Inca Empire and User talk:69.115.162.176: Difference between pages

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: ''For other meanings of '''Inca''', see '''[[Inca (disambiguation)]]'''.''

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{{History of Peru}}

[[Image:Machu-Picchu.jpg|thumbnail|290px|right|A view of [[Machu Picchu]], "the [[Lost city|Lost City]] of the Incas," now an [[archaeological site]].]]

The '''Inca Empire''' ('''Tawantinsuyu''' in [[Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift|modern Quechua and Aymara orthography]], or '''Tahuantinsuyo''' in [[Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift|Hispanicized Quechua and Aymara orthography]]; ''The Four United Regions''), was an empire located in [[South America]] from [[1438]] [[AD]] to [[1533]] AD. Over that period, the Inca used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate in their empire a large portion of western South America, centred on the [[Andes|Andean]] mountain ranges. The Inca empire proved short-lived: by [[1533]] AD, [[Atahualpa]], the last [[Sapa Inca]], was killed on the orders of the [[conquistador]] [[Francisco Pizarro]], marking the beginning of Spanish rule.

'''Tawantinsuyu''', the indigenous name of the empire, derives from the Quechua "tawa" (''four'') , to which the sufix "-ntin" (''together'' or ''united'') is added, followed by "suyu" (''region'' or ''province''), which roughly renders "''The Four United Regions''". The empire was divided into four ''suyu'', whose corners - accodring to Inca mythology - met at the "Navel of the World" (''Qosqo''), where their capital [[Cusco]] was located, now in modern-day [[Peru]].

The official language of the empire was [[Quechua language|Quechua]], although over seven hundred local languages were spoken. The Inca leadership encouraged the worship of their [[Deity|gods]], the foremost of which was [[Inti]], the [[Solar deity|sun god]].

== Origin stories ==

''See also: [[Inca mythology]]''

The Inca had two origin beliefs. In one, Tici Viracocha of Colina de las Ventanas in [[Pacaritambo]] sent forth his four sons and four daughters to establish a village. Along the way, [[Sinchi Roca]] was born to [[Manco Capac|Manco]] and [[Mama Ocllo|Ocllo]], and Sinchi Roca is the person who finally led them to the valley of Cuzco where they founded their new village. There Manco became their leader and became known as [[Manco Capac]].

In the other origin myth, the sun god [[Inti]] ordered Manco Capac and [[Mama Ocllo]] to emerge from the depths of [[Lake Titicaca]] and found the city of Cuzco. They traveled by means of underground caves until reaching Cuzco where they established [[Sapa Inca|Hurin Cuzco]], or the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cuzco.

We know of these myths mostly by means of oral tradition, since the Incas did not have writing. There probably did exist a Manco Capac who became the leader of his tribe. The archeological evidence seems to indicate that the Inca were a relatively unimportant tribe until the time of Sinchi Roca, also called Cinchi Roca, who is the first figure in Inca mythology whose existence can be supported historically...

what dumb asses wrote this?

== Emergence and Expansion ==

[[Image:Inca-expansion.png|thumb|350px|right|Inca expansion (1438 - 1527 CE)]]

The Inca people began as a tribe in the Cuzco area around the [[12th century]] CE. Under the leadership of [[Manco Capac]], they formed the small city-state of Qosqo, or Cuzco in Spanish. In [[1438]] CE, under the command of [[Sapa Inca]] (paramount leader) [[Pachacuti]], they began their conquest of the Andean regions of South America and adjacent lands. At its height, Tahuantinsuyu included [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]], most of what is now [[Ecuador]], a large portion of modern-day [[Chile]], and extended into corners of [[Argentina]] and [[Colombia]].

Pachacuti reorganized Cuzco into the Tahuantinsuyu. The Tahuantinsuyu was a [[federation|federalist system]] which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with powerful leaders: [[Chinchasuyu]] (NW), [[Antisuyu]] (NE), [[Contisuyu]] (SW), and [[Collasuyu]] (SE). The four corners of these provinces met at the center, Cuzco. The land Pachacuti conquered was about the size of the [[Thirteen Colonies]] of the [[United States]] in [[1776]], and consisted of nearly the entire [[Andes]] mountain range. Tahuantinsuyu as of [[1463]] CE is shown in red on the map. Pachacuti is also thought to have built [[Machu Picchu]], either as a family home or as a [[Camp David]]-like retreat.

Pachacuti would send spies to regions he wanted in his empire who would report back on their political organization, military might and wealth. He would then send messages to the leaders of these lands extolling the benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles, and promising that they would be materially richer as subject rulers of the Inca. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a ''[[List of French phrases used by English speakers|fait accompli]]'' and acquiesced peacefully. The ruler's children would then be brought to Cuzco to be taught about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate the former ruler's children into the Inca nobility, and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire.

Pachacuti's son, [[Túpac Inca]], conquered even more land, most importantly the Kingdom of [[Chimor]], the Inca's only serious rival for the coast of Peru. Túpac Inca's empire stretched north into modern day Ecuador and Colombia.

[[Huayna Cápac]] added some land area though less than his father and grandfather.

Tahuantinsuyu was a patchwork of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. For instance, the [[Chimú]] used money in their commerce, while the Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour (it is said that Inca tax collectors would take the head lice of the [[disability|lame]] and old as a symbolic tribute). The portions of the [[Chachapoya]] that had been conquered were almost openly hostile to the Inca, and the Inca nobles rejected an offer of refuge in their kingdom after their troubles with the Spanish.

== Spanish conquest and Vilcabamba ==

''Main article: [[Spanish conquest of Peru]]''

In 1532, when Spanish explorers led by [[Francisco Pizarro]] arrived on the coast of Peru, the empire stretched as far north as present-day [[Colombia]] and as far south as [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]]. However, a war of succession and unrest among newly-conquered territories had already considerably weakened the empire. Pizarro did not have a formidable force; with fewer than 200 men and only 27 horses, he often needed to talk his way out of potential confrontations that could have easily wiped out his party. However, many people joined Pizarro's army on the way, increasing the force to several thousand. The Inca Emperor [[Atahualpa]] and his army fought fiercely against the Spanish conquistadors during the [[Battle of Cajamarca]], but could not simultaneously face the technology of the Spanish (particularly [[firearm]]s and [[cannon]]) and rebellion among subject tribes. Cuzco was definitively lost in [[1536]]. The Inca leadership retreated to the mountain regions of [[Vilcabamba, Perú|Vilcabamba]], where it remained for over another thirty years. In 1572, the last of the Inca rulers, [[Túpac Amaru]], was beheaded and Tahuantinsuyu officially came to an end.

== After the Spanish conquest ==

After the fall of Tahuantinsuyu, the new Spanish rulers brutally repressed the people and their traditions. Many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system. The Spanish used the Inca [[Mita_%28Inca%29|mita]] (mandatory public service) system to literally work the people to death. One member of each family was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at [[Potosí]]. When one family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family would be required to send a replacement.

The major languages of the empire, [[Quechua language|Quechua]] and [[Aymara language|Aymara]], were employed by the [[Catholic Church]] to evangelize in the [[Andean]] region. In some cases, these languages were taught to peoples who had originally spoken other indigenous languages. Today, Quechua and Aymara remain the most widespread [[Amerindian language]]s.

The legend of the Inca has served as inspiration for resistance movements in the region. These include the [[1780]] rebellion led by [[Tupac Amaru II]] against the Spanish, as well as contemporary the [[guerrilla]] movements [[Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement]] (MRTA) and [[Sendero Luminoso]] in Peru and [[Tupamaros]] in [[Uruguay]].

Tawantinsuyu has a modern [[rainbow flag]] which is displayed throughout Peru.

== Society ==

=== Political organization of the empire ===

[[Image:Ollantaytambo.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Ollantaytambo]]'' constituted an administrative, religious, agricultural and military complex for the Incas]]

The most powerful figure in the empire was the [[Sapa Inca]] ('the unique Inca'). When a new ruler was chosen, his subjects would build his family a new royal dwelling. The former royal dwelling would remain the dwelling of the former Inca's family. Only descendants of the original Inca tribe ever ascended to the level of Inca. Most young members of the Inca's family attended [[Inca education|Yachayhuasis]] (houses of knowledge) to obtain their education.

The Tahuantinsuyu was a [[federation|federalist system]] which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provinces: [[Chinchaysuyu]] (NW), [[Antisuyu]] (NE), [[Qontisuyu]] (SW), and [[Qollasuyu]] (SE). The four corners of these provinces met at the center, Cuzco. Each province had a governor who oversaw local officials, who in turn supervised agriculturally-productive river valleys, cities and mines. There were separate chains of command for both the military and religious institutions, which created a system of partial checks and balances on power. The local officials were responsible for settling disputes and keeping track of each family's contribution to the [[Mita_%28Inca%29|mita]] (mandatory public service).

The four provincial governors were called ''apos''. The next rank down, the ''t'oqrikoq'' (local leaders), numbered about 90 in total and typically managed a city and its hinterlands. Below them were four levels of administration:

{|

|- align=right

!Level name !!Mita payers

|- align=right

|Hunu kuraqa ||10000

|- align=right

|Waranqa kuraqa ||1000

|- align=right

|Pachaka Kuraqa ||100

|- align=right

|Chunka kamayuq ||10

|}

Every five ''waranqa curaca'', ''pachaka curaca'', and ''chunka kamayuq'' had a intermediary to the next level called, respectively, ''picqa waranqa curaca'', ''picqa pacaka curaca'', and ''picqa conka kamayoq''. This means that the middle managers managed either two or five people, while the ''conka kamayoq'' (at the worker manager level) and the ''apos'' and ''t'oqrikoq'' (in upper management) each had about 20 people reporting to them.

The descendants of the original Inca tribe were not numerous enough to administer their empire without help. To cope with the need for leadership at all levels the Inca established a [[civil service]] system. Boys at age of 13 and girls at age of first menstruation had their intelligence tested by the local Inca officials. If they failed, their [[ayllu]] (extended family group) would teach them one of many trades, such as farming, gold working, weaving, or military skills. If they passed the test, they were sent to Cuzco to attend school to become administrators. There they learned to read the [[quipu]] (knotted cord records) and were taught Inca [[iconography]], leadership skills, religion, and, most importantly, [[mathematics]]. The graduates of this school constituted the nobility and were expected to marry within that nobility.

While some workers were held in great esteem, such as royal [[goldsmith]]s and [[weaver]]s, they could never themselves enter the ruling classes. The best they could hope for was that their children might pass the exam as adolescents to enter the civil service. Although workers were considered the lowest social class, they were entitled to a modicum of what today we call [[due process]], and all classes were equally subject to the [[rule of law]]. For example, if a worker was accused of stealing and the charges were proven false, the local official could be punished for not doing his job properly.

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=== Childhood ===

Inca childhood was harsh by modern standards. When a baby was born, the Inca would wash the child in cold water and wrap it in a blanket. Soon after, the baby was put in a pit dug in the ground like a playpen. By about age one, they expected the baby to crawl and walk independently. At age two, the child was ceremonially named and were considered to have left infancy. From then on, boys and girls were expected to help around the house. Misbehaving during this time could result in very severe punishment. At age fourteen, boys received a loincloth in a [[ceremony]] to mark their [[manhood]]. Boys from noble families were subjected to many different tests of endurance and knowledge. After the test, they received earplugs and a weapon, whose color represented rank in [[society]].

This doesn't really fit into this article at the moment [[User:Zenyu|Zenyu]] 18:15, Dec 7, 2004 (UTC)

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=== Arts ===

The Inca were a conquering society, and their expansionist assimilation of other cultures is evident in their artistic style. The artistic style of the Inca utilized the vocabulary of many regions and cultures, but incorporated these themes into a standardized imperial style that could easily be replicated and spread throughout the empire. The simple abstract geometric forms and highly stylized animal representation in ceramics, wood carvings, textiles and metalwork were all part of the Inca culture. The motifs were not as revivalist as previous empires. No motifs of other societies were directly used with the exception of [[Huari]] and [[Tiwanaku]] arts.

====Architecture====

[[Architecture]] was by far the most important of the Inca arts, with pottery and textiles reflecting motifs that were at their height in architecture. The stone temples constructed by the Inca used a mortarless construction process first used on a large scale by the [[Tiwanaku]]. The Inca imported the stoneworkers of the Tiwanaku region to Cusco when they conquered the lands south of Lake Titicaca. The rocks used in construction were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable in the frequent earthquakes that strike the area. The Inca used straight walls except on important religious sites and constructed whole towns at once.

The Inca also sculpted the natural surroundings themselves. One could easily think that a rock along an [[Inca road system|Inca trail]] is completely natural, except if one sees it at the right time of year when the sun casts a stunning shadow, betraying its synthetic form. The [[Inca rope bridge]]s were also used to transport messages and materials by [[chasqui|Chasqui]] running messengers. The Inca also adopted the terraced agriculture that the previous [[Huari]] civilization had popularized. But they did not use the terraces solely for food production. At the Inca ''tambo'', or inn, at [[Ollantaytambo]] the terraces were planted with flowers, extraordinary in this parched land.

The terraces of Moray were left unirrigated in a desert area and seem to have been solely decorative. The Inca provincial thrones were often carved into natural outcroppings, and there were over 360 natural springs in the areas surrounding Cusco, such as the one at Tambo Machay. At Tambo Machay the natural rock was sculpted and stonework was added, creating alcoves and directing the water into fountains. These pseudo-natural carvings functioned to show both the Inca's respect for nature and their command over it.

==== Clothing ====

[[Image:Tupa-inca-tunic.png|thumb|300px|Inca tunic]]

Inca officials wore stylized [[tunic]]s that indicated their status. The tunic displayed here is the highest status tunic known to exist today. It contains an amalgamation of motifs used in the tunics of particular officeholders. For instance, the black and white [[checkerboard]] pattern topped with a red triangle is believed to have been worn by soldiers of the Inca army. Some of the motifs make reference to earlier cultures, such as the stepped diamonds of the [[Huari]] and the three step stairstep motif of the [[Moche]]. In this royal tunic, no two squares are exactly the same.

Cloth was divided into three classes. ''Awaska'' was used for household use and had a [[threadcount]] of about 120 [[threads per inch]]. Finer cloth was called ''qunpi'' and was divided into two classes. The first, woven by male ''qunpikamayuq'' (keepers of fine cloth), was collected as tribute from throughout the country and was used for trade, to adorn rulers and to be given as gifts to political allies and subjects to cement loyalty. The other class of ''qunpi'' ranked highest. It was woven by ''aqlla'' (female virgins of the sun god temple) and used solely for royal and religious use. These had threadcounts of 600 or more per inch, unexcelled anywhere in the world until the [[Industrial Revolution]] in the 19th century.

Aside from the tunic, a person of importance wore a ''llawt'u'', a series of cords wrapped around the head. To establish his importance, the Inca [[Atahualpa]] commissioned a ''llawt'u'' woven from vampire bat hair. The leader of each [[ayllu]], or extended family, had its own headdress.

In conquered regions, traditional clothing continued to be worn, but the finest weavers, such as those of [[Chan Chan]], were transferred to Cusco and kept there to weave ''qunpi''. (The [[Chimu|Chimú]] had previously transferred these same weavers to Chan Chan from [[Sican]].)

The wearing of [[jewellery]] was not uniform throughout the empire. Chimú [[artisan]]s, for example, continued to wear [[earrings]] after their integration into the empire, but in many other regions, only local leaders wore them.

==== Ceramics and metalwork ====

Ceramics were for the most part utilitarian in nature, but also incorporated the imperialist style that was prevalent in the Inca textiles and metalwork. In addition, the Inca played drums and on woodwind instruments including [[flute]]s, [[pan-pipe]]s and [[trumpet]]s made of shell and ceramics.

The Inca made beautiful objects of gold. But precious metals were in much shorter supply than in earlier Peruvian cultures. The Inca metalworking style draws much of its inspiration from [[Chimú]] art and in fact the best metal workers of [[Chan Chan]] were transferred to Cusco when the Kingdom of [[Chimor]] was incorporated into the empire. Unlike the Chimú, the Inca do not seem to have regarded metals to be as precious as fine cloth. When the Spanish first encountered the Inca they were offered gifts of ''qunpi'' cloth.

=== Education ===

''Main article: [[Inca education]]''

The Inca did not possess a written or recorded language as far as is known, but scholars point out that because we do not fully understand the quipu (knotted cords) we cannot rule out that they had recorded language. Like the [[Aztec]], they also depended largely on oral transmission as a means of maintaining the preservation of their culture. Inca education was divided into two distinct categories: vocational education for common Inca and highly formalized training for the nobility.

=== Religion ===

''Main article: [[Tahuantinsuyu,_Religion|Tahuantinsuyu Religion]]''

''Other article: [[Inca mythology]]''

The [[Tahuantinsuyu,_Religion|Incan religion]] was pantheist (sun god, earth goddess, corn god, etc.). Subjects of the empire were allowed to worship their ancestral gods as long as they accepted the supremacy of [[Inti]], the sun god, which was the most important god worshipped by the Inca leadership. Consequently, [[ayllu]]s (extended families) and [[city-state]]s integrated into the empire were able to continue to worship their ancestral gods, though with reduced status.

Much of the contact between the upper and lower classes was religious in nature and consisted of intricate ceremonies that sometimes lasted from sunrise to sunset.

=== Medicine ===

The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They performed successful [[Trephinning in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica|skull surgery]]. [[Coca]] leaves were used to lessen hunger and pain, as they still are in the Andes. The [[Chasqui]] (messengers) chewed coca leaves for extra energy to carry on their tasks as runners delivering messages throughout the empire. Recent research by Erasmus University and Medical Center workers Sewbalak and Van Der Wijk showed that, contrary to popular belief, the Inca people were not addicted to coca. Another remedy was to cover boiled bark from a pepper tree and place it over a wound while still warm. The Inca also used guinea pigs not only for food but for a so-called well-working medicine.

=== Burial practices ===

The Inca believed in [[reincarnation]]. Those who obeyed the Incan moral code &mdash; ''ama suwa, ama llulla, ama quella'' (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy) &mdash; went to live in the Sun's warmth. Others spent their eternal days in the cold earth.

The Inca also believed in [[mummy|mummifying]] prominent personages. The mummies would be provided with an assortment of objects which were to be taken into the [[pacarina]]. Upon reaching the pacarina, the mummies or [[mallqui]] would be able to converse with the area's other ancient ancestors, the [[huacas]]. The mallquis were also used in various rituals or celebrations. The deceased were generally buried in a sitting position. One such example was the 500-year-old mummy “''[[Juanita]]'' the [[Ice Maiden]]”, a girl very well-preserved in ice that was discovered at 20,000 feet, near the summit of [[Mt. Ampato]] in Southern Peru. Her burial included many items left as offerings to the Inca gods.

=== Other practices ===

The Inca practiced '''cranial deformation'''. They achieved this by wrapping tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns in order to alter the shape of their still-soft skulls. These deformations did not result in brain damage. Researchers from [http://www.fieldmuseum.org/machupicchu/ The Field Museum] believe that the practice was used to mark different ethnicities across the Inca Empire.[http://www.fieldmuseum.org/machupicchu/ongoing.html]

== See also ==

* [[Cultural periods of Peru]]

* [[History of Peru]]

* [[Spanish conquest of Peru]]

* [[El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega]]

== References ==

* ''Conquest of the Incas''. John Hemming, 1970.

* ''Andean Worlds''. Kenneth Andrien, 2001.

* ''Art of the Andes, from Chavin to Inca''. Rebecca Stone-Miller, 1995.

== External links ==

*[http://www.kb.dk/elib/mss/poma/ Nueva corónica y buen gobierno] by Guaman Poma (published 1615 CE)

*[http://www.kellscraft.com/IncaLand/incalandscontents.html Inca Land] by [[Hiram Bingham III|Hiram Bingham]] (published 1912-1922 CE)

*[http://www.jqjacobs.net/andes/tupac_amaru.html Tupac Amaru], the Life, Times, and Execution of the Last Inca.

*[http://agutie.homestead.com/files/Incan_Geometry_Initial.html Inca Geometry] by Antonio Gutierrez from Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas.

*[http://www.lost-civilizations.net/ancient-civilizations.html Inca civilization] and other ancient civilizations by Genry Joil.

*[http://www.davideandrea.com/personal/ideas/inca_stones/index.html Inca stone cutting techniques]: theory on how the Inca walls fit so perfectly.

[[Category:Former countries]]

[[Category:South American history]]

[[Category:Inca]]

[[Category:History of Peru]]

[[Category:Pre-Columbian cultures]]

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[[it:Impero Inca]]

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