Aggiustamento strutturale e Chiesa di San Nicola Vescovo (Ceppaloni): differenze tra le pagine

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Riga 1:
La Chiesa di San Nicola vescovo si trova nel centro storico di Ceppaloni in [[provincia di Benevento]], [[arcidiocesi di Benevento]].
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'''Aggiustamento strutturale''' è un termine utilizzato per descrivere i cambiamenti nelle politiche implementati dal [[Fondo Monetario Internazionale]] (FMI) e dalla [[Banca Mondiale]] (le istituzioni di [[Conferenza di Bretton Woods|Bretton Woods]]) nei [[paesi in via di sviluppo]]. Tali cambiamenti nelle politiche sono detti "[[condizionalità]]" (in [[Lingua inglese|inglese]]: ''conditionalities'') e rappresentano il presupposto da soddisfare per ottenere nuovi finanziamenti dal FMI o dalla Banca Mondiale, o per ottenere tassi d'interesse inferiori sui finanziamenti in essere. Le condizionalità sono implementate per assicurare che il denaro prestato sarà speso in conformità con gli obiettivi globali del finanziamento. I [[Programmi di Aggiustamento Strutturale]] (''Structural Adjustment Programs'' - SAPs) sono creati con l'obiettivo di ridurre gli [[Squilibrio fiscale|squilibri fiscali]] del paese debitore. La banca dalla quale un paese debitore riceve il proprio finanziamento dipende dalla tipologia di necessità. In generale, si sostiene che i finanziamenti concessi dalla [[Banca Mondiale]] e dal [[FMI]] siano progettati per promuovere la crescita economica, generare reddito, e ripagare il debito che i paesi hanno accumulato.
 
Attraverso le condizionalità, i Programmi di Aggiustamento Strutturale implementano generalmente programmi e politiche di "libero mercato". Questi programmi comprendono cambiamenti sia interni (in particolare [[privatizzazione|privatizzazioni]] e [[deregolamentazione|deregolamentazioni]]), sia esterni, specialmente la riduzione delle [[barriere commerciali]]. I paesi che falliscono nell'esecuzione di tali programmi possono essere soggetti a una severa disciplina fiscale. I critici sostengono che le minacce finanziarie ai paesi poveri equivalgono a un ricatto, al quale le nazioni povere non hanno altra scelta che accondiscendere.
 
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Dalla fine degli [[Anni 1990|anni '90]], alcuni sostenitori dell'aggiustamento strutturale come la Banca Mondiale, hanno parlato della "[[riduzione della povertà]]" come di un obiettivo. I Programmi di Aggiustamento Strutturale sono stati spesso criticati per l'implementazione di generiche politiche di libero mercato, e per il mancato coinvolgimento del paese in oggetto. <!-------------INIZIO TESTO DA TRADURRE Per aumentare il coinvolgimento del paese debitore, i paesi in via di sviluppo sono ora incoraggiati a redigere [[Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper]]s (PRSPs). These PRSPs essentially prendono il posto of the SAPs. Alcuni ritengono che l'incremento della partecipazione dei governi locali nella creazione della politica will lead to greater ownership of the loan programs, thus better fiscal policy. The content of these PRSPs has turned out to be quite similar to the original content of bank authored Structural Adjustment Programs. Critics argue that the similarities show that the banks, and the countries that fund them, are still overly involved in the policy making process.--->
 
==Condizioni==
Alcune delle condizioni per l'aggiustamento strutturale possono essere le seguenti:
 
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* Taglio della spesa sociale, noto anche come [[austerità]];
<!----* Focusing economic output on direct export and [[resource extraction]];
* [[Devaluation]] delle valute;
* [[Trade liberalization]], or lifting import and export restrictions;
* Increasing the stability of investment (by supplementing [[foreign direct investment]] with the opening of domestic [[stock markets]]);
* [[Balanced budget|Balancing budgets]] and not overspending;
* Rimozione dei [[price control]]s e dei [[subsidy|subsidies]] statali;------->
* [[Privatizzazione]], o disinvestimento, di tutte o parte delle imprese a partecipazione statale;
* Miglioramento dei diritti degli investitori stranieri rispetto alle leggi nazionali;
* Aumento dell'autorità e lotta alla [[corruzione]].
 
Queste condizioni sono state a volte definite come "[[Washington Consensus]]".
 
==Storia==
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<!-------Le politiche di aggiustamento strutturale emerged da due delle istituzioni di [[Conferenza di Bretton Woods|Bretton Woods]]: il [[Fondo Monetario Internazionale]] e la [[Banca Mondiale]]. They emerged from [[conditionalities]] that IMF and World Bank have been attaching to their loans since the early 1950s<ref name="IMF website on conditionalities">See, [http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/conditio.htm IMF website on conditionalities]</ref>. In the beginning, these conditionalities mainly focused upon a country's macroeconomic policy.
 
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Structural Adjustment Policies as they are known today originated due to a series of global economic disasters durante la fine degli [[Anni 1970|anni '70]]; le [[Crisi energetica|crisi petrolifere]], [[debt crisis]], multiple economic depressions, e la [[stagflazione]]<ref>See [http://wwwnew.towson.edu/polsci/ppp/sp97/imf/POLSAP1.HTM#Historical%20Backdrop%20of Towson.edu webpage on SAPs]</ref>. These fiscal disasters led policy members to decide that deeper intervention was necessary to improve a country's overall well being.
 
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Nel 2002 SAPs underwent another transition, l'introduzione dei [[Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper]]s. [[PRSP]]s vennero introdotti come risultato della convinzione della banca seconod la quale, "per avere successo, i programmi di politica economica devono essere fondati su una forte country ownership"<ref name="IMF website on conditionalities"/>. In aggiunta, SAPs with their enfasi sulla riduzione della povertà have attempted to further align themselves with the [[Millennium Development Goals]] (MDG). As a result of [[PRSP]]s, a more flexible and creative approach to policy creation has been implemented at the IMF and World Bank.
 
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While the main focus of SAPs has continued to be the balancing of external debts and trade deficits, the reasons for those debts have undergone a transition. Today, SAPs and their lending institutions have increased their sphere of influence by providing relief to countries experiencing economic problems due to natural disasters, as well as economic mis-management. Since their inception SAPs have been adopted by a number of other [[International Financial Institutions]] (IFIs).---->
 
==Critiche==
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Ci sono molte critiche che si focalizzano su diversi elementi dei SAPs<!----<ref>For another overview, see [http://wwwnew.towson.edu/polsci/ppp/sp97/imf/POLSAP3.HTM Towson.edu]'s page</ref>.--------->
 
===Sovranità nazionale===
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<!-----Critics claim that SAPs threaten the [[sovereignty]] of national economies because an outside organization is dictating a nation's economic policy. Critics argue that the creation of good policy is in a sovereign nation's own best interest. Thus, SAPs are unnecessary given the state is acting in its best interest. However, it is important to consider that in many developing countries the government will favour political gain over national economic interests, that is it will engage in rent-seeking practices to consolidate political power rather than address crucial economic issues. In many countries in sub-Sarahan Africa, political stability has gone hand in hand with gross economic decline.
 
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While [[public debt]] in developing and developed countries is a nearly universal fact, low-income countries face a much more vulnerable position to maintain an equilibrated [[balance of payments]], with some of the world's 47 poorest nations have already $488 billion in debt in 2003.<ref>Steger, Manfred. ''Globlization A Very Short Introduction'' (2003) Oxford University Press</ref>
 
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Due to this near universality of debt, a popular criticism is that the structural adjustment's terms have become a template for the governance of much of humanity. Hence, some argue that the democratic policy process of countless countries has been undermined by decisions formulated miles away by western economic [[bureaucrats]] and that the implementation of such policy has solely benefited the largest donor countries (the U.S., UK, Canada, and Japan).
 
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For example, the opening of countries to outside investment allows U.S. corporations to build factories in impoverished areas. The corporations are able to exploit the surplus of inexpensive labor, and usual lack of environmental regulations to create goods at a lower price. As a result, corporate profits rise and trade flows increase for that particular country. While this increases the GDP the majority of the profit actually benefits the corporation and the country in which the corporation is based. Conversely, many argue that the people employed by the corporations are desperately in need of any work at all. It is argued that the alternative forms of employment or life styles available to them are much worse.
 
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Structural adjustment became a major tool for global development of a system of nongovernmental organizations allowing for bypassing local administrations in poor countries in the realization of welfare policies.<ref name="globall">Pawel Zaleski ''Global Non-governmental Administrative System: Geosociology of the Third Sector'', [in:] Gawin, Dariusz & Glinski, Piotr [ed.]: "Civil Society in the Making", IFiS Publishers, Warszawa 2006</ref> ---------->
 
===Privatizzazione===
{{Vedi anche|Privatizzazione}}
Una politica comunemente richiesta negli aggiustamenti strutturali riguarda la privatizzazione delle industrie e delle risorse di proprietà statale. Apparentemente, questa politica mira a incrementare l'efficienza e gli investimenti, nonché a diminuire la spesa pubblica. Le risorse di prorietà statale devono essere vendute siano profittevoli o meno<ref>{{en}} {{cita libro | autore = Cardoso; Helwege | titolo = Latin America's Economy | editore = MIT Press | città = Cambridge, MA (USA) | anno = 1992}}</ref>.
 
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<!-------Critics, however, have condemned privatization requirements. When resources are transferred to foreign corporations and/or national elites, the goal of public prosperity is replaced with the goal of private accumulation. Furthermore, state-owned firms may show fiscal losses because they fulfill a wider social role, such as providing low-cost utilities and jobs. Many have argued, for example, that the [[Water privatization|privatization of the water sector]] [[Cochabamba protests of 2000|in Bolivia]] and <s>India</s>, has harmed more than helped the poor.
 
===Agriculture===
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The [[agricultural]], anti-[[land reform]] and food trade policies associated with SAPs have been pointed to as a major engine in the urbanization of the global South, the ballooning of [[megacities]], worldwide migration towards the global North, and the growth in urban poverty and [[slums]].
 
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In the irrigation sub-sector the trend has been towards disengagement of governments from irrigation development and management. This has led to a process of delegation of maintenance and operation activities of irrigation schemes to the organized users with mixed results. Indeed, the loans from the World Bank, the major lender for irrigation development, have fallen sharply from the mid 1970's showing some recovery only since 2003.
 
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They are also a source of contention for environmental activists. A large portion of SAPs policy on agriculture focuses on the increased use of fertilizers and pesticides which harm the health of local bodies of water and therefore fish populations. The runoff caused by the over use of fertilizers increases the amount of algae in local water bodies, causing different scales of dead zones (areas where oxygen is completely consumed by decomposing algae and fish, making it impossible for life forms needing oxygen to survive in the dead zones). Dead zones affect both local and international bodies of water.
 
===Environment===
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Local environments can easily become casualties of pro-trade policies. Pro-trade policy promotes an increase of industry geared toward Western needs. As a result of the new policy, local industries begin to focus on producing inexpensive goods to sell on the international market. The focus on creating the least expensive product often leads to environmentally exploitative industry. As these new industries are often unregulated there are no laws prohibiting this exploitation.
 
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For example, emissions from factories are much less regulated in developing nations. As a result, the environmental cost (the harm done to the ozone layer for example) of producing a product like steel in China is much greater, than it would be in the U.S.
 
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Another example would be the run off of chemicals or pharmaceuticals into local rivers and other bodies of water. In developing nations the pollution of rivers has become a cause for international intervention. This pollution not only affects local populations who sometimes bathe and drink the polluted waters but is also damaging the oceans on a large scale.
 
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It is possible for SAPs to include clauses that require industry regulations. However, for the most part, regulatory clauses have not been included in SAPs. The majority of the policy creators view these regulations as a hindrance to trade and therefore to economic development.
 
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In addition, many argue that it is unfair for developed nations (and IFIs) to demand that their environmental policies be followed. All developed nations have gone through a period of industrialization wherein local environments were damaged. While these periods of industrialization led to increased environmental problems, they also greatly contributed to the development, prosperity, and increased standard of living for the country's citizens. They argue that developed countries essentially have had a head start in economic development, and that less developed countries deserve their own head start. Critics debate whether the world can handle this head start or not. It has been argued that developing countries would benefit more from debt cancellation than an industrial "head start."
 
===Austerity===
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Critics hold SAPs responsible for much of the economic stagnation that has occurred in borrowing countries. SAPs emphasize maintaining a balanced budget which forces austerity programs.
The casualties of balancing a budget are often social programs.
 
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The programs most often cut are education, public health, and other miscellaneous social safety nets. Commonly, these are programs that are already underfunded and desperately need monetary investment for improvement.
 
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For example, if a government cuts education funding, universality is impaired, and therefore long term economic growth. Similarly, cuts to health programs have allowed {{Fact|date=June 2008}} diseases such as AIDS to devastate some areas' economies by destroying the workforce. Recent studies have shown strong connections between SAPs with Tuberculosis rates in developing nations. <ref> New York Times: [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/22/health/research/22tb.html Rise in TB Is Linked to Loans From I.M.F]</ref>
 
===Gendered Effects===
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With the adoption of SAPs comes a withdrawal from social spending. With less money going towards education, health, welfare, and local infrastructures, local peoples are burdened with increasing responsibility to provide for their villages/towns/cities. Local health, welfare, and infrastructure (especially water and sanitation) are usually considered "women's work" and fall directly to them. Withdrawing government support directly affects the amount of work women are required to do, resulting in lessened health and well-being for women and indeed the entire family.
 
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In addition, opening markets causes an upsurge of jobs in cities. As rural men leave to go these jobs, women and children are left behind, with increased responsibility for wives and mothers to single-handedly run the household.
 
==Praise {{Fact|date=March 2009}}==
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Many claim that borrowing countries are running on borrowed time, and will eventually have to make such changes to balance their budgets or control [[inflation]]. If these conditionalities are not implemented, the countries can expect even bigger problems in the future.
 
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In principle, conditionality is a tactic used not only to make sure loans are paid back, but also to ensure that they are used effectively. If there are no conditions on the loan, the country might not use the money to reduce poverty (see [[fungibility]]).
 
==Empirical evidence==
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There is some evidence that IMF stabilization programs do have a positive impact on the balance of payments and the current account. However, evidence for reductions in inflation, and encouragement of growth, is rather limited and questionable.
However, there are some serious problems in measuring the empirical success of Fund programs. It is extremely difficult to calculate the counterfactual; that is, what would have happened had the Fund not intervened. Indeed, the 'before and after' evidence of success in the balance of payments is weaker than calculations of success relative to the counterfactual. <ref name=Bird>Bird, G. "IMF Programs: Do they Work? Can they be made to work better?" World Development vol 29, no.11 (2001)</ref>
 
==IMF SAPs versus World bank SAPs==
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While both the [[IMF]] and [[World Bank]] loan to depressed and developing countries, their loans are intended to address different problems. The International Monetary Fund mainly lends to countries that have balance of payment problems (they can not pay their international debts), while the World bank offers loans to fund particular development projects.
 
===IMF SAPs===
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IMF loans focus on temporarily fixing problems that countries face as a whole. Traditionally IMF loans were meant to be repaid in a short duration between 2½ and 4 years. Today there are a few longer term options available; up to 7
years.<ref>See the [http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/howlend.htm IMF website] on lending.</ref> as well as options that lend to countries in times of crisis; either natural disaster, or conflict.
 
===World Bank SAPs===
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World Bank SAPs or SALs (Structural Adjustment Loans) focus on providing loans and grants to countries that provide funding on a project basis. For example, a loan or grant from the World Bank, could provide funds to improve infrastructure in a region of a developing country. The '''World Bank''' is divided into two lending and development institutions; the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (IBRD) and the [[International Development Association]] (IDA). The IBRD focuses on "middle income and credit-worthy poor countries" while the IDA focuses on the lowest income and least credit worthy countries.<ref>For links to the IDA and IBRD websites, see the [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/0,,pagePK:50004410~piPK:36602~theSitePK:29708,00.html World Bank's webpage]</ref>. -------->
 
La chiesa è di antica fondazione come testimoniano le nicchie in stile gotico riferibili ai secoli XII-XIII poste sulla parete della navata di destra.
==Paesi donatori==
La chiesa subì un consistente restauro nel 1502 ad opera dell’arcivescovo di [[Santa Severina]] Alessandro della Marra, zio di Camillo [[della Marra]], feudatario di Ceppaloni. Altri rifacimenti furono realizzati tra la fine del Seicento e i primi decenni del Settecento su disposizione dell’arcivescovo card. Vincenzo Maria [[Orsini]], poi papa con il nome di [[Benedetto XIII]].
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Negli anni ’20 del Novecento la chiesa fu nuovamente ristrutturata, ma le precarie condizioni statiche peggiorarono con il terremoto del 1934, per cui la chiesa fu chiusa al culto per diversi anni. A seguito del sisma del 1962 la chiesa fu nuovamente dichiarata inagibile ed è stata riaperta dopo i lavori di ristrutturazione e restauro il 29 settembre 1999.
Il [[Fondo Monetario Internazionale]] è mantenuto solamente dai propri stati membri, mentre la [[Banca Mondiale]] finanzia i propri prestiti sia con i contributi da parte dei membri, sia con [[Obbligazione (finanza)|emissioni obbligazionarie]]. Attualmente ci sono 185 membri del FMI (al [[febbraio]] [[2007]]) e 184 membri della Banca Mondiale. <!--------Members are assigned a quota to be reevaluated and paid on a rotating schedule. The assessed quota is based upon the donor country's porzione dell'economia mondiale. One of the critiques of SAPs è che i paesi highest donating detengono troppa influenza su quei paesi che ricevono i finanziamenti e i SAPs che li accompagnano.------>
 
La chiesa di S. Nicola vescovo ebbe l'intitolazione a parrocchia arcipretale nel secolo XVII. Precedentemente la chiesa ceppalonese era eretta in [[collegiata]] sotto il titolo di “S. Maria in Piano e annessa di S. Nicola”.
Di seguito alcuni dei maggiori donatori:
* [[Regno Unito]]
* [[Stati Uniti]]
* [[Giappone]]
* [[Canada]]
 
==Note Descrizione ==
La facciata è a capanna ed è affiancata a sinistra dalla cappella della confraternita del SS. Rosario e Corpo di Cristo edificata verso il 1746.
<references/>
L’architrave del portale in pietra calcarea reca l’iscrizione relativa al restauro del 1502 e lo stemma dell’arcivescovo di S. Severina Alessandro della Marra. Sopra il portale è posto un bassorilievo in marmo di carrara della stessa epoca raffigurante la [[Madonna delle Grazie]].
 
L’edificio è a pianta rettangolare e l'interno è attualmente diviso in tre navate. L’altare maggiore, in marmo intarsiato, posto in fondo alla navata centrale risale alla prima metà del sec. XVIII. Nella nicchia al di sopra dell’altare è posta la statua di Maria SS. Addolorata, il cui culto iniziò tra il 1814 e il 1829. Lateralmente troviamo la statua lignea di S. Nicola di fattura settecentesca.
==Voci correlate==
* [[Washington Consensus]]
* [[Conferenza di Bretton Woods]]
* [[Fondo Monetario Internazionale]]
* [[Banca Mondiale]]
 
Alla fine del [[Seicento]] erano presenti altri quattro altari: uno posto sul lato nord, in una cappella posta in fondo alla navata di destra e dedicato alla [[Madonna delle Grazie]]. Nella navata di sinistra si trovavano gli altari, già presenti nel sec. XVI e dedicati a S. Antonio da Padova, al SS. Corpo di Cristo e del SS. Rosario, quest’ultimi due erano posti in piccole cappelle delle rispettive confraternite.
==Bibliografia==
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<!----------* Chossudovsky, Michel. ''The Globalization of Poverty and the New World Order.'' Global Research, 2003
* Davis, Mike. "Planet of Slums". ''NLR'', 2005
*Moore, David ''The World Bank: Development, Poverty, Hegemony", UKZN press, 2007
*Perkins, J. ''Confessions of an Economic Hitman.'' Random House, 2005.
* SAPRIN, (Structural Adjustment Participatory Review International Network) ''Structural Adjustment: The SAPRI Report.'' Zed Books, 2004
* Stiglitz, J. ''Globalization and its Discontents.'' Penguin Press, 2002.
* Desai, Manisha. ''Transnational Solidarity: Women's Agency, Structural Adjustment, and Globalization''
* Juhasz, Antonia. ''The Bush Agenda: Invading the World, One Economy at a Time''. HaperCollins, 2006.
*Adepoju, Aderanti. ed. (1993) The Impact of Structural Adjustment on the Population of Africa. London: United Nations Population Fund.
*Elmendorf, A. Edward. (1993) Structural Adjustment and Health in Africa in the 1980s. Washington DC The American Public Health Association.
*Finch, C.D. (1985) "Adjustment Policies and Conditionality." IMF Conditionality. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics.
*Jayarajah Car and et al. (1995) The Social Impact of Adjustment Operations. Washington, DC: Operations Evaluation Department, World Bank.
*[[Adrian Leftwich|Leftwich, Adrian]]. (1996) “On the Primacy of Politics in Development”. Democracy and Development: Theory and Practice, edited by Adrian Leftwich. Cambridge, UK: Policy Press.
*[[Adrian Leftwich|Leftwich, Adrian]]. (1996) “Two Cheers for Democracy?: Democracy and the Developmental State”. Democracy and Development: Theory and Practice, edited by Adrian Leftwitch. Cambridge, UK: Policy Press.
# O'Meara, Patrick. Mehlinger, Howard. Krain, Matthew. "Globalization and the Challenges of a New Century" Indiana University Press, 2000.
*Picciotto, Robert. (1996) Poverty, Adjustment and the World Bank. Washington, DC: Presentation to the Religious Working Group on the World Bank/IMF on August 8, 1996.
*Reed, D. (1996) Structural Adjustment, the Environment, and Sustainable Development. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd.
*Steward, Frances. (1995) Adjustment and Poverty: Options and Choices. New York: Routledge.
*Streeten, Paul. (1987) “Structural Adjustment: a Survey of the Issues and Opinions”. World Development. 15 (12), 1462-1482.
*Weaver, James H. (1995) “What is Structural Adjustment”. Structural Adjustment: Retrospect and Prospect, edited by Daniel M. Schydlowsky. Westport: Praeger.----------->
 
=== Il campanile ===
==Collegamenti esterni==
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<!-----------* [http://wwwnew.towson.edu/polsci/ppp/sp97/imf/SAPTITLE.HTM Project on Structural Adjustment Programs] Overview of SAPs from the Department of Political Science at Towson University
* [http://www.imf.org International Monetary Fund]
* [http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/conditio.htm IMF Factsheet on Conditionality]
* [http://www.saprin.org Structural Adjustment Participatory Review International Network]
* [http://www.brettonwoodsproject.org Bretton Woods Project] Critical voices on the World Bank and IMF
* [http://www.big-picture.tv/index.php?id=66&cat=&a=163 Big Picture TV] Free video of Martin Khor (Director, Third World Network) discussing Structural Adjustment
* [http://www.worldbank.org/ World Bank Homepage]
* [http://www.globalissues.org/TradeRelated/SAP.asp Structural Adjustment—a Major Cause of Poverty] from Global Issues
*SCN Community Links. [http://www.cfn.cs.dal.ca/cfn/Current/P7/bwi%2F/cccsap.html Structural Adjustment Programmes].
FINE TESTO DA TRADURRE------------------------->
 
Il campanile della chiesa è situato sul sagrato della chiesa e fu ricostruito intorno alla metà del [[Settecento]] con caratteristiche antisismiche. La costruzione a gradoni con marcapiani in pietra e il distanziamento dalla chiesa è conforme, infatti, alle disposizioni dettate dalla Fabbrica Ecclesiastica, ufficio diocesano fondato dal card. Orsini. Durante il decennio francese vi fu posto l’orologio pubblico, di cui oggi resta solo una labile traccia.
[[Categoria:Economia]]
[[Categoria:Economia dello sviluppo]]
 
=Bibliografia=
[[ar:برنامج التكيف الهيكلي]]
Alfredo Rossi, ''Ceppaloni. Storia e società di un paese del regno di Napoli'', Ceppaloni, 2011. ISBN 978-88-906209-0-4.
[[de:Strukturanpassungsprogramm]]
[[en:Structural adjustment]]
[[es:Ajuste estructural]]
[[fr:Réforme structurelle]]