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In [[neuroscience]], the '''Morris water maze''' is a behavioral procedure designed to test [[spatial memory]]. It was developed by [[neuroscientist]] [[Richard Morris]] in [[1981]], and is commonly used today to explore the role of the [[hippocampus]] in the formation of [[spatial memory|spatial memories]].
{{otherplaces}}
{| class="toccolours" style="border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" width="300"
|+ <big>'''Berkshire'''</big>
|-
| colspan=2 style="text-align: center; background: white;" | [[Image:EnglandBerkshire.png]]
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" |Geography
|-
! width="45%" | Status
| [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] and [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]] county (no county council)<br />
[[Traditional counties of England|Traditional county]]
|-
! Region
| [[South East England]]
|-
! style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''<br />- Total
| [[List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area|Ranked 40th]]<br />[[1 E9 m²|1,262]] [[square kilometre|km²]]
|-
! [[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3
| UKJ11
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;"|Demographics
|-
! style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Population]]'''<br />- Total ([[2003]] est.)<br />- [[Density]]||[[List of Ceremonial counties of England by Population|Ranked 26th]]<br />803,657<br />636
|-
! Ethnicity
| 88.7% White<br>6.8% S.Asian<br>2.0% Afro-Carib.
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;"|Politics
|-
| colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:Berkshirearms.PNG|200px|Arms of Berkshire]]
|-
! [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Members of Parliament]]
|
*[[Adam Afriyie]]
*[[Richard Benyon]]
*[[Andrew Mackay]]
*[[Fiona Mactaggart]]
*[[Theresa May]]
*[[John Redwood]]
*[[Martin Salter]]
*[[Rob Wilson]]
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;"|Districts
|-
|colspan=2|<center>[[Image:EnglandBerkshireNumbered.png]]</center>
#[[West Berkshire]] (Unitary)
#[[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]] (Unitary)
#[[Wokingham (district)|Wokingham]] (Unitary)
#[[Bracknell Forest]] (Unitary)
#[[Windsor and Maidenhead]] (Unitary)
#[[Slough]] (Unitary)
|}
'''Berkshire''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA]]: {{IPA|[ˈbɑːkʃə]}} or {{IPA|[ˈbɑːkʃɪə]}} ; sometimes abbreviated to '''[[Postal counties of the United Kingdom#England|Berks]]''') is a [[county]] in [[England]] and forms part of the [[South East England]] [[Regions of England|region]].
== Overview ==
The county is also known as '''The Royal County of Berkshire''' — this title being made official with a grant in the [[1930s]].
In the typical [[paradigm]], a [[rat]] or [[mouse]] is placed into a small pool of [[opaque]] water—back-end first to avoid [[stress (medicine)|stress]], and facing the pool-side to avoid bias—which contains a escape platform hidden a few [[millimeter]]s below the water surface. Visual cues, such as colored shapes, are placed around the pool in plain sight of the animal.
It borders [[Oxfordshire]], [[Buckinghamshire]], [[Greater London]], [[Surrey]], [[Wiltshire]] and [[Hampshire]].
The pool is usually 4 to 6 feet in diameter and 2 feet deep. The pool could instead be half-filled with water at 1 foot deep. Some sidewall above the waterline prevents the rat from being distracted by lab activity. Mice are less cooperative in the water maze, but the bonus is that they are available as ‘knockout’ [[mutant]]s.
When released, the rat swims around the pool in search of an exit while various [[parameter]]s are recorded, including the time spent in each [[quadrant]] of the pool, the time taken to reach the platform ([[Latency (engineering)|latency]]), and total distance traveled. The rat's escape from the water reinforces its desire to quickly find the platform, and on subsequent trials (with the platform in the same position) the rat is able to locate the platform more rapidly. This improvement in performance occurs because the rat has learned where the hidden platform is located relative to the conspicuous visual cues. If the rat does not escape within 1 to 2 minutes, it is rescued. After enough practice, a capable rat can swim directly from any release point to the platform. This ability is attributed to a spatial map in a [[brain]] area called the [[hippocampus]].
==History==
== Pharmacological manipulation ==
The county is one of the oldest in England, being reliably dated back to the setting of the traditional county borders by King [[Alfred the Great]] of [[Wessex]]. Following the reorganisation of local government in [[1974]], [[Abingdon, England|Abingdon]] (its traditional county town) and the [[Vale of the White Horse]] were transferred to [[Oxfordshire]], [[Slough]] was added from [[Buckinghamshire]], and [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]] became the county town. On [[April 1]], [[1998]] the county council was abolished and the districts became [[unitary authority|unitary authorities]].
Various [[drug]]s can be applied to test subjects before, during, or after maze training, which can reveal information about spatial learning and its underlying mechanisms. For example rats treated with the [[NMDA receptor]] blocker [[APV]] perform poorly in the Morris water maze, suggesting that NMDA receptors play a vital role in spatial learning [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=1345945]. And since [[long-term potentiation]] -- a potential [[biology|biological]] mechanism for behavioral learning -- also requires NMDA receptors, spatial learning may require LTP.
The county takes its name from a large forest of birch trees that was called ''Bearroc'' ([[Celtic language|Celtic]] for 'hilly') and was originally a transaction of land to [[Cenwalh of Wessex|King Cenwalh]] of [[Wessex]]. At this time, it only consisted of the northerly and westerly parts of the current county.
Liang et al reported in [[1994]] that spatial learning requires both [[NMDA receptor|NMDA]] and [[AMPA receptor]]s, consolidation requires NMDA receptors, and the retrieval of spatial memories requires AMPA receptors [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=7796636].
Berkshire has been the scene of many battles throughout history, during [[Alfred the Great]]'s campaign against the [[Dane]]s, including the [[Battle of Englesfield]], the [[Battle of Ashdown]] and the [[Battle of Reading (871)|Battle of Reading]]. During the [[English Civil War]] there were two [[Battle of Newbury|battles]] in [[Newbury, Berkshire|Newbury]]. During the [[Glorious Revolution]] of [[1688]], there was a small [[Battle of Reading (1688)|Battle of Reading]]
== Water maze vs. Conventional mazes ==
==Geology, landscape and ecology==
The highest point in the county is [[Walbury Hill]] at 297m (974ft). It is the highest point on [[Salisbury Plain]] and in the whole of [[South East England]].
Watermaze has advantages over conventional mazes (e.g., [[plus maze]]). There are no [[local cue]]s such as [[scent trace]]s; no fixed escape-fomula; the rat makes good progress in the trials because it wants to escape. Rats are natural swimmers – they are not distressed but they do want to find that platform. Mice have an option to float, and maybe this is why they are not so cooperative in watermaze. It has been suggested that they don’t aim to find the platform, but trick the technician into rescuing them.
==Demographics==
According to [[2003]] estimates there are 803,657 people in Berkshire, or 636 people / km<sup>2</sup>. The population is mostly based in the urban areas to the east of the county, with [[West Berkshire]] being much more rural.
== Watermaze analysis ==
The population has increased massively since [[1831]], this may be in part due to the sweeping boundary changes however. In 1831 there were 146,234 people living in Berkshire, by [[1901]] it had risen to 252,571 (of which 122,807 were male and 129,764 were female).
The earliest and classic measure of learning is ''[[Latency (engineering)|latency]]'', which refers to the amount of time it takes to find the platform. However, rats can cheat. They might guess an area and swim a search pattern, getting to the platform quite quickly. There is a whole bunch of further analyses, which can tease out true spatial learning. The same swim is used, but a [[video tracker]] is required. Professional systems come with a suite of analysis features to extract measures such as time and path in [[quadrant]]s, near platform, in any specified area. The [[Gallagher measure]] looks for average distance to platform. The [[Whishaw corridor test]] measures time and path in a strip from swim-start to platform.
Population of Berkshire:
Mice are smart
* [[1831]]: 146,234
* [[1841]]: 161,759
* [[1851]]: 170,065
* [[1861]]: 176,256
* [[1871]]: 196,475
* [[1881]]: 218,363
* [[1891]]: 238,709
* [[1901]]: 252,571
== Atlantis platform ==
==Politics==
Berkshire is a [[ceremonial county|ceremonial]] and [[Traditional counties of England|traditional]] county, and it is unusual in England in that it is the only [[administrative county]] with no [[county council]]. The district councils are unitary authorities but have no county status. In the [[unitary authority|unitary authorities]] the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] control the [[West Berkshire]], [[Wokingham (district)|Wokingham]] and [[Bracknell Forest]] councils, [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] control [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]] council, whilst the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] control the [[Windsor and Maidenhead]] council. [[Slough]] is controlled jointly between the Liberal Democrats and Conservatives.
A more advanced way to stop the rats cheating is the [[Atlantis rising platform]], which stays deep in the water and only rises when the rat lingers at the right place.
Since the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 general election]], the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] dominates, controlling 6 out of 8 constituencies. [[Slough (UK Parliament constituency)|Slough]] and [[Reading West (UK Parliament constituency)|Reading West]] are both represented by the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]].
== References ==
''See also: [[List of Parliamentary constituencies in Berkshire]]''
* Davis S, Butcher SP, Morris RG. "The NMDA receptor antagonist D-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoate (D-AP5) impairs spatial learning and LTP in vivo at intracerebral concentrations comparable to those that block LTP in vitro." ''J Neurosci''. 1992 Jan;12(1):21-34. PMID 1345945
==Settlements==
* Liang KC, Hon W, Tyan YM, Liao WL. "Involvement of hippocampal NMDA and AMPA receptors in acquisition, formation and retrieval of spatial memory in the Morris water maze." ''Chin J Physiol.'' 1994;37(4):201-12. PMID 7796636
{{infobox England traditional county|
|County= Berkshire
|Image= [[Image:EnglandBerkshireTrad.png]]
|SizeRank= 35th
|Size= 462,210 acres
|Water= ?
|CountyTown= [[Abingdon, Berkshire|Abingdon]]
|ChapmanCode=BRK
|detailedImage=
}}
[[Image:Newbury_and_surroundings.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The [[River Kennet|Kennet]] Valley.]]
''Main article: [[List of places in Berkshire]]''
[[de:Morris-Wasserlabyrinth]]
The largest town in Berkshire by population is [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]], however possibly more famous is the town of [[Windsor, Berkshire|Windsor]], the most famous resident being [[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]].
By population:
* [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]] (144,000)
* [[Slough]] (119,070)
* [[Maidenhead]] (60,000)
* [[Bracknell]] (52,000)
* [[Newbury, Berkshire|Newbury]] (32,000)
Due to the administrative changes in [[1974]] there are a number of towns which are no longer administered as part of Berkshire, but instead as part of [[Oxfordshire]]. These include [[Abingdon, Oxfordshire|Abingdon]], [[Didcot]], [[Faringdon]], [[Wallingford]] and [[Wantage]].
== Places of interest ==
<div style="float:right;">
{{EngPlacesKey}}
</div>
{|
* [[Image:NTE icon.png|National Trust]] [[Ashdown House, Berkshire|Ashdown House]]
* [[Image:NTE icon.png|National Trust]] [[Basildon Park]]
* [[Image:UKAL icon.png|Accessible open space]] [[Berkshire Downs]]
* [[Image:UKAL icon.png|Accessible open space]] [[Combe Gibbet]]
* [[Image:EH icon.png|English Heritage]] [[Donnington Castle]]
* [[Eton College]]
* [[Image:HH icon.png|Historic house]] [[Frogmore|Frogmore House]]
* [[LEGOLAND Windsor|Legoland Windsor]]
* [[Reading Abbey]]
* [[Image:NTE icon.png|National Trust]] [[Runnymede]]
* [[Image:NTE icon.png|National Trust]] [[Lardon Chase, the Holies and Lough Down]]
* [[Image:UKAL icon.png|Accessible open space]] [[Walbury Hill]] - the highest place in southern England
* [[Windsor Castle]]
* [[Image:CP icon.png|Country park]] [[Windsor Great Park]]
|}
==See also==
* [[Thames Valley]]
==External links==
* [http://www.hvsimage.com/papers/index.htm Watermaze publications 1966-2002]
{{Commonscat|Berkshire}}
* [http://neco.mitpress.org/cgi/content/abstract/10/1/73 Information on the hippocampus]
* [http://archive.museophile.org/berks/ Berkshire information]
* [http://www.mailtalk.ac.uk/archives/watermaze.html The UK Academic Watermaze Discussion Group]
* [http://www.berkshirehistory.com Royal Berkshire History]
==References==
* [http://www.footstepspast.co.uk/berkshire%20connections/berks%20htm/berkshire%20index.htm| footstepspast.co.uk - Berkshire connections]
{{England ceremonial counties}}
<br />
{{England traditional counties}}
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