Mercury-Atlas 5 and Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948: Difference between pages
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The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 sometimes known as the '''First Kashmir War''' was a war fought between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] over the region of [[Kashmir]] from [[1947]] to [[1949]]. It was the first of the many wars fought among the two newly independent nations.
==Cause==
The state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] had been part of India since time immemorial. It was one of a number of Indian states that recognised British paramountcy. Prior to the withdrawal of the British from India, the state came under pressure from both India and Pakistan to join their states. The [[Maharaja]] of Kashmir, [[Hari Singh]] wanted to remain independent and tried to delay the issue. However at the time of British withdrawal the state was invaded by a concentrated force of Pakistani-backed irregulars and regular Pakistani soldiers. This forced him to accede Kashmir to India who promptly rushed into Kashmir and thus the war had started.
==Summary of War==
The AZK had several advantages in the war, notably:
*Prior to the war the Jammu and Kashmir state forces had been spread thinly around the border as a response to terrorist activity, and so were badly deployed to counter a full scale invasion.
*Some of the state forces rebelled and joined the invaders.
*The AZK were also aided by regular Pakistani soldiers who manned some of their units, with the proportion increasing throughout the war.
*British officers may have helped the Pakistanis plan the attack.
As a result of these advantages the main invasion force quickly brushed aside the Jammu and Kashmir state forces. But the attacker’s advantage was not vigorously pressed and the Indians saved the country by airlifting reinforcements. This was at the price of the state formally succeeding to India. With Indian reinforcements the Pakistani / AZK offensive ran out of steam towards the end of 1947. The exception to this was in the High Himalayas sector where the AZK were able to make substantial progress until turned back at the outskirts of Leh in late June 1948. Throughout 1948 many small-scale battles were fought. None of these gave a strategic advantage to either side and the fronts gradually solidified. Support for the AZK forces by Pakistan became gradually more overt with regular Pakistani units becoming involved. A formal cease-fire was declared on [[31 December]], 1948.
==Results of the War==
The independent state of Jammu and Kashmir ceased to exist. The cease fire line has over the years became a de facto division of the country. This has given about one third of the land area to Pakistan and about two thirds to India. The Indians retained control of the relatively wealthy and populous Kashmir Valley, and a majority of the population. In [[1956]], this area became the state of Jammu and Kashmir in the India union.
==Stages of the War==
This war has been split into ten stages by time. The individual stages are detailed below.
===Initial Invasion 22 Oct 1947 – 26 Oct 1947 (Op Gulmarg)===
[[Image:J&K01low.jpg|Initial Invasion 22 Oct 1947 – 26 Oct 1947 (Op Gulmarg)]]<br>
A large invasion of the Kashmir valley was mounted by the irregular forces, aimed at Srinagar, the capital of Jammu and Kashmir. The state forces were defeated and the way to the capital, ([[Srinagar]]), was open. There was also a mutiny by state forces in favour of the AZK in Domel.
In desperation, Hari Singh, the ruler of Kashmir requested the Indian Government for Indian troops to stop the uprising. The Indians told him that if Singh signed an Instrument of Accession allowing Kashmir to join the Indian Union, only then would India rush in troops for the protection of one of its territories. This, the Maharaja promptly did. Following this accession, the Indian troops arrived and quickly blocked the advance of the invaders, preventing the imminent sacking of Srinigar.
However, many of the irregular forces went home with their loot after plundering local towns and thus failed to press the attack home. In the Punch valley the Jammu and Kashmir state forces retreated into towns and were besieged.
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===Indian defence of the Kashmir Valley 27 Oct 1947 – 17 Nov 1947===
[[Image:J&K02low.jpg|Indian defence of the Kashmir Valley 27 Oct 1947 – 17 Nov 1947]]<br>
Indian forces, rapidly airlifted to Srinagar managed to defeat the irregular forces on the outskirts of the town. This was partially due to an outflanking manoeuvre by armoured cars. Shattered, the AZK were pursued as far as Baramula and Uri and these towns were recaptured. In the Punch valley the sieges of the loyal Jammu and Kashmir state forces continued. Meanwhile, the troops in Gilgit (the Gilgit Scouts) mutinied and this yielded most of the far north of the state to the AZK.
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=== Attempted link-up at Punch 18 Nov 1947 – 26 Nov 1947===
[[Image:J&K03low.jpg|Attempted link-up at Punch 18 Nov 1947 – 26 Nov 1947]]<br>
The Indian forces ceased their pursuit of the shattered AZK forces and swung south in an attempt to relieve Punch. This was less successful than hoped, because inadequate reconnaissance had underestimated the difficulty of the roads. Although the relief column eventually reached Punch, the siege could not be lifted. A second relief column reached only Kotli and was forced to evacuate its garrison. Mirpur was captured by the AZK and its inhabitants particularly the Hindus were slaughtered.
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===Fall of Jhanger and attacks on Naoshera and Uri 25 Nov 1947 - 6 Feb 1948===
[[Image:J&K04low.jpg|Fall of Jhanger and attacks on Naoshera and Uri 25 Nov 1947 - 6 Feb 1948]]<br>
The Pakistani/AZK forces attacked and captured Jhanger. They then attacked Naoshera unsuccessfully. In both areas they killed and raped not only Hindus but any muslims who were against them. Other Pakistani/AZK forces made a series of unsuccessful attacks on Uri. In the south a minor Indian attack secured Chhamb. By this stage of the war the front line began to stabilise as more Indian troops became available.
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===Op Vijay: counterattack to Jhanger 7 Feb 1948 - 1 May 1948===
[[Image:J&K05low.jpg| Op Vijay: counterattack to Jhanger 7 Feb 1948 - 1 May 1948]]<br>
The Indian forces launched a counterattack in the south recapturing Jhanger and Rajauri. In the Kashmir Valley the Pakistani/AZK forces continued attacking the Uri garrison. In the north Skardu was brought under siege by Pakistani/AZK forces.
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===Indian Spring Offensive 1 May 1948 - 19 May 1948===
[[Image:J&K06low.jpg|Indian Spring Offensive 1 May 1948 - 19 May 1948]]<br>
The Indians held onto Jhanger against numerous counterattacks from the AZK, who were increasingly supported by regular Pakistani Forces. In the Kashmir Valley the Indians attacked, recapturing Tithwail. The AZK made good progress in the High Himalayas sector, infiltrating troops to bring Leh under siege, capturing Kargil and defeating a relief column heading for Skardu.
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===Operations Gulab and Erase 19 May 1948 - 14 Aug 1948===
[[Image:J&K07low.jpg|Indian Spring Offensive 1 May 1948 - 19 May 1948]]<br>
The Indians continued to attack in the Kashmir Valley sector driving north to capture Keran and Gurais. They also repelled a counterattack aimed at Tithwail. In the Punch Valley the forces besieged in Punch broke out and temporarily linked up with the outside world again. The AZK made good progress in the High Himalayas sector and got to the outskirts of Leh and eventually captured Skardu. However an attempt to take the town of Leh itself was unsuccessful.
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===Operation Duck 15 Aug 1948 - 1 Nov 1948===
[[Image:J&K08low.jpg|Operation Duck 15 Aug 1948 - 1 Nov 1948]]<br>
During this time the front began to settle down with less activity by either side, the only major event was an unsuccessful attack by the Indians towards Dras (Operation Duck). The siege of Punch continued.
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===Operation Easy. Punch link-up 1 Nov 1948 - 26 Nov 1948===
[[Image:J&K09low.jpg|Operation Easy. Punch link-up 1 Nov 1948 - 26 Nov 1948]]<br>
The Indians now started to get the upper hand in all sectors. Punch was finally relieved after a siege of over a year. The AZK forces in the High Himalayas, who had previously made good progress, were finally defeated. The Indians pursued as far as Kargil before being forced to halt due to supply problems. The Zoji-La pass was forced by using tanks (which had not been thought possible at that altitude) and Dras was recaptured. The use of tanks was based on experience gained in Burma in 1945.
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===Moves up to cease-fire. 27 Nov 1948 - 31 Dec 1948===
[[Image:J&K10low.jpg| Moves up to cease-fire. 27 Nov 1948 - 31 Dec 1948]]<br>
Realising that they were not going to make any further progress in any sector, the Pakistanis decided to end the war. A UN cease-fire was arranged for the 31st Dec 1948. A few days before the cease-fire the Pakistanis launched a counter attack, which cut the road between Uri and Punch.
After protracted negotiations a cease-fire was agreed to by both countries, which came into effect. The terms of the cease-fire as laid out in the UNCIP resolution (http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/uncom1.htm) of [[August 13]], 1948 were adopted by the UN on [[January 5]], 1949. This required Pakistan to withdraw her forces, both regular and irregular, while allowing India to maintain minimum strength of her forces in the state to preserve law and order. On compliance of these conditions a plebiscite was to be held to determine the future of the territory. In all, 1,500 soldiers died on each side during the war and Pakistan was able to acquire roughly two-fifths of Kashmir. (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/indo-pak_1947.htm)
==Military insights gained from the war.==
===On the use of armour===
The use of light tanks and armoured cars was important at two stages of the war. Both of these Indian victories involved very small numbers of AFVs. These were:-
*The defeat of the initial thrust at Srinagar, which was aided by the arrival of 2 armoured cars in the rear of the irregular forces.
*The forcing of the Zoji-La pass with 11 Stuart M5 light tanks.
This may show that armour can have a significant psychological impact if it turns up at places thought of as impossible.
It is also likely that the invaders did not deploy anti-tank weapons to counter these threats. Even the lightest weapons will significantly encumber leg infantry units, so they may well have been perceived as not worth the effort of carrying about, and left in rear areas. This will greatly enhance the psychological impact of the armour when it does appear.
The successful use of armour in this campaign strongly influenced Indian tactics in the 1962 war where great efforts were made to deploy armour to inhospitable regions (although with much less success in that case).
===Progression of front lines===
*It is interesting to chart the progress of the front lines. After a certain troop density is reached progress was very slow with victories being counted in the capture of individual villages or peaks. Where troop density was lower (as it was in the High Himalayas sector and at the start of the war) rates of advance can be very high.
===Deployment of forces===
*The Jammu and Kashmir state forces were spread out in small packets along the frontier to deal with terrorist incidents. This made them very vulnerable to a conventional attack. India used this tactic against East Pakistan in 1971.
==References==
===Major Sources===
*“Operations In Jammu and Kashmir 1947-1948” Ministry of Defence, Government of India, Thomson Press (India) Limited. New Delhi 1987. This is the Indian Official History, and was the major source for this work.
*“The Indian Army After Independence”, by KC Praval, 1993. Lancer International, 1-897829-45-0
*“Slender Was The Thread: The Kashmir confrontation 1947-1948”, by Maj Gen LP Sen, 1969. Orient Longmans Ltd New Delhi.
*“Without Baggage: A personal account of the Jammu and Kashmir Operations 1947-1949” Lt Gen. E. A. Vas. 1987. Natraj Publishers Dehradun. ISBN 81-85019-09-6.
===Other Sources===
*“The Indian Armour: History Of The Indian Armoured Corps 1941-1971”, by Maj Gen Gurcharn Sandu, 1987, Vision Books Private Limited, New Delhi, ISBN 81-7094-004-4.
*“Thunder over Kashmir”, by Lt Col Maurice Cohen. 1955 Orient Longman Ltd. Hyderabad
*“Battle of Zoji La”, by Brig Gen SR Hinds, Military Digest, New Delhi, 1962.
*“History of Jammu and Kashmir Rifles (1820-1956)”, by Maj K Barhma Singh, Lancer International New Dehli, 1990, ISBN 81-7062-091-0.
==See also==
*[[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]]
*[[Partition of India]]
[[Category:Indo-Pakistan Wars]]
[[Category:Kashmir]]
[[Category:1947]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir]]
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