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:''This article is about the city in Peru. For other meanings, see [[Tacna (disambiguation)]].''
[[ca:Colom, Cristòfor]] [[da:Christoffer Columbus]] [[de:Christoph Columbus]] [[eo:Kristoforo KOLUMBO]] [[es:Cristóbal Colón]] [[fi:Christopher Columbus]] [[fr:Christophe Colomb]] [[ja:コロンブス]] [[nl:Christoffel Columbus]] [[pl:Krzysztof Kolumb]] [[sv:Christofer Columbus]]
[[ta:கொலம்பஸ்]]
<div style="float:right;margin-left:15px;margin-right:6px;
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[[Image:Columbus.jpg|Christopher Columbus]]<br>
''Christopher Columbus''
</div>
'''Christopher ColumbusTacna''' (is a city in southern [[1451Peru]] -and the [[Mayregional 20capital]], of the [[1506Tacna Region]]). wasIt anis explorerlocated and trader, who crossedon the [[AtlanticAtacama OceanDesert]], andinland reachedfrom the [[AmericasPacific Ocean]] inand 1492 underon the flagvalley of [[Castile]]the ([[SpainCaplina River]]). HeTacna hadis beena searchingvery forcommercially aactive newcity, routelocated toonly the35 Asiankm [[Indies]](21 andmi) wasnorth convincedfrom hethe hadborder foundwith it[[Chile]].
Tacna is one of the most [[patriotism|patriotic]] cities in Peru, with many monuments and streets named after heroes of Peru's struggle for independence ([[1821]]-[[1824]]) and the [[War of the Pacific]] ([[1879]]-[[1883]]). Residents of Tacna are known in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] as ''tacneños''.
He was probably [[Genoa, Italy|Genoese]], and his name in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] is ''Cristóbal Colón'', and in [[Italian language|Italian]] ''Cristoforo Colombo''.
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=250 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+ <big>'''Tacna'''</big>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 |
{|
|-
| align=center width=135 | [[Image:Tacna coat of arms.png|100px|Coat of arms of Tacna, Peru]]
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| align=center width=135 | City coat of arms
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|-
| align=center colspan=2 | <small>''City [[nickname]]: "La Ciudad Heroica"<br>("The Heroic City")''</small>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[Image:Location of the city of Tacna in Peru.png|Location of Tacna in Peru]]
|-
|<b>Founded</b>
|[[June 25]], [[1875]]
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|<b>[[Mayor]]</b>
|Jacinto Gómez
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| '''[[Population]]'''<br> - Total
| <br>169,526 ([[1999]] estimate)
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| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-5
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| '''[[Height]]'''
| 552 m (1811 ft)
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| align=center colspan=2 | '''Official website:''' [http://www.munitacna.gob.pe www.munitacna.gob.pe]
|-
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==History==
Columbus was made governor of the new territories and made several more journeys across the Atlantic. While regarded by some as an excellent [[navigation|navigator]], he was seen as a poor administrator and was stripped of his governorship in 1500.
[[Francisco Antonio De Zela]], a royal accountant (similar in function to a modern-day income tax auditor), initiated the push for Peruvian Independence from [[Spain]] in [[1811]] in Tacna, leading to a series of commemorative actions for the city, culminating in the [[1828]] declaration of Tacna as the "Heroic City" (''"La Heroica Ciudad de San Pedro de Tacna"'') by President [[José de La Mar]].
Tacna's economic prosperity attracted a wave of [[Italy|Italian]] immigrants who arrived in the city during the mid [[19th century]], which is the reason why many ''tacneños'' have Italian surnames. This era of successful commerce and agriculture ended drastically with the start of the [[War of the Pacific]].
Columbus is a controversial figure; some, especially [[Native Americans]], view him as responsible, directly or indirectly, for exploitation of the Americas by Europe, slavery in the West Indies, and the deaths of tens of thousands of [[indigenous people]]s. Others honor him for his massive impact on Western civilization.
[[Image:Downtown Tacna.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Downtown Tacna]]
During the war, the cities of Tacna and [[Arica]] were invaded by the [[Chile]]an Army. A peace agreement, the [[Treaty of Ancón]], was signed in [[1883]]. Under the terms of the treaty, Chile was to occupy the provinces of Tacna and Arica for 10 years, after which a plebiscite was to be held to determine their nationality. Tacna lived a period of captivity for 50 years; the invaders started a [[campaign]] of "Chilenization", whose purpose was to convince the local population of accepting Chile as the new ruling power, and make them lose their Peruvian identity.
Nevertheless, the [[patriotism]] of the ''tacneños'' hindered the Chilean attempts of gaining their sympathy, which was needed for getting their vote at the plebiscite. The plebiscite was never held, though. Finally, in [[1929]], an accord was reached by which Chile kept Arica; Peru reacquired Tacna and received $6 million indemnity and other concessions.
Columbus is often credited as the discoverer of the Americas, because of his role in making [[15th century]] [[Europe]] aware of their existence; it is his discovery that created the still-existing bonds between the continents.
Today, Tacna is a mostly commercial city with many immigrants from the [[Puno Region]] living there. Its economy is based on mercantile activities with the north of Chile (Arica and [[Iquique]]). Since it is part of a [[duty free]] zone, Tacna has come to rival [[Arequipa]] as Southern Peru's main business area. The city has one of the largest artifact markets in the world, with things from [[Japan]] to [[China]], and also traditional Peruvian handicrafts.
Obviously, Columbus was not the first person to reach the Americas, which he found already populated. Nor was he the first European to reach the continent, as [[Viking]]s from Northern Europe had visited North America in the [[11th century]]. It was, however, Columbus's voyage that marked the beginning of the [[European colonization of the Americas]], and that linked Eurasia and Africa to the Americas.
==Tourist Early life attractions==
Many monuments are located in this city, including the arch of the [[Alto de la Alianza]], which shows the significance of this town.
''Note: There are various versions of Columbus's origins and life before 1476. (see '[[#Columbus's National Origin: Subject of Debate|Columbus's National Origin]]'). What is shown here is the account supported by most historians.''
[[Image:Tacna Plaza de Armas.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Plaza de Armas]]]]
Other monuments include a neo-[[Renaissance]] Cathedral, the Alameda Bolognesi Walkway and the caves of [[Toquepala]], where [[archaeology|archaeologists]] have found some of the oldest human remains in [[Peru]].
==Festivities==
The most important festivity in the city is the ''Semana de Tacna'' ("Tacna Week"), which runs from [[August 25]]-[[August 30|30]].
On [[August 28th]], a large [[Flag of Peru|Peruvian flag]] is shown throughout the city during the ''Paseo de la Bandera'', which celebrates the anniversary of the reincorporation of Tacna into Peruvian sovereignty and is one of the most important patriotic demonstrations in the whole country. This tradition started in [[1901]], during the [[Chile]]an occupation of Tacna, by a group of ''tacneños'' who defied the prohibition of showing Peruvian flags imposed by the Chilean authorities.
Columbus was born around September in the year 1451, in the Italian port city of [[Genoa]]. His father was Domenico Colombo, a woolens merchant, and his mother was Suzanna Fontanarossa, the daughter of a woolens merchant. Christopher had 3 younger brothers, Bartolomeo, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo, and a sister, Bianchinetta.
There is an agrarian and industrial fair as part of these celebrations.
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[[Image:colombus_genoa_small.jpg]]
<br>''Columbus monument in Genoa.''
<br><i>[[Media:colombus_genoa.jpg|Larger version]]</i>
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In September, the festival of the [[Señor de Locumba]] is celebrated, which draws thousands of faithful people from all over the world.
In [[1470]], the family moved to [[Savano]], where Christopher worked for his father in wool processing. During this period he studied cartography with his brother Bartolomeo. Christopher received almost no formal education; a voracious reader, he was largely self-taught.
In [[1474]], Columbus joined a ship of the [[Spenola Financiers]], who were Genoese patrons of his father. He spent a year on a ship bound towards [[Khios]] (an island in the [[Aegean Sea]]) and, after a brief visit home, spent a year in Khios. During this period the islands of the Aegean were under the control of the [[Turks]], who had conquered [[Constantinople]] on [[May 29]], [[1453]].
==External links==
A [[1476]] commercial expedition gave Columbus his first opportunity to sail into the Atlantic Ocean. The fleet came under attack by [[French privateers]] off the [[Cape of St. Vincent]]. Colombus's ship was burned and he swam six miles to shore.
* {{es icon}} [http://www.munitacna.gob.pe Municipalidad Provincia de Tacna] - Tacna Province Council
* {{es icon}} [http://www.radiouno.com.pe Radio Uno] - Local news radio station
[[Category:Cities in Peru]]
By [[1477]], Colombus was living in [[Lisbon]]. [[Portugal]] had become a center for maritime activity with ships sailing for [[England]], [[Ireland]], [[Iceland]], [[Madeira]], [[Azores|the Azores]], and [[Africa]]. Columbus' brother Bartolomeo worked as a mapmaker in Lisbon. At times, the brothers worked together as draftsmen and book collectors.
[[de:Tacna]]
He became a merchant sailor with the Portuguese fleet, and sailed to [[Iceland]] via [[Ireland]] in [[1477]], to [[Madeira]] in [[1478]] to purchase sugar, and along the coasts of West Africa between 1482 and 1485, reaching the Portuguese trade post [[São Jorge da Mina]] at the Guinea coast.
[[es:Tacna]]
[[pt:Tacna]]
Columbus married Felipa Perestello e Moniz, a daughter from a noble but impoverished Portuguese family, in [[1479]]. Their son Diego was born in [[1480]], and Felipa died in [[1485]]. Columbus then met Beatriz Enriquez and the two had a son, Ferdinand, in [[1488]], but they were never married.
== The idea ==
By the 1480s, Columbus had developed a plan to travel to the [[Indies]] (then roughly meaning all of south and east [[Asia]]) by sailing west across the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], rather than by going south and east around [[Africa]]. It is sometimes claimed that the reason Columbus had a hard time receiving support for this plan was that Europeans believed in a [[flat earth]]. In fact, that the Earth is spherical was evident to most people of his time, especially other sailors and navigators. The problem was that the experts did not agree with Columbus's estimates of the distance to the Indies. Most Europeans accepted [[Ptolemy]]'s claim that the terrestrial landmass (for Europeans of the time, Eurasia and Africa) occupied 180 degrees of the terrestrial sphere, leaving 180 degrees of water (in fact, it occupies about 120 degrees, leaving 240 degrees unaccounted for at that time). Columbus accepted the calculations of d'Ailly, that the land-mass occupied 225 degrees, leaving only 135 degrees of water. Moreover, Columbus believed that one degree actually covered less space on the earth's surface than commonly believed. Finally, Columbus read maps as if the distances were calculated in Roman miles (5,000 feet) rather than [[nautical mile]]s (6,082.66 feet at the equator). Columbus concluded that the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan was 2,700 miles. In fact, the distance is about 13,000 miles, and most European sailors and navigators concluded that the Indies were too far away to make his plan worth considering. They were right and Columbus was wrong -- but, ultimately, extraordinarily fortunate.
== First voyage ==
Columbus first presented his plan to the court of [[Portugal]] in [[1485]]. The king's experts believed that the route would be longer than Columbus thought (the actual distance is even longer than the Portuguese believed), and denied Columbus's request. Columbus then tried to get backing from [[Spain]]. After several years of lobbying at the Spanish court he was finally successful in 1492. The Spanish king and queen, [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand of Aragon]] and [[Isabella I of Castile|Isabella of Castile]] had just conquered [[Granada]], the last [[Muslim]] stronghold on the [[Iberian peninsula]], and they received Colombus in [[Cordoba, Spain]] (in the kings' Alcazar) and they agreed to have an expedition sent out to the West. About half of the financing was to come from private investors, which Columbus had already lined up. Columbus was made Admiral of the High Seas and granted an inheritable governorship to the new territories he would discover, as well as a portion of all profits.
That year, on the evening of August 3, Columbus left from [[Palos]] with three ships, the ''[[Santa Maria]]'', ''[[Niña]]'' and ''[[Pinta]]''. He first sailed to the [[Canary Islands]], where he stayed for a month, and then he started the five week voyage across the ocean. He faked the logbook to make his crew believe they had covered a smaller distance than they actually had. There is still much discussion about which island he reached, but at least it is quite certain that it was one of the [[Bahamas]] (landing was on [[October 12]], [[1492]]).
The [[Native Americans]] he encountered, the [[Taino|Taíno]] or [[Arawak]], were peaceful and friendly. In his log for [[October 14]], 1492, Columbus drafted a letter to Ferdinand and Isabella concerning the Taíno:
:When your highnesses should so command, all of them can be brought to Castile, or be kept captive on their own island, for with fifty men you will keep them all in subjugation and make them do anything you wish.
On this first voyage, Columbus also explored the northeast coast of [[Cuba]] (landed on [[October 28]]) and the northern coast of [[Hispaniola]]. Here the ''Santa Maria'' ran aground and had to be abandoned. Columbus founded the settlement ''La Navidad'' and left 39 men.
On [[January 4]], [[1493]] he set sail for home and after a stormy voyage he had no choice but to land in Portugal. The relations between Portugal and Castille were poor at the time, and he was held up, but finally released. He reached Spain on [[March 15]] and displayed the gold he had found as well as several kidnapped natives to the court. He also described the previously unknown [[tobacco]], [[pineapple]] and [[hammock]].
He was received as a hero. Word of his discovery of new lands rapidly spread.
== Second voyage ==
He left for his second voyage ([[1493]]-[[1496]]) on [[September 24]] [[1493]], with 17 ships carrying supplies and about 1200 men to assist in the subjugation of the Taíno and the colonization of the region.
He laid his course more southerly than on his first voyage, first sighting [[Dominica]], which is quite rugged, so he turned north, discovering and naming [[Guadeloupe]], [[Montserrat]], [[Antigua]], and [[Nevis]] in the [[Lesser Antilles]], landing on them and claiming them for Spain as he did the [[Virgin Islands]] and [[Puerto Rico]]. He then went to [[Hispaniola]], where he found his colonists had fallen into dispute with Indians in the interior and had been killed. He established a new settlement at Isabella, on the north coast of Hispaniola where [[gold]] had first been discovered; it was a poor ___location and the settlement was short-lived. He spent some time exploring the interior of the island for gold and did find some, establishing a small fort in the interior. He explored the south coast of [[Cuba]] but did not round the western end, thus convincing himself that it was a peninsula rather than an island, and discovered [[Jamaica]].
Before he left on his second voyage he had been directed by Ferdinand and Isabella to maintain friendly, even loving relations with the natives. However, during his second voyage he sent a letter to the monarchs proposing to enslave some of the native peoples, specifically the [[Carib]]s, on the grounds of their aggressiveness. Although his petition was refused by the Crown, in [[February]], [[1495]] Columbus took 1600 [[Arawak]] as slaves. 550 slaves were shipped back to Spain; two hundred died en route, probably of disease, and of the remainder half were ill when they arrived. After legal proceedings, the survivors were released and ordered to be shipped back home. Some of the 1600 were kept as slaves for Columbus's men. The remaining 400, who Columbus had no use for, were let go and fled into the hills, making, according to Columbus, prospects for their future capture dim. Rounding up the slaves resulted in the first major battle between the Spanish and the Indians in the new world.
The main objective of Columbus' journey had been gold. To further this goal, he imposed a system on the natives in [[Cicao]] on [[Haiti]], whereby all those above fourteen years of age had to find a certain quota of gold, which would be signified by a token placed around their necks. Those who failed to reach their quota would have their hands chopped off. Despite such extreme measures, Columbus did not manage to obtain much gold. One of the primary reasons for this was the native susceptibility to European diseases which they had no immunity towards.
In his letters to the Spanish king and queen, Columbus would repeatedly suggest slavery as a way to profit from the new discoveries, but these suggestions were all rejected: the monarchs preferred to view the natives as future members of Christendom.
More importantly, Columbus oversaw the establishment of the ''[[encomienda]]'' (trusteeship) system, by which Spaniards were granted exclusive use of Indian labor in return for converting them to Christianity; this policy amounted to enslavement of the local population. In some cases, Indians were worked to death; in other cases they died due to newly introduced diseases and malnutrition. Estimates of the pre-Columbian population vary enormously; see fuller discussion at [[Taino#Columbus_and_the_Taíno|Taino]]. Cook and Borah (see [[#References|references]] below) estimated the native population (Taíno) of Hispanola at the time of Columbus's conquest in 1493 at 8,000,000, probably the highest estimate. In 1496 [[Bartolome de las Casas]] conducted a census after the conquest and initial impostion of the ''encomienda'' system, arriving at an estimate of only 3,000,000 Taíno. A Spanish census in 1514 records only 22,000 Taíno, and a census in 1542 recorded only 200. Columbus established his brothers as commanders of the settlements and left Hispaniola for [[Europe]] on [[March 10]], [[1496]]; they and other Spanish conquerors employed the ''encomienda'' system developed by Columbus with similar results elsewhere in the Americas.
==Third voyage and arrest==
In [[1498]], Columbus left for the New World a third time, accompanied by the young [[Bartolome de Las Casas]], who would later provide partial transcripts of Columbus's logs. This time he discovered the island of [[Trinidad]] ([[July 31]]) and the mainland of [[South America]], including the [[Orinoco]] River, before returning to Hispaniola. Initially, he described the new lands as belonging to a previously unknown new continent, but later he retreated to his position that they belonged to Asia.
Many of the Spanish settlers of the new colony were discontent, having been misled by Columbus about the supposedly bountiful riches of the new world. Columbus repeatedly had to deal with rebellious settlers and Indians. He had some of his crew hanged for disobeying him. A number of returned settlers and friars lobbied against Columbus at the Spanish court, accusing him of mismanagement. The king and queen sent the royal administrator [[Francisco de Bobadilla]] in [[1500]], who upon arrival detained Columbus and his brothers and had them shipped home. Columbus refused to have his shackles removed on the trip to Spain, during which he wrote a long and pleading letter to the Spanish monarchs.
Although he regained his freedom, he did not regain his prestige and lost his governorship. As an added insult, the Portuguese had won the race to the Indies: [[Vasco da Gama]] returned in September [[1499]] from a trip to [[India]], having sailed east around Africa.
==Last voyage and later life==
Nevertheless he made a fourth voyage, in [[1502]]-[[1504]] (he left Spain on [[May 9]], 1502). On this voyage, accompanied by his younger son Ferdinand, he explored the coast of [[Central America]] from [[Belize]] to [[Panama]]. In [[1502]], off the coast of what is now [[Honduras]], a trading ship as "long as a galley" was encountered, filled with cargo. This was the first recorded encounter by the Spanish with the [[Native American]] civilization of [[Mesoamerica]]. Later Columbus was stranded on [[Jamaica]] for a year; he sent two men by [[canoe]] to get help from Hispaniola; in the meantime, he impressed the local population by correctly predicting an eclipse of the moon. Help finally arrived, and he returned to Spain in 1504.
While Columbus had always given the conversion of non-believers as one reason for his explorations, he grew increasingly religious in his later years. He claimed to hear divine voices, lobbied for a new [[crusade]] to capture [[Jerusalem]], often wore [[Franciscan]] habit, and described his discoveries of the "paradise" as part of God's plan which would soon result in the [[Christian eschatology|Last Judgment]] and the end of the world.
In his later years Columbus demanded that the Spanish Crown give him 10% of all profits made in the new lands, pursuant to earlier agreements. Because he had been relieved of his duties as governor, the crown felt not bound by these contracts and his demands were rejected. His family later sued for part of the profits from trade with America, but ultimately lost some fifty years later.
On May 20, [[1506]], Columbus died in Spain, still convinced that his discoveries were along the East Coast of [[Asia]]. Even after his death, his travels continued: first interred in [[Valladolid]] and then in [[Seville]], the will of his son Diego, who had been governor of Hispaniola, had the corpse transferred to [[Santo Domingo]] in [[1542]]. In [[1795]] the French took over, and the corpse was moved to [[Havana]]. After the war of 1898, [[Cuba]] became independent and Columbus' remains were moved back to Spain, to the cathedral of [[Seville]]. However, some claim that he is still buried in the cathedral of Santo Domingo.
== Columbus's National Origin: Subject of Debate ==
There has been doubt about Columbus's national origin. Although he is generally assumed to be Genoese, his actual background is clouded in mystery. Very little is really known about Columbus before the mid-[[1470s]]. It has been suggested that this might have been because he was hiding something - an event in his origin or history that he kept a secret deliberately. It has also been noted that he not only wrote flawless [[Spanish language|Castilian]], but that he used the language even when writing with Italians.
The issue of Columbus's 'nationality' became an issue after the rise of [[Nationalism]]; the issue was scarcely raised until the time of the cinquecentennial celebrations in 1892 (see [[World Columbian Exposition|Columbian exposition]]), when Columbus' Genoese origins became a point of pride for some [[Italian-American]]s. In [[New York City]], rival statues of Columbus were underwritten by the Hispanic and the Italian communities, and honorable positions had to be found for each, at Columbus Circle and in [[Central Park]].
Some Basque historians have claimed that he was a [[Basque]]. Others have said that he was a ''[[converso]]'' (Spanish Jew converted to Christianity). In Spain, even converted Jews were much mistrusted; it was suggested that many conversos were still practicing [[Judaism]] in secrecy, Another theory is that he was from the island of [[Corsica]], which at the time was part of the Genoan empire. Because the often subversive elements of the island gave its inhabitants a bad reputation, he would have masked his exact heritage. A few others also claim that Columbus was actually [[Catalonia|Catalan]], or [[Greece|Greek]], or [[Portugal|Portuguese]].
Its interesting to note also that there is a lot of speculation lately on his origin being from the island of [[Khios]](or Chios) in Greece. The main point of [http://www.grecoreport.com/christopher_columbus.htm this theory] is that Columbus never said he was from Genoa but from the Republic of Genoa.
The island of Khios was under the Genoese rule (1346 - 1566 AD) at the time of his birth and therefore it was part of the Republic of Genoa. A lesser known fact is that there exists a village named Pirgi in the island of Khios where to this day many of its inhabitants carry the surname "Colombus".
== Perceptions of Columbus ==
Christopher Columbus has had a cultural significance beyond his actual achievements and actions as an individual; he also became a symbol, a figure of legend. The mythology of Columbus has cast him as an archetype for both good and for evil.
The casting of Columbus as a figure of "good" or of "evil" often depends on people's perspectives as to whether the arrival of Europeans to the New World and the introduction of [[Christianity]] or the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] faith is seen as positive or negative.
=== Columbus as The Great Hero ===
Hero worship of Columbus perhaps reached its zenith around [[1892]], the 400th anniversary of his first arrival in the [[Americas]]. Monuments to Columbus were erected throughout the [[United States]] and [[Latin America]], extolling him as a hero.
The myth that Columbus thought the world round while his contemporaries believed in a [[flat earth]] was often repeated. This tale was used to show that Columbus was enlightened and forward looking. Columbus's defiance of convention in sailing west to get to the far east was hailed as a model of "American"-style can-do inventiveness.
In the United States, the glorification of Columbus was particularly embraced by some members of the Italian-American, Hispanic, and Catholic communities. These groups had been marginalized by the USA's dominant culture, so they proudly pointed to Columbus as one of their own to prove that Mediterranean Catholics could and did make great contributions to the USA.
=== Columbus as The Great Villain ===
Although Friar [[Bartolome de Las Casas]] wrote of Columbus's cruelties contemporaneously with Columbus, it was not until the [[1960s]] that Columbus increasingly became used as a symbol of all that was and is wrong with European [[imperialism]]--slavery, genocide, and the wholesale destruction of indigenous cultures. While Columbus cannot be blamed for all of European imperialism, some argue that the misdeeds Columbus committed as viceroy and governor of Spanish-occupied territories in the Americas between 1493 and 1500 are enough for him to be considered guilty of [[genocide]].
Much criticism focuses on the continuing positive Columbus myths and celebrations (such as [[Columbus Day]]) and their effects on American thought towards present-day Native Americans. Official celebrations of the 500th anniversary of Columbus's first voyage in [[1992]] were muted, and demonstrators protested marking the anniversary at all. It was in this spirit that [[Venezuela]]n President [[Hugo Chavez]] signed, in October, 2002, a decree changing the name of Venezuela's "Columbus Day" to "The Day of Indigenous Resistance" in honor of the nation's indigenous groups. (''For more, see [[Columbus Day]]'')
==References==
* [[Jack Forbes]], ''Columbus and Other Cannibals'', Autonomedia, 1992
* [[Samuel Eliot Morison]], ''[[Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus]]'', Little, Brown and Company, 1991, trade paperback, 680 pages, ISBN 0316584789 (9 other editions available both in hardback and paperback). A biography favorable to Columbus.
* [[Brian Fagan]]: ''Clash of the Cultures'', AltaMira Press 1997. Presents a less-favorable view.
* [[Felipe Fernandez-Armesto]]: ''[[Columbus (book)|Columbus]]'', Oxford University Press 1991. Scholarly work, careful to support all statements with sources.
* [[Sherburn Cook]] and [[Woodrow Borah]]: ''Essays in Population History Volume I'', University of California Press, 1971
* [[John Noble Wilford]] and [[Ashbel Green]], ''The mysterious history of Columbus :an exploration of the man, the myth, the legacy'', Knopf, 1991, hardcover: ISBN 0679404767, trade paperback: ISBN 0679738320. John Noble Green''(?)'' is a science editor at the New York Times.
==External links==
* [http://www.win.tue.nl/~engels/discovery/columbus.html The Columbus Links Page]
* [http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/cclandfl.htm The Columbus Landfall Homepage]
<br>
==See also:==
*[[Knights of Columbus]], [[exploration]], [[explorers]], [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]], [[Indian slavery]]
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