Industrial Revolution and Harold Macmillan: Difference between pages

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The '''Industrial Revolution''' was the major [[technology|technological]], [[socioeconomic]] and [[culture|cultural]] change in the late [[18th century|18th]] and early [[19th century]] resulting from the replacement of an economy based on manual labor to one dominated by industry and machine manufacture. It began in [[England]] with the introduction of [[steam engine|steam power]] (fueled primarily by [[coal]]) and powered [[machine|machinery]] (mainly in [[textile]] [[manufacturing]]). The development of all-metal [[machine tools]] in the first two decades of the nineteenth century enabled the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries.

|+ '''The Rt Hon. Harold Macmillan'''

|style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2"|

|-

|'''Period in Office:'''

|[[11 January]] [[1957]] – [[19 October]] [[1963]]

|-

|'''PM Predecessor:'''

|[[Anthony Eden]]

|-

|'''PM Successor:'''

|[[Alec Douglas-Home|The Earl of Home]]

|-

|'''Date of Birth:'''

|[[10 February]] [[1894]]

|-

|'''Place of Birth:'''

|[[Brixton]]

|-

|'''[[Political Party]]:'''

|[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]

|-

|'''Retirement honour:'''

|[[Order of Merit]]<br>[[Earl of Stockton|Earldom of Stockton]]<br>Viscountcy (Macmillan of Ovenden)

|}

[[The Right Honourable]] '''Maurice Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton''', [[Order of Merit|OM]], [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]] ([[10 February]] [[1894]]&ndash;[[29 December]] [[1986]]), [[nickname]]d "Supermac" and "Mac the Knife", was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] politician and [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] from [[1957]] to [[1963]].

The dating of the Industrial Revolution is not exact, but [[T.S. Ashton]] held it covers roughly [[1760]]-[[1830]], in effect the reigns of [[George III]], The [[Regency]], and part of [[William IV]]. There was no cut-off point for it merged into the [[Second Industrial Revolution]] from about [[1850]], when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered [[ship]]s, and [[railway]]s, and later in the nineteenth century the growth of the [[internal combustion engine]] and the development of [[Electric power|electrical power generation]].

==Early life==

The effects spread throughout [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]], eventually affecting the rest of the world. The impact of this change on [[society]] was enormous and is often compared to the [[Neolithic revolution]], when mankind developed [[agriculture]] and gave up its [[nomad|nomadic lifestyle]].

Macmillan was born in [[Brixton]]. His grandfather was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[croft (Scotland)|crofter]] who founded [[Macmillan Publishers]]. He was educated at [[Eton College|Eton]] and at [[Balliol College, Oxford]]. He served with distinction in [[WW I]], being wounded on three occasions.

The term industrial ''revolution'' was introduced by [[Friedrich Engels]] and [[Louis-Auguste Blanqui]] in the second half of the [[19th century]].

==Marriage==

[[Image:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|thumb|300px|A Watt steam engine in [[Madrid]]. The development of the [[steam engine]] started the industrial revolution in Great Britain. The steam engine was created to pump water from coal mines, enabling them to be deepened]]

He married [[Lady Dorothy Cavenish]], daughter of [[Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire]] in [[1920]].

They had one son [[Maurice Macmillan]], [[Viscount Macmillan of Ovenden]] and two daughters [[Lady Catherine Macmillan|Lady Amery of Lustleigh]] (who married the [[politician]] [[Julian Amery|Lord Amery of Lustleigh]]) and [[Lady Caroline Faber]], (who married the [[insurance agent]] [[Julian Faber]]). Lady Dorothy had a long affair with the Conservative politician [[Robert Boothby]], (with whom she had a daughter Sarah); she died in [[1966]], aged [[65]].

==Political Career==

==Causes==

Elected to the [[United Kingdom House of Commons|House of Commons]] in [[1924]] for [[Stockton-on-Tees]], he lost his seat in [[1929]] only to return in [[1931]]. In the [[1930s]] he was stuck on the backbenches, his leftish ideas and sharp criticism of [[Stanley Baldwin]] and [[Neville Chamberlain]] serving to isolate him. In [[World War II]] he was part of the wartime coalition government; he worked with the Ministry of Supply before being sent to North Africa in [[1942]] as British government representative to the Allies in the Mediterranean.

The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complex and remain a topic for debate, with some historians seeing the Revolution as an outgrowth of social and institutional changes wrought by the end of [[feudalism]] in [[Great Britain]] after the [[English Civil War]] in the [[17th century]]. The [[Inclosure]] movement and the [[British Agricultural Revolution]] made food production more efficient and less labor-intensive, forcing the surplus population who could no longer find employment in [[agriculture]] into the cities to seek work in the newly developed [[factory|factories]]. The [[colonial expansion]] of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international [[trade]], creation of [[financial market]]s and accumulation of [[Capital (economics)|capital]] are also cited as factors, as is the [[scientific revolution]] of the 17th century. But one of the main causes was the invention of the steam engine.

He returned to England post-war and lost his own seat in the massive electoral defeat of [[1945]]. He soon returned to Parliament in a November 1945 by-election for [[Bromley]]. When the Conservatives regained power in [[1951]] he was [[Minister of Housing]] (October [[1951]]) then [[Secretary of State for Defence|Minister of Defence]] (October [[1954]]) under [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] (April-December [[1955]]) and [[Chancellor of the Exchequer ]]([[1955]]-[[1957]]) under [[Anthony Eden]]. When Eden resigned in January 1957 he was succeeded by Macmillan on the 10th (despite many expecting [[Rab Butler]] to succeed instead) and Macmillan also became leader of the Conservative Party (22nd).

The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important catalyst of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other nations, such as [[France]], markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and [[tariff]]s on goods traded among them.

===Why Europe?=Government==

One question of active interest to historians is why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe and not other parts of the world, particularly [[China]]. Numerous factors have been suggested, including [[ecology]], [[government]], and [[culture]]. [[Benjamin Elman]] argues that China was in a [[high level equilibrium trap]] in which the nonindustrial methods were efficient enough to prevent use of industrial methods with high costs of capital. [[Kenneth Pomeranz]], in the ''Great Divergence'', argues that Europe and China were remarkably similar in 1700, and that the crucial differences which created the Industrial Revolution in Europe were: sources of [[coal]] near manufacturing centres and raw materials such as food and wood from the New World, which allowed Europe to expand economically in a way that China could not. Indeed, a combination of all of these factors is possible.

Macmillan brought the monetary concerns of the exchequer into office - the economy was his prime concern. However his approach to the economy was to seek high employment, whereas his treasury ministers argued that to support sterling required strict controls on money and hence a rise in unemployment. Their advice was rejected and in January [[1958]] all the Treasury ministers resigned. Macmillan brushed aside this incident as "a little local difficulty".

====Why did it start in Great Britain?====

Macmillan supported the creation of the [[National Incomes Commission]] as a means to institute controls on income as part of his growth without inflation policy, a further series of subtle indicators and controls were also introduced during his premiership.

[[Image:Philipp Jakob Loutherbourg d. J. 002.jpg|thumb|right|330px|[[Coalbrookdale]] at night, 1801 :<br> Artist: [[Philip James de Loutherbourg|Philipp Jakob Loutherbourg the Younger]]]]

Macmillan also took close control of foreign policy. He worked to narrow the rift post-[[Suez Crisis|Suez]] with the U.S., where his wartime friendship with [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] was useful, and the two had a pleasant conference in Bermuda as early as March [[1957]]. The better relationship remained after the ascent of [[John F. Kennedy]]. Macmillan also saw the value of a rapprochement with Europe and sought belated entry to the [[European Economic Community]] (EEC) as well as exploring the possibility of a [[European Free Trade Area]] (EFTA). In terms of the Empire Macmillan continued the divestment of the colonies, his "wind of change" speech (February [[1960]]) indicating his policy. [[Ghana]] and [[Malaya]] were granted independence in [[1957]], [[Nigeria]] in [[1960]] and [[Kenya]] in [[1963]]. However in the Middle East Macmillan ensured Britain remained a force - intervening over [[Iraq]] in [[1958]] and [[1960]] as well as becoming involved in [[Oman]].

The debate around the concept of the initial startup of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the lead of 30 to 100 years that the British had over the continental European countries and America. Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that the United Kingdom received from its many overseas [[colonies]] or that profits from the British [[slave trade]] between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment.

He led the Conservatives to victory in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1959|October 1959 general election]], increasing his party's majority from 67 to 107 seats. The election campaign had been based on the economic improvements achieved, the slogan "Life's Better Under the Conservatives" was matched by Macmillan's own remark, "most of our people have never had it so good" usually paraphrased as "You've never had it so good." The actual growth rate, compared to the rest of Europe, was weak and marked a relative decline distorted by high defence expenditure.

Alternatively, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have been able to utilise scientific and technological developments emerging in the United Kingdom and elsewhere more effectively than other countries with stronger monarchies, such as China and Russia. Great Britain emerged from the [[Napoleonic Wars]] as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, as well as possessing the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets having been destroyed during the war by the [[Royal Navy]]). The United Kingdom's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already open for many forms of early manufactured goods. The nature of conflict in the period resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest affecting much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain's geographical position - an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe.

Macmillan had a reputation for being unflappable in public. For example, on [[September 29]], [[1960]], [[Soviet]] leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] twice interrupted a speech by Macmillan at the [[United Nations]] by shouting out and pounding his desk. Macmillan famously replied: "I should like that to be translated if he wants to say anything."

Another theory believes that Great Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small geographical size. [[Inclosure|Enclosure]] of common land and the related [[British Agricultural Revolution|Agricultural revolution]] made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the [[North of England]] , the [[English Midlands]], [[South Wales]] and the [[Scottish Lowlands]]. Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power, gave excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry.

Following the technical failures of a British independent nuclear deterrent with the [[Blue Streak missile|Blue Streak]] and the [[Blue Steel missile|Blue Steel]] projects, Macmillan negotiated the supply of American [[Polaris missile]]s under the [[Nassau agreement]] in December [[1962]]. Previously he had agreed to base sixty [[Thor missile]]s in Britain under joint control, and since late [[1957]] the American [[McMahon Act]] had been eased to allow Britain more access to nuclear technology. These negotiations were the basis for [[Peter Cook]]'s satire of Macmillan in [[Beyond the Fringe]].

The stable political situation in Great Britain from around [[1688]], and British society's greater receptiveness to change (when compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution.

Macmillan was a major force in the successful negotiations leading to Britain, the U.S., and the Soviet Union signing the [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]] in [[1962]]. His previous attempt to create an agreement at the May [[1960]] summit in Paris had collapsed due to the [[U-2 Crisis of 1960|Gary Powers affair]].

====Protestant work ethic====

Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress, technology and hard work.^[[#Notes|1]] The existence of this class is often linked to the [[Protestant work ethic]] and the particular status of dissenting Protestant sects, such as the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]], [[Baptists]] and [[Presbyterians]] that had flourished with the [[English Civil War]]. Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed the establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Great Britain in the [[Glorious Revolution]] of [[1688]], and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the [[National debt|national debt]] by the [[Bank of England]], contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures.

Britain's application to join the EEC was vetoed by [[Charles de Gaulle]] ([[29 January]] [[1963]]), in part due to his fear that "the end would be a colossal Atlantic Community dependent on America" and in part in anger at the Anglo-American nuclear deal.

Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices as well as University education at Oxford and Cambridge, when the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official [[Anglican church]] became mandatory due to the [[Test Act]]. They became active in banking, manufacturing and the [[Unitarians]] in particular, were much involved in education by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences - area of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies.

Britain's [[balance of payments]] problems led to the imposition of a wage freeze in [[1961]]. This caused the government to lose popularity and led to a series of [[by-election]] defeats. He organised a major Cabinet change in July [[1962]] but he continued to lose support from within his party. During this time he was quoted, "Greater love hath no man than this, than to lay down his friends for his life" suggesting the difficulty of his decisions. He was also embarrassed by the [[Profumo Affair]] of [[1963]]. Following ill health and surgery he resigned on [[18 October]] [[1963]]. He was succeeded by [[Alec Douglas-Home]], the foreign secretary. This proved controversial as it was alleged that Macmillan had pulled strings and utilised the party's grandees, nicknamed "The Magic Circle", to ensure that Butler was not chosen as his successor.

Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered as fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the [[middle class]], such as traditional financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the [[Scientific revolution]] of the 17th century.

==Retirement==

=====Criticism of the Calvinism hypothesis=====

[[Image:Harold-Macmillan-arms.PNG|thumb|right|150px|Arms of Harold Macmillan]]

This argument has, on the whole, tended to neglect the fact that several inventors and entrepreneurs were rational free thinkers or "Philosophers" typical of a certain class of British intellectuals in the late 18th century, and were by no means normal church goers or members of religious sects. Examples of these free thinkers were the [[Lunar Society]] of [[Birmingham]] (which flourished from [[1765]] to [[1809]]). Its members were exceptional in that they were among the very few who were conscious that an industrial revolution was then taking place in Great Britain. They actively worked as a group to encourage it, not least by investing in it and conducting scientific experiments which led to innovative products.

Macmillan initially refused a peerage and retired from politics in September [[1964]]. He did, however, accept the distinction of the [[Order of Merit]] from The Queen. After retiring, he took up the chairmanship of his family's publishing house [[Macmillan Publishers]]. Over the next twenty years he made the occasional intervention. Following [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s election as leader of the Conservative Party, Macmillan was found to be intervening more often as the record of his premiership came under attack from the [[monetarists]] in the party. In one of his more memorable contributions he likened [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s policy of [[privatisation]] to "selling the family silver". In [[1984]] he finally accepted a peerage and was created '''Earl of Stockton''' and '''Viscount Macmillan of Ovenden'''. He died at Birch Grove in Sussex in [[1986]] at the age of 92 years and 322 days - the greatest age attained by any British Prime Minister until it was surpassed by [[James Callaghan]] on [[14 February]] [[2005]].

==Titles from birth to death==

The hypothesis that Protestantism caused the industrial revolution was further challenged by the British philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]]. He believed that a class of idle people enjoyed privileges that were based on [[social justice|social injustice]]. Workers worked so hard because they had to, not because it corresponded to their ethic. According to Russell, it would be much more beneficial to the progress of society if nobody were forced to work longer than four hours a day, because it would give everybody the time for scientific research.

*Harold Macmillan, Esq ([[10 February]] [[1894]]&ndash;[[29 October]] [[1924]])

There are many causes of the Industrial Revolution: the growth of population, overseas trade, capital and banking, science and technology, privilege and monopoly, the abundant supply of iron ore and coal, politically stable, slave trade, and the Agricultural Revolution.

*Harold Macmillan, Esq, MP ([[29 October]] [[1924]]&ndash;[[30 May]] [[1929]])

From about 1100, the population of Europe rose, which is because there was recovery from the disorder in the early medieval times, and there was development in agriculture and trade. The population in Europe grew quickly from 1700 onwards, because there was scientific and technological improvement, growth of supply of food because of the improvement in agriculture, and the people in Europe became wealthy because of overseas trade. The number of deaths decreased and the number of births increased. As there were more people, they needed more goods. Machines were then invented to produce more goods to meet the needs of the people.

*Harold Macmillan, Esq ([[30 May]] [[1929]]&ndash;[[4 November]] [[1931]])

From 1430, people in Europe discovered sea routes to Asia and America. England made the greatest gain from overseas trade. The middle class in England became wealthy from the overseas trade. Their social position grew greatly. The manufacturers were ready to invest in the making of machines and setting up factories. The large overseas market also encouraged industrialists to produce more products quicker and of better quality, so they invested on the production of machines in England.

*Harold Macmillan, Esq, MP ([[4 November]] [[1931]]&ndash;[[1942]])

As the banking system developed, the banks lent money to the industrialists from the money of the merchants and manufacturers. The industrialists then used the money to for industrial development, which led to the Industrial Revolution.

*The Right Honourable Harold Macmillan, MP ([[1942]]&ndash;[[26 July]] [[1945]])

The rapid growth of science and technology since the 17th century greatly helped in the rise of the Industrial Revolution. It was the reason for growth of population, the basis for the invention of machines and Agricultural Revolution.

*The Right Honourable Harold Macmillan ([[26 July]] [[1945]]&ndash;[[November]] [[1945]])

In Britain, the influence of the merchants and manufacturers was considerable as there was privilege and monopoly. The abundant supply of coal and iron ore made the making of machines easier. Europe was also politically stable, so people didn’t worry about law and order, and set their minds into manufacturing. People earned a lot of money form slave trade, so there was capital for the industrialists.

*The Right Honourable Harold Macmillan, MP ([[November]] [[1945]]&ndash;[[September]] [[1964]]

Agricultural Revolution is also an important factor for Industrial Revolution. Crop rotation and Enclosure Movement increased the amount of food produced, and supplied a sufficient amount of food for the workers working in the cities. Selective breeding produced food with better quality. The Enclosure Movement also made poor farmers go to the town to work as they had no more land to farm on.

*The Right Honourable Harold Macmillan ([[September]] [[1964]]&ndash;[[2 April]] [[1976]])

I think the most important cause among all the causes is science and technology. With science and technology, there were medical improvements, which made people live longer and thus helped in the growth of population. With the growth of population, there was a bigger market and thus manufacturers took the incentive to invent machines to earn more money. Science and technology was also a basis for the invention of machines. Without science and technology, machines simply couldn’t be made, and the Industrial Revolution couldn’t take place. Without science and technology, Agricultural Revolution couldn’t take place. There wouldn’t be machines to farm, and therefore there would be no cheap labour to work in the factories. Also, there wouldn’t be enough food as there would be no crop rotation.

*The Right Honourable Harold Macmillan, OM ([[2 April]] [[1976]]&ndash;[[24 February]] [[1984]])

^[[#Notes|2]]

*The Right Honourable The Earl of Stockton, OM, PC ([[24 February]] [[1984]]&ndash;[[29 December]] [[1986]])

==InnovationsExternal link==

*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/29/newsid_2547000/2547307.stm BBC Harold Macmillan obituary]

The invention of the [[steam engine]] was the most important innovation for the industrial revolution. Others followed: the [[spinning jenny]] revolutionized textile manufacturing and new metal working technologies were introduced. Another important innovation was the organization of human labor in factories.

==Cabinets==

===Transmission of innovation===

Knowledge of new innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer, or might be poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. Today this is called [[industrial espionage]], with modern concepts of automatic illegality.

''For a full list of Ministerial office-holders, see [[Conservative Government 1957-1964]].''

During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in this manner of study-touring; some nations, like Sweden and France, trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers anxious to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as was the keeping of travel diaries; writings made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods.

=== January 1957 - October 1959===

Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies like the [[Lunar Society]] of Birmingham, in which members met to discuss science and often its application to manufacturing. Some of these societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions, and the London-based [[Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce]] or, more commonly, [[Society of Arts]] published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual Transcations.

*Harold Macmillan: Prime Minister

*[[David Patrick Maxwell Fyfe, 1st Earl of Kilmuir|Lord Kilmuir]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]

*[[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]]: [[Lord President of the Council]]

*[[Rab Butler]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]] and [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]

*[[Peter Thorneycroft]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]

*[[Selwyn Lloyd]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]

*[[Alan Lennox-Boyd]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]

*[[Alec Douglas-Home|Lord Home]]: [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]]

*Sir [[David Eccles]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]

*[[Charles Hill]]: [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]

*[[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Lord Hailsham]]: Minister of Education

*[[John Scott Maclay, 1st Viscount Muirshiel|John Scott Maclay]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]

*[[Derick Heathcoat Amory]]: [[Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food|Minister of Agriculture]]

*[[Iain Macleod]]: Minister of Labour and National Service

*[[Harold Arthur Watkinson]]: Minister of Transport and Civil Aviation

*[[Duncan Edwin Sandys]]: Minister of Defence

*[[Percy Herbert Mills, 1st Baron Mills|Lord Mills]]: Minister of Power

*[[Henry Brooke (politician)|Henry Brooke]]: Minister of Housing and Local Government and Welsh Affairs

'''Change'''

There were publications describing technology. [[Encyclopaedia]]s such as Harris's ''[[Lexicon technicum]]'' (1704) and Dr Abraham Rees's ''[[Cyclopaedia]]'' (1802-1819) contain much of value. Rees's ''Cyclopaedia'' contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolutuion, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as the ''[[Descriptions des Arts et Metiers]]'' and Diderot's ''[[Encyclopedie]]'' explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates.

*March [[1957]] - Lord Home succeeds Lord Salisbury as Lord President, remaining also Commonwealth Relations Secretary.

*September [[1957]] - Lord Hailsham succeeds Lord Home as Lord President, Home remaining Commonwealth Relations Secretary. [[Geoffrey Lloyd]] succeeds Hailsham as Minister of Education. The Chief Secretary to the Treasury, [[Reginald Maudling]], enters the Cabinet.

*January [[1958]] - Derick Heathcoat Amory succeeds Peter Thorneycroft as Chancellor of the Exchequer. [[John Hare, 1st Viscount Blakenham|John Hare]] succeeds Amory as Minister of Agriculture.

===October 1959 - July 1960===

Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and a number regularly included notice of the latest patents. Foreign periodicals such as the [[Annales des Mines]] published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours.

*Harold Macmillan: [[Prime Minister]]

*[[David Patrick Maxwell Fyfe, 1st Earl of Kilmuir|Lord Kilmuir]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]

*[[Alec Douglas-Home|Lord Home]]: [[Lord President of the Council]] and [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]]

*[[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Lord Hailsham]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]] and [[Minister of Science]]

*[[Derick Heathcoat Amory]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]

*[[Rab Butler]]: [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]

*[[Selwyn Lloyd]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]

*[[Iain Macleod]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]

*[[Reginald Maudling]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]

*[[Charles Hill]]: [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]

*[[David Eccles|Sir David Eccles]]: [[Secretary of State for Education|Minister of Education]]

*[[Percy Herbert Mills, 1st Viscount Mills|Lord Mills]]: [[Secretary to the Treasury|Chief Secretary to the Treasury]]

*[[Ernest Marples]]: [[Minister of Transport]]

*[[Duncan Edwin Sandys]]: [[Minister of Aviation]]

*[[Harold Arthur Watkinson]]: [[Secretary of State for Defence|Minister of Defence]]

*[[John Scott Maclay, 1st Viscount Muirshiel|John Scott Maclay]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]

*[[Edward Heath]]: [[Minister of Labour and National Service]]

*[[John Hare]]: [[Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food|Minister of Agriculture]]

*[[Henry Brooke (politician)|Henry Brooke]]: [[Minister of Housing]] and [[Local Government and Welsh Affairs]]

===July 1960 - October 1961===

==Factories==

*Harold Macmillan: Prime Minister

[[Image:Dore_London.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Over London by Rail'' [[Gustave Doré]] c 1870. Shows the densely populated and polluted environments created in the new industrial cities]]

*[[David Patrick Maxwell Fyfe, 1st Earl of Kilmuir|Lord Kilmuir]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]

*[[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Lord Hailsham]]: [[Lord President of the Council]] and Minister of Science

*[[Edward Heath]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]]

*[[Selwyn Lloyd]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]

*[[Rab Butler]]: [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]

*[[Alec Douglas-Home|Lord Home]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]

*[[Iain Macleod]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]

*[[Duncan Edwin Sandys]]: [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]]

*[[Reginald Maudling]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]

*[[Charles Hill]]: [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]

*[[David Eccles|Sir David Eccles]]: [[Secretary of State for Education|Minister of Education]]

*[[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Lord Hailsham]]: Minister of Science

*[[Percy Herbert Mills, 1st Viscount Mills|Lord Mills]]: [[Secretary to the Treasury|Chief Secretary to the Treasury]]

*[[Ernest Marples]]: Minister of Transport

*[[Peter Thorneycroft]]: Minister of Aviation

*[[Harold Arthur Watkinson]]: [[Secretary of State for Defence|Minister of Defence]]

*[[John Scott Maclay, 1st Viscount Muirshiel|John Scott Maclay]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]

*[[John Hare]]: Minister of Labour and National Service

*[[Christopher Soames]]: [[Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food|Minister of Agriculture]]

*[[Henry Brooke (politician)|Henry Brooke]]: Minister of Housing and Local Government and Welsh Affairs

===October 1961 - July 1962===

Industrialization also led to the creation of the [[factory]]. [[John Lombe]]'s [[water-powered silk mill]] at [[Derby]] was operational by 1721. In 1746 an integrated brass mill was working at [[Warmley]] near [[Bristol]]. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass, and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on-site.

*Harold Macmillan: Prime Minister

*[[David Patrick Maxwell Fyfe, 1st Earl of Kilmuir|Lord Kilmuir]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]

*[[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Lord Hailsham]]: [[Lord President of the Council]] and Minister of Science

*[[Edward Heath]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]]

*[[Selwyn Lloyd]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]

*[[Rab Butler]]: [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]

*[[Alec Douglas-Home|Lord Home]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]

*[[Iain Macleod]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]

*[[Duncan Edwin Sandys]]: [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]]

*[[Frederick Erroll]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]

*[[Iain Macleod]]: [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]

*[[David Eccles|Sir David Eccles]]: [[Secretary of State for Education|Minister of Education]]

*[[Henry Brooke (politician)|Henry Brooke]]: [[Secretary to the Treasury|Chief Secretary to the Treasury]]

*[[Ernest Marples]]: Minister of Transport

*[[Peter Thorneycroft]]: Minister of Aviation

*[[Harold Arthur Watkinson]]: [[Secretary of State for Defence|Minister of Defence]]

*[[John Scott Maclay, 1st Viscount Muirshiel|John Scott Maclay]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]

*[[John Hare]]: Minister of Labour and National Service

*[[Christopher Soames]]: [[Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food|Minister of Agriculture]]

*[[Charles Hill]]: Minister of Housing and Local Government and Welsh Affairs

*[[Percy Herbert Mills, 1st Viscount Mills|Lord Mills]]: Minister without Portfolio

===July 1962 - October 1963===

[[Josiah_Wedgwood|Josiah Wedgwood]] and [[Matthew Boulton]] were other prominent early industrialists.

In a radical reshuffle dubbed "[[Night of the Long Knives (1962)|The Night of the Long Knives]]", Macmillan sacked a third of his Cabinet and instituted many other changes.

The factory system was largely responsible for the rise of the modern [[city]], as workers migrated into the cities in search of employment in the factories. For much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills, which were typically powered by water and built to serve local needs.

*Harold Macmillan: Prime Minister

The transition to industrialization was not wholly smooth. For example, a group of English workers known as [[Luddite]]s formed to protest against industrialization and sometimes [[sabotage]]d factories.

*[[Rab Butler]]: [[Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Deputy Prime Minister]] and [[First Secretary of State]]

*[[Reginald Edward Manningham-Buller, 1st Viscount Dilhorne|Lord Dilhorne]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]

*[[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Lord Hailsham]]: [[Lord President of the Council]] and Minister of Science

*[[Edward Heath]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]]

*[[Reginald Maudling]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]

*[[Henry Brooke (politician)|Henry Brooke]]: [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]

*[[Alec Douglas-Home|Lord Home]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]

*[[Iain Macleod]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]

*[[Duncan Edwin Sandys]]: [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]]

*[[Frederick Erroll]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]

*[[Iain Macleod]]: [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]

*[[Edward Boyle|Sir Edward Boyle]]: [[Secretary of State for Education|Minister of Education]]

*[[John Boyd-Carpenter]]: [[Secretary to the Treasury|Chief Secretary to the Treasury]]

*[[Ernest Marples]]: Minister of Transport

*[[Julian Amery]]: Minister of Aviation

*[[Peter Thorneycroft]]: [[Secretary of State for Defence|Minister of Defence]]

*[[Michael Noble]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]

*[[John Hare]]: [[Secretary of State for Employment|Minister of Labour and National Service]]

*[[Christopher Soames]]: [[Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food|Minister of Agriculture]]

*[[Keith Joseph|Sir Keith Joseph]]: Minister of Housing and Local Government and Welsh Affairs

*[[Enoch Powell]]: Minister of Health

*[[William Francis Deedes]]: Minister without Portfolio

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One of the earliest reformers of factory conditions was [[Robert_Owen|Robert Owen.]]

{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Air]] | before=[[Archibald Sinclair, 1st Viscount Thurso|Sir Archibald Sinclair]] | after=[[William Wedgwood Benn, 1st Viscount Stansgate|The Viscount Stansgate]] | years=1945}}

{{succession box | title=[[Minister of Defence]] | before= [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|Earl Alexander of Tunis]] | after=[[Selwyn Lloyd]] | years=1954&ndash;1955}}

{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] | before=[[Anthony Eden|Sir Anthony Eden]] | after=[[Selwyn Lloyd]] | years=1955}}

{{succession box | title=[[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] | before=[[Rab Butler]] | after=[[Peter Thorneycroft]] | years=1955&ndash;1957}}

{{succession box two to two | title1=[[Conservative Party (UK)|Leader of the British Conservative Party]] | title2=[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] | before=[[Anthony Eden|Sir Anthony Eden]] | after=[[Alec Douglas-Home|The Earl of Home]] | years1=1957&ndash;1963 | years2=1957&ndash;1963}}

{{end box}}

{{start box}}

==Machine tools==

{{succession box | title=[[Earl of Stockton]] | before=New Creation | after=[[Alexander Macmillan, 2nd Earl of Stockton|Alexander Macmillan]] | years=}}

The Industrial Revolution could not have developed without [[machine tool]]s, for they enabled manufacturing machines to be made. They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches, and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms. The mechanical parts of early textile machines were sometimes called 'clock work' due to the metal spindles and gears they incorporated. The manufacture of textile machines drew craftsmen from these trades and is the origin of the modern engineering industry. Machine makers early developed special purpose machines for making parts.

{{end box}}

[[Category:1894 births|Macmillan, Harold]]

Machines were built by various craftsmen. Carpenters for making the wooden framing, and smith and the turner for the metal parts. Because of the difficulty of manipulating metal, and the lack of machine tools, metal was reduced to a minimum. Wood framing had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints used tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal frames became more common, but required machine tools to make them economically. Before the advent of machine tools metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws and chisels. Small metal parts were readily made by this means, but for large machine parts, such as castings for a lathe bed, where components had to slide together, the production of flat surfaces by means of the hammer and chisel followed by filing, scraping and perhaps grinding with emery paste, was very laborious and costly.

[[Category:1986 deaths|Macmillan, Harold]]

[[Category:British Prime Ministers|Macmillan, Harold]]

[[Category:British Secretaries of State|Macmillan, Harold]]

[[Category:Chancellors of the Exchequer|Macmillan, Harold]]

[[Category:Leaders of the British Conservative Party|Macmillan, Harold]]

[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Macmillan, Harold]]

[[Category:Londoners|Macmillan, Harold]]

[[de:Harold Macmillan]]

Apart from workshop lathes used by craftsmen, the first large [[machine tool]] was the cylinder [[boring machine]], used for boring the large-diamater cylinders on early steam engines. They were to be found at all steam-engine manufacturers. The [[planing machine]], the [[slotting machine]] and the [[shaping machine]] were developed in the first decades of the 19th century. Although the [[milling machine]] was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until during the Second Industrial Revolutuion.

[[fr:Harold Macmillan]]

[[it:Harold Macmillan]]

Military production had a hand in their development. [[Henry Maudslay]], who trained a school of machine-tool makers early in the 19th century, was employed at the [[Royal Arsenal]], [[Woolwich]], as a lad where he would have seen the large horse-driven wooden machines for cannon boring made and worked by the [[Verbruggans]]. He later worked for [[Joseph Bramah]] on the production of metal locks, and soon after he began working on his own account was engaged to build the machinery for making ships' pulley blocks for the [[Royal Navy]] in the [[Portsmouth Block Mills]]. These were all metal, and the first machines for [[mass production]] and making components with a degree of [[interchangeability]]. The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as [[Richard Roberts]], [[Joseph Clement]] and [[Joseph Whitworth]].

[[ja:ハロルド・マクミラン]]

[[pl:Harold Macmillan]]

Maudslay made his name for his lathes and precision measurement. [[James Fox]] of [[Derby]] had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century, as did [[Matthew Murray]] of Leeds. Roberts made his name as a maker of high-quality machine tools, and as a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement.

[[zh:麥美倫]]

==Textile manufacture==

:''See main article [[Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution]]''

[[image:Spinning jenny.jpg|280px|thumb|left|Model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal, Germany. The spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution]]

In the early 18th century, British [[textile]] [[manufacture]] was based on [[wool]] which was processed by individual [[artisan]]s, doing the [[spinning]] and [[weaving]] on their own premises. This system is called a [[cottage industry]]. [[Flax]] and [[cotton]] were also used for fine materials, but the processing was difficult because of the pre-processing needed, and thus goods in these materials made only a small proportion of the output.

Use of the [[spinning wheel]] and [[loom|hand loom]] restricted the production capacity of the industry, but a number of incremental advances increased productivity to the extent that manufactured cotton goods became the dominant British export by the early decades of the 19th century. [[India]] was displaced as the premier supplier of cotton goods.

Step by step, individual inventors increased the [[efficiency]] of the individual steps of spinning ([[carding]], [[twisting]] and spinning, and subsequently [[rolling]]) so that the supply of [[yarn]] fed a weaving industry that itself was advancing with improvements to [[shuttle]]s and the loom or 'frame'. The output of an individual labourer increased dramatically, with the effect that these new [[machine]]s were seen as a threat to employment, and early innovators were attacked and their inventions wrecked. The inventors often failed to exploit their inventions, and fell on hard times.

To capitalize upon these advances it took a class of [[entrepreneur]]s, of which the most famous is [[Richard Arkwright]]. He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by people such as [[Thomas Highs]] and [[John Kay (Spinning Frame)|John Kay]]; Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines. He created the [[cotton mill]] which brought the production processes together in a [[factory]], and he developed the use of power &ndash; first [[horse power]], then [[water power]] and finally [[steam power]] &ndash; which made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry.

==Mining==

Coal mining in Britain is of great age. Before the steam engine, pits were often shallow bell pits, following a seam of coal along the surface and being abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favourable, the coal was mined by means of an adit driven into the side of a hill. Shaft mining was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft by means of a horse gin, or it could be drained by an adit leading to a stream or ditch at lower level where it could flow away by gravity. A number of historic mining areas of Britain, such as the Kingswood coalfield near Bristol, still have adits running to this day, [[as of 2005]], almost a century after the industry ceased. The introduction of the steam engine enabled shafts to be made deeper, hence increasing output.

==Metallurgy==

:''See main article [[Metallurgy during the Industrial Revolution]]''

In the early 18th century, small-scale [[iron]] working and [[extractive metallurgy|extraction]] and processing of other [[metal]]s were carried out where local resources permitted. Fuel was primarily [[wood]] in the form of [[charcoal]], but consumption was starting to be constrained by lack of available timber. At the same time, demand for high-quality iron was dramatically increasing to keep pace with the improvements in [[weapon|military technology]] and the involvement of [[British military history#Early Modern period|Britain in numerous European wars]].

Principal suppliers of high-quality iron goods were [[Sweden]] and [[Russia]], with Russia being able to command increasingly high prices as Britain's need grew.

To fuel the iron [[smelting]] process, people moved from wood to [[coal]] and [[coke (fuel)|coke]]. Production of [[pig iron]], [[cast iron]] and [[wrought iron]] improved through the exchange of ideas (although this was by no means a fast process), with the most well-known name being [[Abraham Darby]]. The first Abraham Darby made great strides with using coke to fuel his [[blast furnace]]s at [[Coalbrookdale]] ([[1709]]), although this was principally due to the nature of the coke he was using, and the scientific reasons for the improvement were only discovered later. His family followed in his footsteps, and iron became a major construction material.

Other improvements followed, with [[Benjamin Huntsman]] developing a [[crucible steel]] technique in the [[1740s]], and [[Henry Cort]]'s [[puddling furnace]] enabling large-scale production of wrought iron to take place.

The reliance on overseas supplies was diminished, and improvements in [[machine tool]]s and the use of iron and steel in the development of the railways further boosted the industrial growth of Great Britain.

==Steam power==

:''See main article [[Steam power during the Industrial Revolution]]''

[[Image:Newcomens Dampfmaschine aus Meyers 1890.png|thumb|right|250px|Newcomen's atmospheric steam engine]]

The [[stationary steam engine]] had great influence on the progress of the Industrial Revolution, but for all of it many industries still relied on wind and water power as well as horse and man-power for driving small machines.

The steam engine was first used for draining mines or for driving mills by pumping water back to a reservoir that had passed through a water wheel. [[James Watt]]'s invention of rotary motion in the 1780s enabled a steam engine to drive a factory or mill directly.

Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, which was built within a stone or brick engine-house but after then various patterns of portable (ie readily removable engines, not on wheels) were developed, such as the [[table engine]]. The development of [[machine tools]] such as the planing and shaping machine enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut. Engines could be made in varying sizes and patterns to suit various requirements, such as for [[locomotive]]s and [[steam boats]].

==Transportation==

:''See main article [[Transport during the Industrial Revolution]]''

At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastwise vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Railways or waggon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, and canals were beginning to be cut for moving goods between larger towns and cities.

During the Industrial Revolution, these different methods were improved and developed.

===Navigable rivers===

''See main article'' [[Rivers of Great Britain]]

All the major rivers were made navigable to a great or lesser degree. The [[Severn]] in particular was used for the movement of goods to the Midlands which had been imported into [[Bristol]] from abroad, and the export of goods from centres of production in [[Shropshire]] such as iron goods from [[Coalbrookdale]]. Transport was by way of [[Trow]]s - small sailing vessels which could pass the various shallows and bridges in the river. These could navigate the Bristol Channel to the South Wales ports and Somerset ports, such as [[Bridgwater]] and even as far as France.

===Roads===

Much of the road system was bad, but some were [[turnpike]]d and maintained by a toll on the users. Major roads radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of broad wheeled carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack horses. Stage coaches transported people. The less wealthy walked.

===Coastal sail===

Sailing vessels were long used for moving goods round the coast. Transporting coal to London from Newcastle began in medieval times. The major seaports such as London, Bristol and Liverpool were the means by which raw materials such as cotton might be imported and finished goods exported. Transporting goods by sea was common during the whole of the Industrial Revolution and only fell away with the growth of the railways at the end of the period.

===Railways===

''See main article'' [[History of rail transport in Great Britain]]

Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century, and were often associatad with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal. These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of the incline. The first applications of the steam [[locomotive]] were on waggon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast iron plates used). Horse-drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century. Steam-hauled public railways began with the [[Liverpool and Manchester]] and [[Stockton and Darlington]] Railways of the late 1820s. The construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the Industrial Revolution.

===Canals===

''See main article'' [[History of the British canal system]]

Britain's canal network is, next to surviving mill buildings, the most enduring feature today of the Industrial Revolution. They tended to link the major manufacturing centres in the midlands with seaports and with London, at that time the largest manufacturing centre in the country. They were eventually largely killed off as commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s.

==Social problems==

The industrial revolution lead to a number of social problems within the newly developed [[working class]]. Children worked under miserable conditions and the families lived in [[slum|bad housing]].

===Child labor===

[[Child labor]] existed before the Industrial Revolution and in fact dates back to [[prehistoric times]]. But during the Industrial Revolution it grew more abusive than ever before. Politicians tried to limit child labor by law. Factory owners resisted -- they felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children work from the age of five years onward. In 1833 the first [[law]] against child labor, the [[Factory Act of 1833]], was passed in England: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, they were not permitted to work at night and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory [[inspector]]s supervised the execution of this law. About ten years later children and women were forbidden to work in mining. These laws improved the situation; however child labor remained a problem in [[Europe]] up to the 20th century.

===Housing situation===

[[image:Glasgow-slum.png|thumb|200px|Slum in [[Glasgow]], [[1871]]]]

In 1832 James Phillips Kay, an Edinburgh doctor, published a detailed report on the working conditions of the poor and describes worker's housing establishments as follows: <br>

:''Here, without distinction of age or sex, careless of all decency, they are crowded in small and wretched apartments; the same bed receiving a succession of tenants until too offensive for their unfastidious senses.'' ^[[#Notes|3]]<br>

In 1842 a Sanitary Report was produced by Edwin Chadwick:<br>

:''In a cellar in Pendleton, I recollect there were three beds in the two apartments of which the habitation consisted, but having no door between them, in one of which a man and his wife slept; in another, a man, his wife and child; and in a third two unmarried females.(...)I have met with upwards of 40 persons sleeping in the same room, married and single, including, of course, children and several young adult persons of either sex.''

===Luddites===

{{main|Luddite}}

The rapid industrialization of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs. The textile industry in particular industrialized early, and many weavers found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines who only required relatively limit labor, unskilled labor as well, to produce more cloth than a single weever. Many such unemployed workers, weavers and others, turned their animousity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of [[Ned Ludd]], a folklore figure. The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in 1811. The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British government had to take drastic measures to protect industry.

===Strikes===

{{sectstub}}

==The industrial revolution in Europe==

==The transatlantic industrial revolution==

==Effects==

[[Image:graph_rel_share_world_manuf_1750_1900_01.png|right|thumb|300px]]

[[Image:Global Carbon Emission by Type.png|right|thumb|300px|Roughly exponential increase in carbon dioxide emissions from [[fossil fuels]], driven by increasing energy demands since the Industrial Revolution]]

The application of steam power to the industrial processes of [[printing]] supported a massive expansion of [[newspaper]] and popular [[book]] [[publishing]], which reinforced rising [[literacy]] and demands for mass political participation. Universal white male [[suffrage]] was adopted in the United States, resulting in the election of the popular [[Andrew Jackson]] in [[1828]] and the creation of political parties organized for mass participation in elections. In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Reform Act 1832]] addressed the concentration of population in districts with almost no representation in Parliament, expanding the electorate, leading to the founding of modern political parties and initiating a series of reforms which would continue into the 20th century. In France, the [[July Revolution]] widened the franchise and established a [[constitutional monarchy]]. Belgium established its independence from the [[Netherlands]], as a constitutional monarchy, in [[1830]]. Struggles for liberal reforms in [[Switzerland]]'s various cantons in the 1830s had mixed results. A further series of attempts at political reform or revolution would sweep Europe in [[1848]], with mixed results, and initiated massive migration to North America, as well as parts of South America, [[South Africa]], and [[Australia]]. The mass migration of rural families into urban areas saw the growth of bad living conditions in cities, long work hours without the traditional agricultural breaks (such as after harvest or in mid winter), a rise in child labour (the children received less pay and benefits than adults) and the rise of nationalism in most of Europe. The increase in coal usage saw a massive increase in atmospheric pollution.

The Industrial Revolution had significant impacts on the structure of society. Prior to its rise, the [[Public sphere|public]] and [[private sphere]]s held strong overlaps; work was often conducted through the home, and thus was shared in many cases by both a wife and her husband. However, during this period the two began to separate, with work and home life considered quite distinct from one another. This shift made it necessary for one partner to maintain the home and care for children. Women, holding the distinction of being able to [[breastfeeding|breastfeed]], thus more often maintained the home, with men making up a sizeable fraction of the workforce. With much of the family income coming from men, then, their power in relation to women increased further, with the latter often dependent on men's income. This had enormous impacts on the defining of [[gender role]]s and was effectively the model for what was later termed the [[traditional family]].

However, the need for a large workforce also pressured many women into industrial work, where they were often paid much less in relation to men. This was in large part due to a lack of organized labor among women to push for benefits and wage increases, and in part to ensure women's continued dependence on a man's income to survive.

==Intellectual paradigms==

===Capitalist===

The advent of [[The Enlightenment]] provided an intellectual framework which welcomed the practical application of the growing body of scientific knowledge &mdash; a factor evidenced in the systematic development of the steam engine, guided by scientific analysis, and the development of the political and [[sociology|sociological]] analyses, culminating in [[Adam Smith]]'s [[The Wealth of Nations]].

==Criticism==

===Marxism===

[[Karl Marx]] saw the industrialization process as the logical [[dialectics|dialectical]] progression of feudal economic modes, necessary for the full development of [[capitalism]], which he saw as in itself a necessary precursor to the development of [[socialism]] and eventually [[communism]]. According to Marx, industrialization engenders the polarization of societies into two classes, the [[bourgeoisie]] &mdash; those who own the [[means of production]], i.e. the factories and the land, and the much larger [[proletariat]] &mdash; the working class who actually perform the [[labor]] necessary to extract something valuable from the means of production. Marx asserts that the relationship between the two classes is fundamentally parasitic, insofar as the proletariat are always undercompensated for the true value of their labor by the bourgeoisie (according to the [[labor theory of value]]), which allows the bourgeoisie to grow absurdly wealthy through nothing more than the wholesale exploitation of the proletarians' labor.

Rapid advancements in technology left many skilled workers unemployed, as one agricultural and manufacturing task after another was mechanized. The flight of millions of newly unemployed people from rural areas or small towns to the large cities, and thus the development of large urban population centers, led to unprecedented conditions of poverty in the slums that housed workers for the new factories. At the same time, the bourgeois class, at only a small fraction of the proletariat's size, became exceedingly wealthy.

Marx says that the industrial proletariat will eventually develop [[class consciousness]] and revolt against the bourgeois, leading to a more egalitarian [[socialism|socialist]] and eventually [[Communist]] state where the workers themselves own the means of industrial production. ''See [[Marxism]].''

===Romantic Movement===

''See main article'' [[Romantic movement]]

From 1800 on, there was a great deal of intellectual hostility towards industrialisation by the Romantic Movement with its major exponent William Blake.

{{sectstub}}

==The Second Industrial Revolution==

:''Main article: [[Second Industrial Revolution]]''

The insatiable demand of the [[railroads]] for more durable rail led to the development of the means to cheaply mass-produce [[steel]]. Steel is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterize a "[[Second Industrial Revolution]]", beginning around [[1850]]. This "second" Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include the [[chemical industry|chemical industries]], [[petroleum]] refining and distribution, [[electrical industry|electrical industries]], and, in the twentieth century, the [[automotive industry|automotive industries]], and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Great Britain to the United States and [[Germany]].

The introduction of [[hydroelectric power]] generation in the [[Alps]] enabled the rapid [[industrialization]] of coal-starved northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s. The increasing availability of economic petroleum products also reduced the relation of coal to the potential for industrialization.

By the 1890s, industrialization in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with often nearly global international operations and interests, as companies like [[United States Steel Corporation|U.S. Steel]], [[General Electric]], and [[Bayer AG]] joined the railroads on the world's [[stock market]]s and among huge, bureaucratic organizations.

==Notes==

¹ ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]'', [[Max Weber]], (1904-1905, Eng. trans. 1930)<br>

² ''In Praise of Idleness'', [[Bertrand Russell]]

³ [http://www.historyhome.co.uk/peel/p-health/mterkay.htm The full text of the report published by James Phillips Kay in 1832]

==References==

===General===

*Bernal, John Desmond. ''Science and Industry in the Nineteenth Century'' Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1970.

*Derry, Thomas Kingston and Trevor I. Williams. ''A Short History of Technology : From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900'' New York : Dover Publications, 1993.

*Hobsbawm, Eric J.. ''Industry and Empire : From 1750 to the Present Day'' . New York : New Press ; Distributed by W.W. Norton,1999.

*Kranzberg, Melvin and Carroll W. Pursell, Jr. editors. ''Technology in Western civilization'' New York, Oxford University Press, 1967.

*Lines, Clifford, ''Companion to the Industrial Revolution'', London, New York etc., Facts on File, 1990, ISBN 0-8160-2157-0

===Causes===

*Landes, David S. ''The Unbound Prometheus : Technical Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present'' 2nd ed. New York : Cambridge University Press, 2003.

*Paul Mantoux, ''The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century'', First English translation 1928, revised and reset edition 1961.

===Machine tools===

*Norman Atkinson ''Sir Joseph Whitworth'',[[1996]], [[Sutton Publishing]] Limited [[1996]] ISBN 0-7509-1211-1 (hc), ISBN 0-7509-1648-6 (pb)

*John Cantrell and Gillian Cookson, eds., ''Henry Maudslay and the Pioneers of the Machine Age'', [[2002]], Tempus Publishing, Ltd, pb., (ISBN 0-7524-2766-0)

*Rev. Dr. Richard L. Hills, ''Life and Inventions of Richard Roberts, 1789-1864'', Landmark Publishing Ltd, [[2002]], (ISBN 1-84306-027-2)

*Joseph Wickham Roe, ''English and American Tool Builders'', Yale University Press, [[1916]]. Rep. Lindsay Publications Inc., Bradley IL.,[[1987]], (ISBN 0-917914-74-0),(cloth), (ISBN 0-9107914-73-2), paper.

==See Also==

*[[Economic history of Britain]]

*[[Industrialization]]

*[[Revolution]]

*[[Capitalism in the nineteenth century]]

==External links==

*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook14.html Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Industrial Revolution]

*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/industrialisation/ BBC History Home Page: Industrial Revolution]

*[http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/ National Museum of Science and Industry website: machines and personalities ]

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[[Category:Historical eras]]

[[Category:History of Britain]]

[[Category:History of technology]]

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