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{{dablink|For other uses see [[Darwin (disambiguation)]]}}
[[Image:Charles_Darwin_1881.jpg|thumb|right|200px|In his lifetime Charles Darwin gained international fame as a controversial and influential scientist.]]
'''Charles Robert Darwin''' ([[February 12]], [[1809]] – [[April 19]], [[1882]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[natural history|naturalist]] who achieved lasting fame as the originator of the [[theory]] of [[evolution]] through [[natural selection]] and [[Sexual selection]]. ''[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] had already developed a different theory of evolution and claimed that acquired characteristics were passed on.''
He developed his interest in natural history while studying first medicine, then [[theology]], at university. Darwin's [[The Voyage of the Beagle|five-year voyage]] on the [[HMS Beagle|''Beagle'']] brought him eminence as a [[geology|geologist]] and fame as a popular author. His [[biology|biological]] observations led him to study the [[transmutation of species]] and develop his theory of natural selection in 1838. Fully aware of the likely reaction, he confided only in close friends and continued his research to meet anticipated objections, but in 1858 the information that [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] now had a similar theory forced early joint [[publication of Darwin's theory]].
His 1859 book ''The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life'' (usually abbreviated to ''[[The Origin of Species]]'') established evolution by [[common descent]] as the dominant scientific theory of diversification in nature. He was made a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]], continued his research, and wrote a series of books on plants and animals, including humankind, notably ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'' and ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]''. His last book was about [[earthworm]]s.
In recognition of Darwin's pre-eminence, he was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]], close to [[William Herschel]] and [[Isaac Newton]].
== Life ==
=== Early life ===
[[Image:Charles Darwin 1816.jpg|thumb|190px|The seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816, a year before the sudden loss of his mother.]]
{{main|Charles Darwin's education}}
Charles Darwin was born in [[Shrewsbury, Shropshire]], [[England]], on [[February 12]], [[1809]] at his family home, the [[The Mount, Shrewsbury|Mount House]]. He was the fifth of six children of [[Robert Darwin|Robert]] and [[Susannah Darwin]] (''née'' Wedgwood), and the grandson of [[Erasmus Darwin]] on his father's side, of [[Josiah Wedgwood]] on his mother's side, both from the [[Darwin-Wedgwood family|Darwin–Wedgwood family]], a prominent English family which supported the [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] church. His mother died when he was only eight. When he went to the nearby [[Shrewsbury School]] the next year, he lived there as a "[[boarding school|boarder]]".
In 1825 Darwin went to [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh University]] to study medicine, but his revulsion at the brutality of surgery led him to neglect his medical studies. He studied [[taxonomy]] with a freed black slave from South America, and found his tales of the South American rainforest absorbing. In Darwin's second year he became active in student societies for [[natural history|naturalists]]. He became an avid pupil of [[Robert Edmund Grant]], who enthusiastically followed the theories of [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] and Charles's grandfather Erasmus concerning evolution by acquired characteristics. Grant's pioneering investigations of the life cycle of marine animals on the shores of the [[Firth of Forth]] found evidence for ''[[homology (biology)|homology]]'', the radical theory that all animals have similar organs and differ only in complexity. Darwin took part in these investigations, and in March 1827 made a presentation to the Plinian society of his discovery that the black spores often found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech. He also sat in on [[Robert Jameson]]'s natural history course, learning about [[stratigraphy|stratigraphic]] [[geology]] and assisting with work on the collections of the [[Royal Museum|Museum of Edinburgh University]], then one of the largest museums in Europe.
In 1827, his father, unhappy that his younger son had no interest in becoming a physician, enrolled him in a [[Bachelor of Arts]] course at [[Christ's College, Cambridge|Christ's College]], [[University of Cambridge]], which would qualify him to be a clergyman. This was a sensible career move at a time when [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] [[parson]]s were provided with a comfortable income, and when most naturalists in England were clergymen who saw it as part of their duties to explore the wonders of God's creation. At Cambridge, Darwin preferred riding and shooting to studying. Along with his cousin [[William Darwin Fox]], he became engrossed in the craze at the time for the competitive collecting of beetles, and Fox introduced him to the Reverend [[John Stevens Henslow]], professor of botany, for expert advice on beetles. Darwin subsequently joined Henslow's natural history course, becoming his favourite pupil and coming to be known as "the man who walks with Henslow". When exams began to loom, Darwin focused more on his studies and received private tuition from Henslow, whose subjects were mathematics and theology. Darwin became particularly enthused by the writings of [[William Paley]], including the [[teleological argument|argument of divine design in nature]]. In his finals in January 1831, he performed well in theology and, having scraped through in classics, mathematics and physics, came tenth out of a pass list of 178.
Residential requirements now kept Darwin at Cambridge until June. In keeping with Henslow's example and advice, he was in no rush to take holy orders. Inspired by [[Alexander von Humboldt]]'s ''Personal Narrative'', he planned to visit the [[Madeira Islands]] to study natural history in the tropics with some classmates after graduation. To prepare himself, Darwin joined the geology course of the Reverend [[Adam Sedgwick]], then in the summer went with him to assist in mapping strata in [[Wales]]. Darwin was surveying strata on his own when his plans to visit Madeira were dashed by a message that his intended companion had died, but on his return home he received another letter. Henslow had recommended Darwin for the unpaid position of gentleman's companion to [[Robert FitzRoy]], the captain of [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']], on a two-year expedition to chart the coastline of [[South America]] which would give Darwin valuable opportunities to develop his career as a naturalist. His father objected to the voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by [[Josiah Wedgwood II]] to agree to his son's participation. This voyage became a five-year expedition that would lead to dramatic changes in countless fields of science.
=== Journey on the Beagle ===
{{main|The Voyage of the Beagle}}
[[Image:HMS_Beagle_by_Conrad_Martens.jpg|thumb|245px|right|[[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']] surveying the coast of [[South America]], where Darwin's research began.]]
The ''Beagle'' survey took five years. Darwin spent two-thirds of this time exploring on land. He studied a rich variety of geological features, [[fossil]]s and living organisms, and met a wide range of people, both native and colonial. He methodically collected an enormous number of specimens, many of them new to science. These specimens later established his reputation as a naturalist and made him one of the precursors of the field of [[ecology]], particularly the notion of [[biocoenosis]]. His detailed notes formed the basis for his later work and provided social, political and [[Anthropology|anthropological]] insights into the areas he visited. While there, Darwin read [[Charles Lyell]]'s ''Principles of Geology'', which explained geological features as the outcome of gradual processes over huge periods of time, and wrote home that he was seeing landforms "as though he had the eyes of Lyell": stepped plains of shingle and seashells in [[Patagonia]] appeared to be raised beaches; in [[Chile]], he experienced an earthquake that raised the land; and even high in the [[Andes]], he was able to collect seashells. He theorized that [[coral]] [[atoll]]s form on sinking volcanic mountains, and a survey of the [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] supported his theory.
In South America he discovered fossils of gigantic extinct [[megatherium|megatheria]] and [[glyptodon]]s in strata which showed no signs of catastrophe or change in climate. At the time, he thought them similar to African species, but after the voyage [[Richard Owen]] showed that the remains were of animals related to living creatures in the same area. In [[Argentina]] two species of [[Rhea (bird)|rhea]] had separate but overlapping territories. Darwin found different [[mockingbird]]s on the nearby [[Galápagos Islands]], and on returning to Britain he was shown that Galápagos [[tortoise]]s and [[finch]]es were also in distinct species based on the individual islands they inhabited. The Australian [[marsupial]] rat-kangaroo and [[platypus]] were strikingly different animals. This made him remark that "An unbeliever ... might exclaim 'Surely two distinct Creators must have been [at] work'." In the first edition of ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle]]'', he explained species distribution in light of [[Charles Lyell]]'s ideas of "centres of creation"; however, in later editions of this ''Journal'' he foreshadowed his use of Galápagos Islands fauna as evidence for evolution: "one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends."
Three natives of [[Tierra del Fuego]] returned with the Beagle as missionaries. They had become civilized over the previous two years, yet their relatives appeared to Darwin savages little above animals. Within a year, the missionaries had -in Darwin's opinion- reverted to savagery.<!--Please specify what "savagery" they returned to, as this term is a highly loaded one.--> Yet they preferred this and did not want to return to civilization. This experience and his detestation of the slavery he saw elsewhere convinced him that the widespread concept of inferior races was incorrect, and that humanity was not as far removed from animals as his clerical friends believed.
While on board the ship, Darwin suffered from seasickness, in October 1833 he caught a fever in Argentina, and in July 1834, while returning from the Andes down to [[Valparaíso]], he fell ill and spent a month in bed. From 1837 onwards Darwin was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, which particularly affected him at times of stress, such as when attending meetings or dealing with controversy over his theory. The cause of [[Charles Darwin's illness|Darwin's illness]] was unknown during his lifetime, and attempts at treatment had little success. Recent speculation has suggested that in South America he caught [[Chagas disease]] from insect bites, leading to the later problems. Other possible causes include psychobiological problems.
=== Career in science, inception of theory ===
[[Image:Charles_Darwin_by_G._Richmond.jpg|thumb|left|While still a young man, Charles Darwin joined the scientific élite.]]
{{main|Inception of Darwin's theory}}
While Darwin was still on the voyage, [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]] carefully fostered his former pupil's reputation by giving selected naturalists access to the fossil specimens and printed copies of Darwin's geological writings. When the Beagle returned on [[October 2]], [[1836]], Darwin was a celebrity in scientific circles. He visited his home in Shrewsbury and his father organised investments so that Darwin could become a self-funded gentleman scientist. After visiting [[Cambridge]] and getting Henslow to agree to work on botanical descriptions of modern plants he had collected, Darwin went round the [[London]] institutions to find the best naturalists available to describe his other collections for timely publication. An eager [[Charles Lyell]] met Darwin on [[29 October]] and introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist [[Richard Owen]]. After working on Darwin's collection of fossil bones at his [[Royal College of Surgeons]], Owen caused great surprise by revealing that some were from gigantic extinct rodents and sloths. This enhanced Darwin's reputation. With Lyell's enthusiastic backing Darwin read his first paper to the [[Geological Society of London]] on [[January 4]], [[1837]], arguing that the South American landmass was slowly rising. On the same day Darwin presented his mammal and bird specimens to the [[Zoological Society of London|Zoological Society]]. The Mammalia were taken on by [[George Robert Waterhouse|George R. Waterhouse]]. Though the birds seemed almost an afterthought, the ornithologist [[John Gould]] revealed that what Darwin had taken to be wrens, blackbirds and slightly differing finches from the Galápagos were all finches, but each was a separate species. Others on the ''Beagle'' including FitzRoy had also collected these birds and had been more careful with their notes, enabling Darwin to find which island each species had come from.
In London Charles stayed with his brother [[Erasmus Alvey Darwin|Erasmus]] and met inspiring [[savant]]s at dinner parties. His brother's lady friend Miss [[Harriet Martineau]] was a writer whose stories promoted [[Thomas Malthus|Malthusian]] [[Whig]] [[Poor Law]] reforms. Scientific circles were buzzing with ideas of [[Transmutation of species]] controversially associated with [[Radicalism (historical)|radicalism]]. Darwin preferred the respectability of his friends the Cambridge Dons, even though his ideas were pushing beyond their belief that natural history must justify religion and social order.
On [[February]] 17, [[1837]], Lyell used his presidential address at the Geographical Society to present Owen's findings to date on Darwin's fossils, pointing out the inference that extinct species were related to current species in the same locality. At the same meeting Darwin was elected to the Council of the Society. He had already been invited by FitzRoy to contribute a ''Journal'' based on his field notes as the natural history section of the captain's account of the Beagle's voyage. He now plunged into writing a book on South American Geology. At the same time he speculated on transmutation in his ''Red Notebook'' which he had begun on the Beagle. Another project he started was getting the expert reports on his collection published as a multivolume ''Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle'', and Henslow used his contacts to arrange a Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this. Darwin finished writing his ''Journal'' around [[20 June]] when King [[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV]] died and the [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victorian]] era began. In mid-July he began his secret ''"B" notebook'' on transmutation, and developed the [[hypothesis]] that where every island in the Galápagos Archipelago had its own kind of tortoise, these had originated from a single tortoise species and had adapted to life on the different islands in different ways.
Under pressure with organising ''Zoology'' and correcting proofs of his ''Journal'', Darwin's health suffered. On [[September 20]], [[1837]] he suffered "palpitations of the heart" and left for a month of recuperation in the country. He visited [[Maer Hall]] where his invalid aunt was being cared for by her spinster daughter [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]], and entertained his relatives with tales of his travels. His uncle [[Josiah Wedgwood II|Jos]] pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under [[loam]] and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms. This gave Darwin the inspiration for a talk which he gave to the Geological Society on [[1 November]], on the unusually mundane subject of worm casts. He had avoided taking on official posts which would take valuable time, but by March Whewell had recruited him as Secretary of the Geological Society. Illness prompted Darwin to take a break from the pressure of work and he went "geologising" in Scotland. In glorious weather he visited [[Glen Roy]] to see the phenomenon known as "roads" which he identified as raised beaches.
[[Image:Emma Darwin.jpg|thumb|left|Charles chose to marry his cousin, [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]].]]
Fully recuperated, he returned home to Shrewsbury. Pondering his career and prospects he drew up a list with columns headed ''"Marry"'' and ''"Not Marry"''. Having come down in favour, he discussed it with his father then went to visit his cousin Emma on [[July 29]], [[1838]]. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he told her of his ideas on transmutation. While his thoughts and work continued in London over the autumn he suffered repeated bouts of illness. On [[11 November]] he returned and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, but later wrote beseeching him to read from the Gospel of St. John a section on love and following ''the Way'' which also states that ''"If a man abide not in me...they are burned"''. He sent a warm reply which eased her concern, but she would continue to worry that his lapses of faith could endanger her hope that they would meet in an afterlife.
Darwin considered [[Thomas Malthus|Malthus]]'s argument that human populations breed beyond their means and compete to survive. He related this to the findings about species relating to localities, his enquiries into animal breeding, and ideas of Natural "laws of harmony". Towards the end of November 1838 he compared breeders selecting traits to a Malthusian Nature selecting from variants thrown up by "chance" so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practised and perfected", and thought this "the most beautiful part of my theory" of how species originated. He went house-hunting and eventually found "Macaw Cottage" in Gower Street, London, then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. He was showing the stress, and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you". On [[January 24]], [[1839]] he was honoured by being elected as Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] and presented his paper on the Roads of Glen Roy.
===
[[Image:Charles and William Darwin.jpg|thumb|185px|Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, [[Darwin-Wedgwood family|William Erasmus Darwin]].]]
On [[January 29]], [[1839]], Darwin married his cousin [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]] at Maer in an [[Anglican]] ceremony arranged to also suit the [[Unitarian]]s.
After first living in Gower Street, [[London]], the couple moved on [[September 17]], [[1842]] to [[Down House]] in [[Downe]] (which is now open to public visits, south of [[Orpington]]). The Darwins had ten children, three of whom died early. Many of these and their grandchildren would later achieve notability themselves (see [[Darwin -- Wedgwood family|Darwin–Wedgwood family]])
* William Erasmus Darwin ([[December 27]], [[1839]]–[[1914]])
* [[Anne Darwin|Anne Elizabeth Darwin]] ([[March 2]], [[1841]]–[[April 22]], [[1851]])
* Mary Eleanor Darwin ([[September 23]], [[1842]]–[[October 16]], [[1842]])
* Henrietta Emma "Etty" Darwin ([[September 25]], [[1843]]–[[1929]])
* [[George Darwin|George Howard Darwin]] ([[July 9]], [[1845]]–[[December 7]], [[1912]])
* [[Elizabeth Darwin|Elizabeth "Bessy" Darwin]] ([[July 8]], [[1847]]–[[1926]])
* [[Francis Darwin]] ([[August 16]], [[1848]]–[[September 19]], [[1925]])
* [[
* [[
* [[Charles Waring Darwin]] ([[December 6]], [[1856]]–[[June 28]], [[1858]])
Several of their children suffered illness or weaknesses, and Charles Darwin's fear that this might be due to the closeness of his and Emma’s lineage was expressed in his writings on the ill effects of inbreeding and advantages of crossing.
===
{{main|Development of Darwin's theory}}
[[Image:Charles Darwin.jpg|frame|left|Fearing both scientific and religious criticism, Darwin spent decades developing his theory of evolution largely in secret.]]
Darwin was now an eminent geologist in the scientific élite of clerical naturalists, settled with a private income. He had a vast amount of work to do, writing up his findings and theories, and supervising the preparation of the multivolume ''Zoology'', which would describe his collections. He was convinced by his [[theory of evolution]], but for a long time had been aware that [[transmutation of species]] was associated with the crime of [[blasphemy]] as well as with [[Radicalism (historical)|Radical]] democratic agitators in Britain who were seeking to overthrow society; thus, publication risked ruining his reputation. He embarked on extensive experiments with plants and consultations with [[Animal husbandry|animal husbanders]], including pigeon and pig breeders, trying to find soundly based answers to all the arguments he anticipated when he presented his theory in public.
When FitzRoy's account was published in May 1839, Darwin's ''Journal and Remarks'' was a great success. Later that year it was published on its own, becoming the bestseller nowadays known as ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle]]''. In December 1839, as Emma's first pregnancy progressed, Darwin suffered more illness and accomplished little during the following year.
Darwin made attempts to explain his theory to close friends, but they were slow to show interest and thought that selection must need a divine selector. In 1842 the family moved to [[Down House]] to escape the pressures of London. Darwin formulated a short "Pencil Sketch" of his theory, and by 1844 had written a 240-page "Essay" that expanded his early ideas on natural selection. Darwin completed his third ''Geological'' book in 1846; assisted by his friend, the young botanist [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]], he embarked on a huge study of [[barnacles]]. In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed.
To try to deal with his illness, Darwin went to a spa in [[Malvern]] in 1849, and to his surprise found that the two months of water treatment helped. In his work on barnacles he found "[[Homology (biology)|homologies]]" that supported his theory by showing that slightly changed body parts could serve different functions to meet new conditions. Then his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary. After a long series of crises, she died and Darwin lost all faith in a beneficent God. He met the young naturalist [[Thomas Huxley]] who was to become a close friend and ally, then completed his work on barnacles (''Cirripedia'') in 1854 and turned his attention to his theory of species.
===Announcement and publication of theory===
[[Image:Charles Darwin aged 51.jpg|right|thumb|Charles Darwin, now an established geologist, was forced into early publication of his theory of [[natural selection]].]]
{{main|Publication of Darwin's theory}}
In the spring of 1856, Lyell read a paper on the ''Introduction'' of species by [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], a naturalist working in [[Borneo]], and urged Darwin to publish his theory to establish precedence. Darwin pressed ahead despite illness, getting specimens and information from naturalists including Wallace and [[Asa Gray]]. In December 1857 as Darwin worked on his ''Natural Selection'' manuscript he received a letter from Wallace asking if it would delve into human origins. Sensitive to Lyell's fears, Darwin responded that "I think I shall avoid the whole subject, as so surrounded with prejudices, though I fully admit that it is the highest & most interesting problem for the naturalist". He encouraged Wallace's theorising, saying "without speculation there is no good & original observation", adding that "I go much further than you". Then on [[June 18]], [[1858]], he received a paper from Wallace describing the evolutionary mechanism, with a request to send it on to Lyell. Darwin did so, shocked that he had been "forestalled" and though Wallace had not asked for publication, offering to send it to any journal that Wallace chose. He put matters in the hands of Lyell and Hooker, who agreed on a joint presentation at the [[Linnean Society of London|Linnean Society]] on [[1 July]] of ''[[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection]]''.
The initial announcement of the theory gained little immediate attention. It was mentioned briefly in a few small reviews, but to most people it seemed much the same as other varieties of [[evolutionism|evolutionary thought]]. For the next thirteen months Darwin struggled with ill health to produce an abstract of his "big book on species". Receiving constant encouragement from his scientific friends, Darwin finally finished his abstract and Lyell arranged to have it published by [[John Murray (publisher)|John Murray]]. The title was agreed as ''[[The Origin of Species|On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection]]'', and when the book went on sale to the trade on [[November 22]], [[1859]], the stock of 1,250 copies was oversubscribed. At the time "Evolutionism" implied creation without divine intervention, and Darwin avoided using the words "evolution" or "evolve", though the book ends by stating that "endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved". The book only briefly alluded to the idea that man, too, would evolve in the same way as other organisms. Darwin wrote in deliberate understatement that "light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history".
==
[[image:Darwin_ape.jpg|thumb|left|Satirical attacks on Darwin were typified by the later caricature of him as an ape in ''Hornet'' magazine.]]
{{main|Reaction to Darwin's theory}}
Darwin's book set off a public controversy which he monitored closely, keeping press cuttings of thousands of reviews, articles, satires, parodies and caricatures. Reviewers were quick to pick out the unstated implications of "men from monkeys", though a [[Unitarian]] review was favourable and ''[[The Times]]'' published a glowing review by Huxley which included swipes at [[Richard Owen]], leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow. Owen initially appeared neutral, but then wrote a review condemning the book. The [[Church of England]] scientific establishment reacted against the book, and Darwin's old Cambridge tutors [[Adam Sedgwick|Sedgwick]] and [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]] expressed their disappointment in him. Then ''[[Essays and Reviews]]'' by seven liberal [[Anglican]] theologians declared that miracles were irrational (and supported the ''Origin''), distracting attention away from Darwin.
The most famous confrontation took place at a meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] in [[Oxford]]. Professor [[John William Draper]] made a boring speech on Darwin and social progress, then [[Samuel Wilberforce|'Soapy Sam' Wilberforce]], the [[Bishop]] of Oxford, argued against Darwin. In the ensuing debate [[Thomas_Henry_Huxley|Thomas Huxley]] established himself as "Darwin's bulldog" – the fiercest defender of evolutionary theory on the Victorian stage. On being asked by Wilberforce whether he was descended from monkeys on his grandfather's side or his grandmother's side, Huxley apparently muttered to himself: "The Lord has delivered him into my hands" and replied that he "would rather be descended from an ape than from a cultivated man who used his gifts of culture and eloquence in the service of prejudice and falsehood" (there are several alternative versions of this story, see [http://users.ox.ac.uk/~jrlucas/legend.html Wilberforce and Huxley: A Legendary Encounter]). The story spread around the country: Huxley had said he would rather be an ape than a Bishop.
Many people felt that Darwin's view of nature destroyed the important distinction between man and beast. Darwin himself did not personally defend his theories in public, though he read eagerly about the continuing debates. He was frequently very ill, and mustered support through [[Correspondence of Charles Darwin|letters and correspondence]]. A core circle of scientific friends – Huxley, [[Charles Lyell]], [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]], and [[Asa Gray]] – actively pushed his work to the fore of the scientific and public stage, defending him against his many critics in this key scientific controversy of the era. Darwin's theory also resonated with various movements at the time and became a key fixture of popular culture. The book was translated into many languages and went through numerous reprints. It became a staple scientific text accessible both to a newly curious middle class and to "working men", hailed as the most controversial and discussed scientific book ever written.
=== Later life and death ===
{{main2|Darwin from Orchids to Variation|Darwin from Descent of Man to Emotions|Darwin from Insectivorous plants to Worms}}
[[image:Charles Darwin 1880.jpg|frame|A classic image of Darwin in 1880, still researching and producing numerous books.]]
Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life Darwin pressed on with his work. He had published an abstract of his theory, but more controversial aspects of his "big book" were still incomplete; mankind's descent from earlier animals, and the mechanism of [[sexual selection]] which could explain features with no obvious utility other than decorative beauty as well as suggesting possible causes underlying the development of society and of human mental abilities. His experiments, research and writing continued.
When Darwin's daughter fell ill he set aside his experiments with seedlings and domestic animals to go with her to a seaside resort where he became interested in wild [[orchid]]s. This developed into an innovative study of how their beautiful flowers served to control insect pollination and ensure cross fertilisation. As with the barnacles, homologous parts served different functions in different species. Back at home he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with experiments on climbing plants. He was visited by a reverent [[Ernst Haeckel]] who had spread the gospel of ''Darwinismus'' in [[Germany]]. Even at Cambridge, students now supported his ideas. Huxley gave "working-men's lectures" to widen the audience, and Wallace remained a supporter but increasingly turned to [[spiritualism]]. ''Variation'' grew to two huge volumes, forcing him to leave out man and sexual selection, but when printed was in huge demand.
New fossil evidence proved the antiquity of man, but other writers failed to fully tackle human evolution. Opponents claimed that the beauty of birds demonstrated divine guidance. These two subjects were tackled in ''[[The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'' which he followed up with ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]''. Darwin produced practical explanations for the differences between males and females, and between different races and cultures. He also developed his ideas that the human mind and cultures were developed by natural and sexual selection, an approach which still persists in [[evolutionary psychology]]. His evolution-related experiments and investigations culminated in five books on plants, and then his last book returned to the effect worms have on soil levels.
Darwin died in Downe, [[Kent]], England, on [[April 19]], [[1882]]. He had expected to be buried in St. Mary's churchyard at Downe, but at the request of Darwin's colleagues [[William Spottiswoode]], [[President]] of the [[Royal Society]], arranged for Darwin to be given a state funeral and buried in [[Westminster Abbey]].
== Religious views ==
{{main|Charles Darwin's views on religion}}
[[Image:Annie Darwin.jpg|frame|left|The 1851 death of Darwin's daughter, [[Anne Darwin|Annie]], was the final step in pushing an already doubting Darwin away from the idea of a beneficent God.]]
Charles Darwin came from a [[Nonconformist]] background. Though several members of his family were [[Freethought|Freethinkers]], openly lacking conventional religious beliefs, he did not initially doubt the literal truth of the Bible. He attended a [[Church of England]] school, then at Cambridge studied [[Anglican]] theology to become a clergyman and was fully convinced by [[William Paley]]'s [[teleological argument]] that design in nature proved the existence of God. However, his beliefs began to shift during his time on board [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']]. He questioned what he saw—wondering, for example, at beautiful deep-ocean creatures created where no one could see them, and shuddering at the sight of a wasp paralysing caterpillars as live food for its eggs; he saw the latter as contradicting Paley's vision of beneficent design. While on the ''Beagle'' Darwin was quite [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] and would quote the Bible as an authority on morality, but had come to see the history in the [[Old Testament]] as being false and untrustworthy.
Upon his return, he investigated [[transmutation of species]], aware that his clerical naturalist friends thought this a bestial heresy undermining miraculous justifications for the social order, and aware that such revolutionary ideas were especially unwelcome at a time when the Church of England's established position was under attack from [[radicalism|radical]] [[Dissenter]]s and [[atheism|atheists]]. While secretly developing his theory of [[natural selection]], Darwin even wrote of religion as a tribal survival strategy, though he still believed that God was the ultimate lawgiver. His belief continued to dwindle over the time, and with the death of his daughter [[Anne Darwin|Annie]] in 1851, Darwin finally lost all faith in Christianity. He continued to give support to the local church and help with parish work, but on Sundays would go for a walk while his family attended church. In later life, when asked about his religious views, he denied being an atheist, but wrote:
:my judgment often fluctuates...In my most extreme fluctuations I have never been an Atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God. I think that generally (and more and more as I grow older), but not always, that an Agnostic would be the more correct description of my state of mind."
In concluding his biography of his grandfather, [[Erasmus Darwin]], Darwin recounted how after his death in [[1802]], false stories were circulated that he had called for Jesus on his deathbed, writing "Such was the state of Christian feeling in this country at the [time].... We may at least hope that nothing of the kind now prevails." Despite this hope, very similar stories were circulated following Darwin's own death, most prominently the "[[Elizabeth Hope|Lady Hope Story]]", published in [[1915]], claiming his sickbed conversion. Such stories have been heavily propagated by some Christian groups, to the extent of becoming [[urban legend]]s, though the claims were refuted by Darwin's children and have been dismissed as false by historians.
== Legacy ==
[[Image:Darwin-Charles-LOC.jpg|thumb|Charles Darwin's theories had an enormous effect on many fields of science.]]
Charles Darwin's theory of evolution based upon [[natural selection]] changed the thinking of countless fields of study from [[biology]] to [[anthropology]]. His work established that "evolution" had occurred: not necessarily that it was by natural or sexual selection (this particular recognition would not become fully standard until the rediscovery of [[Gregor Mendel]]'s work in the early 20th century and the creation of the [[modern synthesis]]).
His work was extremely controversial at the time he published it and many during his time did not take it seriously. Darwin's theory of evolution was a significant blow to notions of [[creationism|divine creation]] and [[intelligent design]] prevalent in [[19th-century]] science, specifically overturning the [[Creation biology]] doctrine of "[[Created kind]]s". The idea that there was no line to draw between man and beast would forever make Darwin a symbol of iconoclasm who removed humanity's privileged role in the centre of the universe. To some of his detractors, Darwin would be "the monkey man", often depicted as part ape.
===Commemoration ===
During Darwin's lifetime many species and geographical features were given his name, including the [[Darwin Sound]] named by [[Robert FitzRoy]] after Darwin's prompt action saved them from being marooned, and the nearby [[Mount Darwin (Andes)|Mount Darwin]] in the [[Andes]] celebrating Darwin's 25th birthday. In [[Australia]]'s [[Northern Territory]], the capital city (originally Palmerston) was renamed [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] to commemorate the Beagle's [[1839]] visit there, and the territory now also boasts [[Charles Darwin University]] and [[Charles Darwin National Park]].
The 14 species of [[Finch]]es he researched in the [[Galápagos Islands]] are affectionately named "Darwin's Finches" in honour of his legacy. In [[1964]], [[Darwin College, Cambridge]] was founded, named in honour of the Darwin family, partially because they owned some of the land it was on. In [[1992]], Darwin was ranked #16 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]]. Darwin was given particular recognition in [[2000]] when his image appeared on the [[Bank of England]] [[British banknotes|ten pound note]], replacing [[Charles Dickens]]. His impressive and supposedly hard-to-forge beard was reportedly a contributing factor in this choice. Darwin came fourth in the ''[[100 Greatest Britons]]'' poll sponsored by the [[BBC]] and voted for by the public.
As a humorous celebration of the theory of evolution, the annual [[Darwin Awards|Darwin Award]] is bestowed on individuals who ''"aid the process of evolution by demonstrating their unfitness"'' through fatally stupid actions.
===Eugenics ===
Following Darwin's publication of the ''Origin'' his cousin [[Francis Galton]] applied the concepts to human society, producing ideas to promote "hereditary improvement" starting in [[1865]] and elaborated at length in [[1869]]. In ''[[The Descent of Man]]'' Darwin agreed that Galton had demonstrated that "talent" and "genius" in humans were probably inherited, but thought that the social changes Galton proposed were too "utopian". Neither Galton nor Darwin supported government intervention and instead believed that, at most, heredity should be taken into consideration by people seeking potential mates. In [[1883]], after Darwin's death, Galton began calling his social philosophy ''[[Eugenics]]''. In the [[twentieth century]], eugenics movements gained popularity in a number of countries and became associated with reproduction control programmes such as [[compulsory sterilization|compulsory sterilisation]] laws, then were stigmatised after their usage in the rhetoric of [[Nazi Germany]] in its goals of genetic "purity".
===Social Darwinism ===
In [[1944]] the American historian [[Richard Hofstadter]] applied the term "[[Social Darwinism]]" to describe 19th- and 20th-century thinking developed from the ideas of [[Thomas Malthus]] and [[Herbert Spencer]], which applied ideas of evolution and "[[survival of the fittest]]" to societies or nations competing for survival in a hostile world. These ideas became discredited by association with [[racism]] and [[New Imperialism|imperialism]]. Though the term is anachronistic, in Darwin's day the difference between what was later called "Social Darwinism" and simple "Darwinism" was less clear. However, Darwin did not believe that his scientific theory mandated any particular theory of governance or social order.
The use of the phrase "Social Darwinism" to describe Malthus's ideas is particularly disingenuous, since Malthus died in [[1834]] before the [[inception of Darwin's theory]] was spurred by his reading the 6th edition of Malthus' famous ''Essay on a Principle of Population'' in [[1838]]. Spencer's evolutionary "progressivism" and his social and political ideas were largely Malthusian, and his books on economics of [[1851]] and on evolution of [[1855]] predated Darwin's publication of the ''Origin'' in [[1859]].
== Works ==
* Bibliography: [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/darwin_biblio.htm#primary Darwin Bibliography] (including alternative editions, contributions to books & periodicals, correspondence & life)
*{{gutenberg author | id=Charles_Darwin | name=Charles Darwin}}
* [http://www.darwin-literature.com Darwin Literature], Chapter-indexed, searchable versions of Darwin's works.
* [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/ Charles Darwin's Books] in an easy to read format.
=== Published works ===
* 1836: ''A LETTER, Containing Remarks on the Moral State of TAHITI, NEW ZEALAND, &c. – BY CAPT. R. FITZROY AND C. DARWIN, ESQ. OF H.M.S. 'Beagle.''' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin4/tahiti.html]
* 1839: ''Journal and Remarks'' ([[The Voyage of the Beagle]])
* ''Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle'': published between [[1839]] and [[1843]] in five volumes by various authors, Edited and superintended by Charles Darwin: information on two of the volumes –
: 1840: ''Part I. Fossil Mammalia'', by [[Richard Owen]] [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/zoology.html (Darwin's introduction)]
: 1839: ''Part II. Mammalia'', by [[George Robert Waterhouse|George R. Waterhouse]] [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/zoology.html (Darwin on habits and ranges)]
* 1842: ''The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs'' [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2690]
* 1844: ''Geological Observations of Volcanic Islands'' [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=3054], [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/observations-geologiques-sur-les-iles-volcaniques/ (French version)]
* 1846: ''Geological Observations on South America'' [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=3620]
* 1849: ''Geology'' from ''A Manual of scientific enquiry; prepared for the use of Her Majesty's Navy: and adapted for travellers in general.'', John F.W. Herschel ed. [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/geology.html]
* 1851: ''A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with Figures of all the Species. The Lepadidae; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes.'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin4/liv_lepadidae/lepadidae01.html]
* 1851: ''A Monograph on the Fossil Lepadidae; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes of Great Britain'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin4/fos_lepadidae/fos.lep.html]
* 1854: ''A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with Figures of all the Species. The Balanidae (or Sessile Cirripedes); the Verrucidae, etc.'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin4/liv_balanidae/balanidae_fm.html]
* 1854: ''A Monograph on the Fossil Balanidæ and Verrucidæ of Great Britain'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin4/fos_balanidae/fos.balanidae.html]
* 1858: ''[[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection|On the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection]]''
* 1859: ''[[The Origin of Species|On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life]]''
* 1862: ''On the various contrivances by which British and foreign orchids are fertilised by insects'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/orchids/orchids_fm.htm]
* 1868: ''Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication'' [http://www.esp.org/books/darwin/variation/facsimile/title3.html (PDF format)], [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/variation-of-animals-and-plants-under-domestication-v1/ Vol. 1], [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/variation-of-animals-and-plants-under-domestication-v2/ Vol. 2]
* 1871: ''[[The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex]]''
* 1872: ''The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals'' [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-expression-of-emotion-in-man-and-animals/]
* 1875: ''Movement and Habits of Climbing Plants'' [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2485]
* 1875: ''Insectivorous Plants'' [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/insectivorous-plants/]
* 1876: ''The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom'' [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-effects-of-cross-and-self-fertilisation/]
* 1877: ''The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species'' [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-different-forms-of-flowers-on-plants/]
* 1879: "Preface and 'a preliminary notice'" in Ernst Krause's ''Erasmus Darwin'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/erasmus.html]
* 1880: ''The Power of Movement in Plants'' [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-power-of-movement-in-plants/]
* 1881: ''Formation of vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms'' [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2355]
* 1887: ''Autobiography of Charles Darwin'' (Edited by his Son Francis Darwin) [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2010]
* 1958: ''Autobiography of Charles Darwin'' (Barlow, unexpurgated)
=== Letters ===
*[[Correspondence of Charles Darwin]]
* 1887: ''Life and Letters of Charles Darwin'', ed. [[Francis Darwin]] [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-life-and-letters-of-charles-darwin-volume-i/ Volume I], [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-life-and-letters-of-charles-darwin-volume-ii/ Volume II]
* 1903: ''More Letters of Charles Darwin'', ed. [[Francis Darwin]] and A.C. Seward [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/more-letters-of-charles-darwin-volume-i/ Volume I], [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/more-letters-of-charles-darwin-volume-ii/ Volume II]
== References ==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{wikibooks}}
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{{Commons|Charles Darwin}}
*Charles Darwin, ''Voyage of the Beagle'', (including Robert FitzRoy's ''Remarks with reference to the Deluge''), (Penguin Books, London [[1989]]) ISBN 0-14-043268-X
*[[E. Janet Browne]], ''Charles Darwin: Voyaging'' and ''The Power of Place'' (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995-2002).
*Adrian Desmond and James Moore, ''Darwin'' (London: Michael Joseph, the Penguin Group, [[1991]]). ISBN 0-7181-3430-3
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/hope.html The Darwin Deathbed Conversion Question]
*Richard Keynes, ''Fossils, Finches and Fuegians: Charles Darwin's Adventures and Discoveries on the Beagle, 1832-1836''. ( London: HarperCollins, 2002).
* James Moore and Adrian Desmond, "Introduction", in ''The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex'' (London: Penguin Classics, 2004). (Detailed history of Darwin's views on race, sex, and class)
*Diane B. Paul, "Darwin, social Darwinism and eugenics," in Jonathan Hodge and Gregory Radick, eds., ''The Cambridge Companion to Darwin'' (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 214-239.
*The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin], Ch. VIII, p. 274. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1905 [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/texts/letters/letters1_08.html]: quotation in which he describes himself as "agnostic"
==External links==
*[http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/ Writings of Charles Darwin on the Web]
*[http://darwin-online.org.uk/ Complete Works of Darwin Online]
*[http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/biographies/charles-darwin/charles-darwin.html Charles Darwin biography at the Natural History Museum, London]
* [http://www.aboutdarwin.com AboutDarwin.com]
* [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/ Darwin] - at the [[American Museum of Natural History]]
* [http://www.gruts.com/darwin/index.php The Friends of Charles Darwin]
* [http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/current/darwin.htm Darwin's portrait on the £10 note]
* [http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?search=ss&sText=Charles+Darwin&LinkID=mp01196 Twelve different portraits of Charles Darwin at the National Portrait Gallery, U.K.]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4607037.stm BBC News: "Darwin family repeat flower count"]
* [http://www.oum.ox.ac.uk/onlinedb/darwin/darimage/dardraw.htm Examine Darwin's crustacean collection online]
* A short [http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Darwin_e.htm biography of Darwin]
==See also==
* [[Harriet]] - a Galápagos tortoise, the world's oldest living animal
* [[Patrick Matthew]]
{{Darwin}}
{{evolution}}
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