly instituted extrajudicial killings of their enemies; for one of the better-known examples, see ''[[Operation Condor]].''

[[image:Herbert_Spencer.jpg|thumb|200px|Herbert Spencer.]] Despite the fact that Social Darwinism bears Darwin's name and Darwin's works were widely read by Social Darwinists, the theory also draws on the work of many authors, including [[Herbert Spencer]], [[Thomas Malthus]], and [[Francis Galton]].

<ref> http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3821/is_200610/ai_n17195860 </ref>

Some consider the killing of [[Black Panther Party|Black Panther]] [[Fred Hampton]] to have been an extrajudicial killing ordered by the [[United States]] government. Also, the U.S. has been accused of exercising a covert prison system set up by the [[CIA]] in several countries, especially [[Egypt]], to evade [[U.S. jurisdiction]]. <ref> http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/01/AR2005110101644.html </ref> The deaths of the leaders of the leftist urban guerilla group Red Army Faction [[Ulrike Meinhof]], [[Andreas Baader]], [[Gudrun Ensslin]], and [[Jan-Carl Raspe]] is by some regarded as extrajudicial killings, a theory partly based on the testimony of [[Irmgard Möller]] .

The government of Israel has also been accused of carrying out extrajudicial killings, which they term "targeted assassinations," against leaders of organisations involved in carrying out attacks against Israel. The Israeli government and its defenders, however, consider these people to be [[enemy combatant]]s and not [[civilians]]; claiming they are legitimate military targets as per the [[Laws of war|rules of engagement]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

[[Herbert Spencer]]'s ideas, like that of evolutionary 'progressivism', stemmed from his reading of [[Thomas Malthus]], and his later theories were influenced by those of Darwin. However Spencer's major work in the field of Social Darwinism, ''"[[Progress: Its Law and Cause]]"'' was released two years before the publication Darwin's "[[Origin Of Species]]", and his second, ''"[[First Principles]]"'', was printed in [[1860]]. In regards to social institutions, however, there is a good case that Spencer's writings might be classified as 'Social Darwinism'. He argues that the individual (rather than the collectivity) is the unit of analysis that evolves, that evolution takes place through natural selection, and that it affects social as well as biological phenomenon.

During the [[apartheid]] years [[South Africa|South Africa's]] security forces were also accused of using extra-judicial means to deal with their political opponents. After his release, [[Nelson Mandela]] would refer to these acts as proof of a [[Third force (South Africa)|Third Force]] . This was denied vehemently by the administration of [[F.W. de Klerk]]. Later the [[South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission]], led by Archbishop [[Desmond Tutu]] would find that both military and police agencies such as the [[Civil Cooperation Bureau]] and [[C10]] based at [[Vlakplaas]] were guilty off gross [[human rights violations]]. This led the [[International Criminal Court]] to declare apartheid a [[crime against humanity]].

In many ways Spencer's theory of 'cosmic evolution' has much more in common with the works of [[Lamark]] and [[August Comte]] than [[Charles Darwin]]. Darwin's theory is concerned with [[population]], while Spencer's deals with the way an individual's motives influence [[humanity]]. Darwin's theory is [[probabilistic]], i.e. based on changes in the [[Natural environment|environment]] that sooner or later influence the change of individuals, but do not have any single, specific goal. Spencer's is [[deterministic]] (the evolution of human society is the only logical consequence of its previous stage), [[fatalism|fatalistic]] (it cannot be influenced by human actions), single path (it travels a single path, cannot skip any stages or change them) and progressively finalistic (there is a final, perfect society that will be eventually reached). Darwin's theory does not equal [[progress]], except in the sense that the new, evolved species will be better suited to their changing environment. Spencer's theory introduces the concept of [[social progress]] - the new, evolved society is always better than the past.

==Extra-judicial killings==

[[Image:Malthus.jpg|frame|left|Thomas Malthus.]]Spencer's work also served to renew interest in the work of [[Thomas Malthus|Malthus]]. While Malthus's work does not itself qualify as Social Darwinism, his 1798 work ''An Essay on the Principle of Population'', was incredibly popular and widely read by Social Darwinists. In that book, for example, the author argued that as an increasing population would normally outgrow its food supply, this would result in the starvation of the weakest and a [[Malthusian catastrophe]]. According to [[Michael Ruse]], Darwin read Malthus' famous ''Essay on a Principle of Population'' in 1838, four years after Malthus' death. Malthus himself anticipated the Social Darwinists in suggesting that charity could exacerbate social problems.

:''For extrajudicial executions see also [[Assassination]] ''

Another of these social interpretations of Darwin's biological views, later known as [[eugenics]], was put forth by Darwin's cousin, [[Francis Galton]], in [[1865]] and [[1869]]. Galton argued that just as physical traits were clearly inherited among generations of people, so could be said for mental qualities (genius and talent). Galton argued that social mores needed to change so that heredity was a conscious decision, in order to avoid over-breeding by "less fit" members of society and the under-breeding of the "more fit" ones. [[Image:Francis Galton 1850s.jpg|thumb|right|Francis Galton.]] In Galton's view, social institutions such as [[welfare]] and [[psychiatric hospital|insane asylums]] were allowing "inferior" humans to survive and reproduce at levels faster than the more "superior" humans in respectable society, and if corrections were not soon taken, society would be awash with "inferiors." Darwin read his cousin's work with interest, and devoted sections of ''Descent of Man'' to discussion of Galton's theories. Neither Galton nor Darwin, though, advocated any eugenic policies such as those which would be undertaken in the early 20th century, as government coercion of any form was very much against their political opinions.

Extrajudicial killings are the illegal killing of leading political, trades union, dissident and/or social figures by either the state government, [[state authorities]] like the armed forces and police (as in [[Liberia]] under [[Charles G. Taylor]] ), or by [[criminal outfits]] like the [[Italian]] [[Mafia]].

In Germany, the publication of [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s best-selling ''Welträtsel'' ('Riddle of the Universe') in [[1899]] brought Social Darwinism to a very wide audience, and it took on something of the nature of a new religion imbued with a romantic and symbolistic mysticism. This lead to the formation of the Monist League in 1904, with many prominent citizens, including the Nobel Prize winner, [[Wilhelm Ostwald]]. By 1909 it had a membership of some six thousand people. It promoted eugenic reform and became an important progenitor of the [[Völkisch movement]] and, ultimately, of the [[National Socialist German Workers Party]] of [[Adolf Hitler]].

Extrajudicial killings and [[death squads]] are most common in the Middle East (mostly in Palestine and [[Iraq]]) <ref> http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=viewArticle&code=FUL20051124&articleId=1315 </ref> <ref> http://www.electronicintifada.net/bytopic/extrajudicial-killings.shtml </ref> <ref> http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engamr510792005 </ref> <ref> http://www.brusselstribunal.org/FullerKillings.htm </ref> <ref> http://soccerdad.baltiblogs.com/archives/2007/06/24/extrajudicial_killings_hamas_style.html </ref>, Central America<ref>http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/US_ThirdWorld/deathsquads_ElSal.html</ref>

Thus Social Darwinism sometimes differs from Darwin's own work, and with modern theories of evolution that have developed in the century and a half since Darwin's first writings.

<ref>http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAMR290151996?open&of=ENG-SLV</ref>

<ref>http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nsa/publications/elsalvador2/index.html</ref> , [[Afghanistan]], [[Bangladesh]] <ref> http://www.allamericanpatriots.com/48723123_world_bangladesh_release_journalist_and_rights_activist </ref>

, [[India]] and Kashmir <ref> http://usa.mediamonitors.net/content/view/full/44302 </ref>

<ref> http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/6367917.stm </ref>

<ref> http://www.gharib.demon.co.uk/reports/ustates.htm </ref>

<ref> http://sangam.org/taraki/articles/2006/09-19_Extrajudicial_Killings.php?uid=1954 </ref> <ref> http://www.tamilnation.org/intframe/us/060529ustamils.htm </ref>

<ref> http://www.hrdc.net/sahrdc/hrfeatures/HRF71.htm </ref> several nations or regions in [[Equatorial Africa]]<ref>http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/30001/story.htm</ref>

, many parts of [[South America]] <ref> http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAMR190082007 </ref>, [[Chechnya]] , <ref> http://news.independent.co.uk/world/asia/article2293482.ece </ref>, [[Russia]]<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6163502.stm</ref>

, [[Uzbekistan]], [[North Ossetia]], parts of [[Thailand]] <ref> http://www.ahrchk.net/ua/mainfile.php/2003/407/ </ref>

<ref> http://newsinfo.inq7.net/breakingnews/nation/view_article.php?article_id=11686 </ref> and in the [[Philippines]] <ref> http://www.pinoyhr.net/ </ref> <ref> http://hrw.org/reports/2007/philippines0607/ </ref> <ref> http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article2692483.ece} </ref> <ref> http://www.radiopinoyusa.com/radiopinoy_news.php?id=NEWS-00592} </ref>

<ref> http://www.pcusa.org/pcnews/2007/07271.htm </ref> <ref> http://newsinfo.inq7.net/breakingnews/nation/view_article.php?article_id=11686 </ref>.

The 3 different modern examples are listed in the sub-headings below, along with the 'Cold War' to help to illustrate the point.

==Influence of Social Darwinists==

===Europe===

Social Darwinism enjoyed widespread popularity in some European circles, particularly among German intellectuals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Competition for empire encouraged increasing [[militarization]] and the division of the world into colonial spheres of influence. The interpretation of Social Darwinism then emphasized competition between species and races rather than cooperation.

===UnitedCold Stateswar usage===

Spencer proved to be an incredibly popular figure in the 1870s, particularly in the [[United States]]. Authors such as [[Edward Youmans]], [[William Graham Sumner]], [[John Fiske]], [[John W. Burgess]], and other thinkers of the [[gilded age]] all developed theories of Social Darwinism as a result of their exposure to Spencer (as well as Darwin).

[[Image:Nguyen.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[General]] [[Nguyễn Ngọc Loan]] summarily executes [[Nguyễn Văn Lém]].]]

Sumner abandoned Social Darwinism by the mid 1880s, and some contemporary historians do not believe that Sumner ever actually believed in Social Darwinism.<ref>"<cite>A careful reading of the theories of Sumner and Spencer exonerates them from the centure-old charge of social Darwinism in the strict sense of the word. They did not themselves advocate the application of Darwin's theory of natural selection.</cite>" [http://print.google.com/print?id=7BJUIOnC534C&pg=PA33&lpg=PA33&dq=bannister+social+darwinism&prev=http://books.google.com/books%3Fq%3Dbannister%2Bsocial%2Bdarwinism%26lr%3D%26client%3Dfirefox-a&sig=w_af5g6OzVWG-hgUu3sYUUJcIM8&pli=1&auth=DQAAAGkAAADLyWTynwQEsSIybdJkKg8_AeJlL9zHpKGWUlfY7GKH8ipNUBIA-XF0MrEscS0fSnV5c_QwPpCxm34JbdATnfBBTkA0Sm-SiLNH9_YMzUjYdLDR8Uyb-N7KfG_Y1SUHITHVHOcbY1x3Ejg3ZgP0BRXb The Social Meaning of Modern Biology: From Social Darwinism to Sociobiology]</ref> The great majority of American businessmen rejected the anti-philanthropic implications of the theory. Instead they gave millions to build schools, colleges, hospitals, art institutes, parks and many other institutions. [[Andrew Carnegie]], who admired Spencer, was the leading philanthopist in the world (1890-1920), and a major leader against imperialism and warfare.

The former [[Soviet Union]] and [[Communist Bloc]] country used to also killed dissidents this way to, during the [[Cold War]]. Those who were not killed were sent to '[[Gulag]]' prison camps.

Novelist [[Jack London]] wrote stories of survival that incorporate his views on Social Darwinism<ref>"<cite>Borrowing from Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, Social Darwisnists believed that societies, as do organisms evolve over time. Nature then determined that the strong survive and the weak perish. In Jack London's case, he thought that certain favored races were destined for survival.</cite>" [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/London/Essays/philosophy.html The philosophy of Jack London]</ref>.

[[Nguyễn Văn Lém ]] (referred to as Captain Bay Lop) (died 1 [[February 1968]] in Saigon ) was a member of the [[Viet Cong]] who was summarily executed in [[Saigon]] during the [[Tet Offensive]]. The picture of his death would became one of may an anti- [[Vietnam War]] icons in the [[Western World]]. <ref> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_V%C4%83n_L%C3%A9m </ref>

==Criticisms and controversies==

Liberals have alleged that conservatives used Social Darwinism to justify [[laissez-faire capitalism]] and [[social inequality]]. Others use it to justify [[racism]] and [[imperialism]]. Many used Social Darwinism crudely to argue against any sort of universal morality or any sort of altruism.

During the 1960s throughout the 1970s death squads were used against the [[Viet Cong]] cadre as well as supporters in neighbouring countries notably [[Cambodia]]. See also [[Phoenix Program]] (also known as Phung Hoang). The [[Viet Cong]] also used death squads of their own against civilians for political reasons. {{Facts|date=February 2007}}

At its most extreme, some pre-twentieth century Social Darwinists appear to anticipate [[eugenics]] and the race doctrines of the [[Nazi]]s. Because critics tried to link Social Darwinism in the public mind with [[racism]], [[New Imperialism|imperialism]], [[eugenics]], and [[pseudoscience]], such criticisms are sometimes applied (and misapplied) to any other political or scientific theory that resembles Social Darwinism. Such criticisms are often levelled, for example, at [[evolutionary psychology]].

The use of computers by the American forces to compile lists of 'suspects' as well as the indefinite detention of 'suspects' in 'black' locations as well as their detention, torture, and execution without judicial oversight or protection is typical of American [[black ops]] in the Post World War II era.

[[Argentina]] used extrajudicial killings as way of crushing the [[liberal]] and [[communist]] opposition to the military [[Junta]] during the '[[Dirty war]]' <ref> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirty_War </ref> of the late [[1960's]] and most of the [[1970's]]. The [[Chilean]] Junta of [[1972]] to [[1992]] also committed such killings to. See [[Operation Condor]] for examples.

Similarly, [[capitalism|capitalist economics]], especially laissez-faire economics, is attacked by some liberals by equating it Social Darwinism because it is premised on the idea of natural scarcity, also the starting point of Social Darwinism, and because it is often interpreted to involve a "sink or swim" attitude toward economic activity.

Also during the [[Communist]] versus [[Capitalist]] [[Salvadoran civil war]], death squads achieved notoriety when [[far-right]] [[vigilantes]] [[assassinated]] [[Archbishop Óscar Romero]] for his social activism in [[March 1980]]. In [[December 1980]], three [[United States|American]] [[nuns]] and a lay worker were raped and murdered by a [[military unit]] later found to have been acting on specific orders. [[Death squads]] were instrumental in killing hundreds of peasants and activists. Because the death squads involved were found to have been soldiers of the [[Salvadoran military]], which was receiving U.S. funding and training from American advisers during the Carter administration. <ref> http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/US_ThirdWorld/deathsquads_ElSal.html</ref>During the [[El Salvador Civil War|Salvadoran civil war]], death squads achieved notoriety when far-right vigilantes assassinated Archbishop [[Óscar Romero]] for his social activism in March 1980 . In December 1980, three American nuns and a lay worker were raped and murdered by a military unit later found to have been acting on specific orders. Death squads were instrumental in killing hundreds of peasants and activists. Because the death squads involved were found to have been soldiers of the Salvadoran military, which was receiving U.S. funding and training from American advisors during the [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration, these events prompted outrage in the U.S. and led to a temporary cutoff in military aid from the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration.

However, there were few "Social Darwinists" after the 1880s who advocated capitalism and ''laissez-faire''. Most of them demanded a strong government that would intervene in the economy or society to weed out inferiors. They did not believe the marketplace could do that. For example, [[Ludwig von Mises]], an advocate of ''laissez-faire'', argued in his book [[Human Action]] that Social Darwinism contradicts the principles of [[liberalism]].

One of the earliest cases of extradudical killings was in Wiemar [[Germany]] <ref> http://econ161.berkeley.edu/movable_type/2003_archives/001832.html </ref>.

Social Darwinist theory itself does not necessarily engender a political position: some Social Darwinists would argue for the inevitability of [[progress]], while others emphasise the potential for the degeneration of humanity, and some even attempt to enroll Social Darwinism in a reformist politics. Rather, Social Darwinism is an eclectic set of closely interrelated social theories -- much in the way that [[Existentialism]] is not one philosophy but a set of closely interrelated [[philosophical principles]].

===Middle east===

The key argument is that nature works by survival of the fittest; so does society; those who have survived or flourished did so by natural processes; it is unnatural and inefficient to try and change that through philanthropy. Success or failure is usually dependent on natural traits. But few Americans made this argument after the 1880s.

The [[Israeli intelligence]] and [[Hamas]] [[Militants]] have been in a steady war of attrition with each other, regularly killing local officials since the [[Fatah]] / Hamas [[civil war]] began in early [[2007]]. [[Iraq]] has also suffered badly since the post-invasion insurgency of [[2005]].

==Modern legacy==

In the time since then, evolutionary theory has de-emphasized inter-species competition as well as the importance of violent confrontation in general.

===Philippines===

In its contemporary forms, Social Darwinism remains a very important social theory in the United States and in some conservative political movements elsewhere.

Death squads were especially active in this country during the American invasion of the [[1950s]] and the regime in the 1980s; they continue to be active as of 2007.

==See also==

*[[Altruism]]

*[[Evolution of societies]]

*[[social ecology]]

*[[Social evolutionism]]

*[[Social implications of the theory of evolution]]

*[[Sociobiology]]

*[[The Abraxas Foundation]]

*''[[The Evolution of Cooperation]]'' by [[Robert Axelrod]]

*Contrast with ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' by [[Peter Kropotkin]]

The [[New People's Army]] ('''NPA''') groups known as "[[Sparrow Units]]" were active in the mid-1980s, killing government officials, police personnel, military members, and anyone else they targeted for elimination. They were also supposedly part of an NPA operation called "[[Agaw Armas]]" ([[Filipino]] for "[[Stealing Weapons]]

==References==

"), where they raided government armories as well as stealing weapons from slain military and police personnel. A low level [[civil war]] with south [[Moslems]], [[Al-Qaeda]] sympathizers and [[communist]] insurgents has lead to a general break down of [[law and order]]. The [[Politics_of_the_Philippines#National_Government_of_the_Philippines|Philippines government]] has promised to curb the killings, but is itself implicated in many of the killings. <ref>http://www.pinoyhr.net/</ref>

<references/>

===Secondary sources===

* Bannister, Robert C. ''Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought'' (1989)

* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=61860931 Bannister, Robert C. ''Sociology and Scientism: The American Quest for Objectivity, 1880-1940'' (1987)]

* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96294585 Boller, Paul F. Jr. ''American Thought in Transition: The Impact of Evolutionary Naturalism, 1865-1900'' (1969)]

* Crook, D. Paul. ''Darwinism, War and History : The Debate over the Biology of War from the 'Origin of Species' to the First World War'' (1994)

* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001247998 Crook, Paul. "Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945" ''The Australian Journal of Politics and History'', Vol. 45, 1999]

* Dickens, Peter. ''Social Darwinism: Linking Evolutionary Thought to Social Theory'' (Philadelphia: Open University Press, 2000).

* Degler, Carl N. ''In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought'' (1992).

* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98417918 Gossett, Thomas F. ''Race: The History of an Idea in America'' (1999) ch 7]

* {{cite book|

author=Hawkins, Mike |

title=Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945: Nature and Model and Nature as Threat| publisher=London: Cambridge University Press| year=1997|

id=}}

* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107191131 Hodge, Jonathan and Gregory Radick. ''The Cambridge Companion to Darwin'' (2003)]

* Hofstadter, Richard, ''Social Darwinism in American Thought'' (1955) (originally written in 1930s at a time author was active in Communist party affairs; he later became quite conservative. [http://books.google.com/books?ie=ISO-8859-1&hl=en&id=Ty8aEmWc_ekC&pg=PR19&lpg=PR19&dq=bannister+social+darwinism&prev=http://books.google.com/books%3Fq%3Dbannister%2Bsocial%2Bdarwinism%26lr%3D%26client%3Dfirefox-a&sig=A6E3BX2UwSDCfSVcE93gEoLl9MM Historians agree that Hofstadter exaggerated the importance of Social Darwinism in America.])

* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001362323 Jones, Leslie. ''Social Darwinism Revisited'' History Today, Vol. 48, August 1998]

* Kaye, Howard L. ''The Social Meaning of Modern Biology: From Social Darwinism to Sociobiology'' (1997).

====Extrajudicial Killings Summit====

===Primary sources===

* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=93577330 ''Darwinism: Critical Reviews from Dublin Review, Edinburgh Review, Quarterly Review'' (1977 edition) reprints 19th century reviews and essays]

* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=57831077 Fiske, John. ''Darwinism and Other Essays'' (1900)]

The 22nd [[PUNO Supreme Court]] is set to hold a [[National Consultative Summit on extrajudicial killings]] on July 16 and 17, [[2007]] at the [[Manila Hotel]]. Invited representatives from the three branches of the government will participate (including the [[AFP]], the [[PNP]], [[CHR]], [[media]], [[academe]], [[civil society]] and [[other stakeholders]]).

==External links==

* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/spencer-darwin.html Modern History Sourcebook: Herbert Spencer: Social Darwinism, 1857]

* [http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/rbannis1/AIH19th/Carnegie.html Andrew Carnegie's "Gospel of Wealth"] Describes social darwinism, and effectiveness of how a capitalists' wealth is spent

* [http://library.thinkquest.org/C004367/eh4.shtml Social Darwinism on ThinkQuest]

* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/darwin/nameof/ In the name of Darwin - criticism of social darwinism]

[[Puno]] will give the [[keynote speech]] and [[closing remarks]]. [[Puno]] searches for major solutions to solve forced disappearances.

{{Darwin}}

During the first day of the summit, the speakers will present their respective papers comprising significant inputs from their respective sectors, while on the second day, the participants will break out into 12 groups (chaired by a Justice) and take part in a workshop. Local and international observers (the diplomatic corps and representatives from various international organizations) will be accredited.

[[Category:Sociology]]

[[Category:Politics]]

Puno announced that "the summit highlight will be a plenary session where each of the 12 groups shall report to the body their recommended resolutions. The reports and proposals will be synthesized and then transmitted to the concerned government agencies for appropriate action".

[[Category:Pseudoscience]]

[[Category:Political philosophy]]

The earlier slated [[Malacañang]]-sponsored "Mindanao Peace and Security Summit (July 8-10, 2007 at Cagayan de Oro City), focussed on how to make the anti-terror law, or the Human Security Act (HSA) of 2007, more acceptable to the public. <ref>[http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/nation/view_article.php?article_id=75094 Inquirer.net, SC slates summit on extrajudicial killings]</ref><ref>[http://www.gmanews.tv/story/49959/SC-slates-summit-on-extrajudicial-killings GMA NEWS.TV, Chief Justice unfazed by Palace meet]</ref>

[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]

[[Category:19th century]]

On July 16, 2007, Justices, activists, militant leaders, police officials, politicians and prelates attended the Supreme Court's two-day summit at the Manila Hotel in [[Manila City]] to map out ways to put an end to the string of extrajudicial killings in the [[Philippines]]. Bayan was set to launch their "[[silent protest]]", but expressed support for the high court's initiative. Director Geary Barias, chief of the police's anti-killings Task Force Usig, Sen. Panfilo Lacson, [[Manila Mayor Alfredo Lim]], Caloocan Bishop Deogracias Yñiguez, re-elected party-list Representatives Satur Ocampo (Bayan Muna) and Crispin Beltran (Anakpawis) attended. Supreme Court Chief Justice Reynato Puno said that the "National Consultative Summit on Extrajudicial Killings and Forced Disappearances: Searching for Solutions," would help stop the murders. Delegates were given 12 to 15 minutes each to share their insights and knowledge about the matter. Yniguez accused the government of failing to actively pursue investigations on the hundreds of killings and the Catholic Church was alarmed that victims have been denied their "fundamental right" to live.

[[Category:20th century]]

[[Category:Ethics]]

Based on Yniguez-church's count, the number of victims of extrajudicial killings has reached 778, while survivors of "political assassinations," was pegged at 370. He also noted 203 "massacre" victims, 186 people who involuntarily disappeared, 502 tortured, and others who were illegally arrested. Yniguez similarly criticized the government's alleged insistence on implementing its Oplan Bantay Laya I and II (the military's counter-insurgency operation plans which militants have said consider legal people's organizations as targets).

Meanwhile, Bayan urged the Supreme Court to "check serious threats to civil liberties and basic freedoms" including the anti-terror law or the Human Security Act of 2007, which took effect on July 15 despite protests from leftist groups.

Vice President Teofisto Guingona Jr. will join Bayan and other leftist groups as petitioners in their formal pleading before the Supreme Court challenging the constitutionality of the law. Human rights lawyer Atty. Edre Olalia of the International Association of People’s Lawyers (IAPL) will serve as lead counsel. Bayan chair Carol Araullo said the respondents will include members of the Anti-Terrorism Council headed by Executive Secretary Eduardo Ermita and Raul Gonzalez. Earlier, [CBCP president Angel Lagdameo] pointed out at least 5 provisions of the law that may threaten civil liberties: Sec. 19 allows detentions of mere suspects for more than three days in the event of an actual or terrorist attack, while Section 26 allows house arrest despite the posting of bail, and prohibits the right to travel and to communicate with others; Sec. 39 allows seizure of assets while Sec. 7 allows surveillance and wiretapping of suspects; Sec. 26 allows the investigation of bank deposits and other assets. <ref>[http://www.gmanews.tv/story/51197/Justices-activists-prelates-map-out-ways-to-end-killings GMA NEWS.TV, Justices, activists, prelates map out ways to end killings]</ref>

===United Kingdom (UK)===

In [[Northern Ireland]], various [[paramilitary]], [[terrorist]], [[quasi-political]], [[pseudo-religious]], and ''ad hoc'' state institutions killed without lawful excuse during [[The Troubles]].

<ref> http://www.btinternet.com/~chief.gnome/gordon16.htm </ref>

<ref> http://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/WR93/Hsw-09.htm </ref> <ref> http://www.sptimes.com/2007/06/24/Opinion/A_grim_lesson_from_Ul.shtml </ref> <ref> http://naclaoimhtesolais.com/Reject%20The%20PSNI.htm </ref>

In [[England]] ''ad hoc'' [[racist]] and [[criminal]] [[gangs]] are also believed to behind most of the recent [[racist]] and [[Black-on-Black urban killings]]. The British state has apparently paid little attention to either the problems of [[gangland]] or [[racist killing]]s in the UK. <ref> http://customxml.com/rssnews/index.php?blog=3&title=damilola_killer_loses_attempt_to_quash_c&more=1&c=1&tb=1&pb=1 </ref> <ref> http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/2773771.stm </ref>

<ref> http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1792334.stm </ref>

<ref> http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4791094.stm </ref>

<ref> http://kcl.ac.uk/phpnews/wmview.php?ArtID=982 </ref>

== Human rights groups==

Many [[human rights]] organisations like [[Amnesty International]] along with the [[UN]] are campaigning against extrajudicial punishment . <ref>

http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/ </ref>

<ref> http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=22046&Cr=rights&Cr1=council </ref>

<ref>http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAMR290151996?open&of=ENG-SLV</ref>

<ref>http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6814001/site/newsweek/</ref>

<ref>http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6802629/site/newsweek/</ref>

==In popular culture==

The subject of extrajudicial punishment was examined in the stage play and subsequent film '' [[A Few Good Men]] ''. In this film, two marines are put on trial for the death of another marine due to their administering of a ''[[Code Red]]'' (a [[military colloquial speech]] term for [[extrajudicial punishment]]) on him. The [[film]] sees the [[U.S. Marines]] acquitted of the crime, as it is shown that they were [[acting under orders from their superiors]], and therefore [[could not be held responsible for the consequences]].

== See also ==

* [[Assassination]]

* [[Death squad]]

* [[Extraordinary rendition]]

* [[Lynching]]

* [[Outlaw]]

* [[Human rights]]

* [[Summary execution]]

* [[Posse]]

* [[Prison rape]]

* [[Selective assassination]]

* [[Summary execution]]

* [[Summary justice]]

* [[Terrorism]]

* [[Vigilante]]

==External links==

===Monitoring organizations===

*[[Amnesty International]]

*[http://www.ansarburney.org/ Ansar Burney Trust] (Pakistan and the Middle East)

*[[Human Rights Watch]]

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Capital punishment]]

[[da:Socialdarwinisme]]

[[Category:Criminal law]]

[[de:Sozialdarwinismus]]

[[Category:Human rights abuses]]

[[fr:Darwinisme social]]

{{Category:Extrajudicial killings}}

[[he:%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D_%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%AA%D7%99]]

[[ja:社会進化論]]

[[nl:Sociaal Darwinisme]]

[[pl:Darwinizm spo&#322;eczny]]

[[fi:Sosiaalidarwinismi]]

[[sv:Socialdarwinism]]

[[zh:社会达尔文主义]]