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== [[エリザベス2世の国葬]] ==
=== ウェストミンスター寺院へ ===
[[File:Queen_Elizabeth_II's_Funeral_and_Procession_(19.Sep.2022)_-_27.jpg|リンク=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Elizabeth_II's_Funeral_and_Procession_(19.Sep.2022)_-_27.jpg|right|thumbnail|砲車に乗っている女王の棺]]
2022年9月19日午前10時44分、女王の棺は{{仮リンク|王立海軍国葬用砲車|en|Royal Navy State Funeral Gun Carriage|label=砲車}}に乗せられて[[ウェストミンスター宮殿]]のウェストミンスターホールから[[ウェストミンスター寺院]]へ出発し<ref name="auto3">{{Cite web |last=Sophie.Hunter |date=19 September 2022 |title=The State Funeral for Her Majesty The Queen |url=https://www.royal.uk/state-funeral-her-majesty-queen-0 |access-date=24 September 2022 |website=The Royal Family |language=en}}</ref>、砲車は{{仮リンク|ヴィクトリア女王の死と国葬|en|Death and state funeral of Queen Victoria|label=ヴィクトリア女王の国葬}}以来の伝統に基づいて、王立海軍の船員によって引かれた<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=19 September 2022 |title=Why do Royal Navy sailors escort the Queen's coffin? |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/queen-funeral-sailors-coffin-royal-navy-b2170290.html |access-date=22 September 2022 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref>。国王と王室メンバーは後ろを歩いた<ref>{{Cite news|last=Max Foster and Lauren Said-Moorhouse|date=15 September 2022|title=Queen's funeral service to end with two-minute nationwide silence, palace officials say|publisher=CNN|url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/09/15/uk/queen-elizabeth-funeral-service-intl-gbr/index.html|access-date=15 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="BBC-Fplans">{{Cite web |date=9 September 2022 |title=Plans for the Queen's lying in state and funeral |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-60617519 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909001318/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-60617519 |archive-date=9 September 2022 |access-date=9 September 2022 |website=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 September 2022 |title=Queen's coffin carried to Westminster Abbey |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/uk-62928806 |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=BBC News}}</ref>。公務を担っていないヨーク公とサセックス公は、国葬と埋葬の礼拝で軍服を着用しなかった<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.harpersbazaar.com/jp/celebrity/celebrity-news/a41182278/prince-harry-military-uniform-queen-elizabeth-funeral-220913-lift1/ |title=エリザベス女王の式典で「軍服」を着用するのは現役王室メンバーのみ、ヘンリー王子とアンドルー王子は着用できず |access-date=2022-10-02 |publisher=[[ハーパーズ バザー]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002233304/https://www.harpersbazaar.com/jp/celebrity/celebrity-news/a41182278/prince-harry-military-uniform-queen-elizabeth-funeral-220913-lift1/ |archive-date=2022-10-02 |date=2022-09-13}}</ref>。バッキンガム宮殿、{{仮リンク|ハイグローヴ・ハウス|en|Highgrove House}}と[[クラレンス・ハウス]]から摘まれた弔花{{Efn|花輪には、1947年に{{仮リンク|エリザベス王女とフィリップ・マウントバッテンの結婚式|en|Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten}}で女王が持っていた[[ブーケ]]に使われていたものから育てられた[[ギンバイカ]]や、[[ローズマリー]]、[[ガーデンローズ]]、[[アジサイ]]、[[セダム]]、[[ダリア]]、[[マツムシソウ]]、[[ペラルゴニウム]]などが使われた<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cosmopolitan.com/jp/entertainment/celebrity/a41344933/flowers-queen-elizabeths-coffin-meaning/ |title=思い出のものも…エリザベス女王の棺に添えられた「花」の意味 |access-date=2022-10-02 |publisher=[[コスモポリタン (雑誌)|コスモポリタン]]}}</ref>。}}が置かれ、「その美しく、献身的な思い出に。チャールズ R.{{Efn|「R.」は、{{仮リンク|レクス|en|Rex (title)}}の略。[[ラテン語]]での君主の称号。}}」と書かれた国王直筆のメッセージが添えられた<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Faulkner |first1=Doug |last2=Morton |first2=Becky |date=19 September 2022 |title=Funeral honours Queen's 'lifelong sense of duty' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-62952004 |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=BBC News}}</ref>。 寺院では礼拝前に鐘が1分ごとに、96分にわたって鳴らされた<ref name="StateF-P">{{Cite web |date=18 September 2022 |title=The State Funeral of Her Majesty The Queen |url=https://www.royal.uk/state-funeral-her-majesty-queen |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=The Royal Family}}</ref>。棺は10時52分にウェストミンスター寺院に到着<ref name="RF-FuneralP">{{Cite web |date=15 September 2022 |title=The State Funeral and Committal Service for Her Majesty The Queen |url=https://www.royal.uk/state-funeral-and-committal-service-her-majesty-queen |access-date=15 September 2022 |website=The Royal Family}}</ref>。寺院へ到着した際、[[蜘蛛]]が棺に乗った。多くの解説者は、蜘蛛が棺に乗ることはよいお告げであると言及した<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 September 2022 |title=Spider on Queen Elizabeth's Coffin Spotted During State Funeral: 'It's a Good Omen' |url=https://people.com/royals/spider-queen-elizabeth-coffin-spotted-state-funeral-good-omen/ |website=[[ピープル (雑誌)|People]] |access-date=2022-10-02}}</ref>。
===
Music by British composers was played before the service, and as the coffin entered the abbey the choir sang [[:en:William_Croft#Funeral_sentences|the five sentences set to music]].{{efn|Selections included [[Orlando Gibbons]]' "Fantasia of four parts", [[Vaughan Williams]]' "Romanza" from his [[Symphony No. 5 (Vaughan Williams)|Symphony No. 5]], [[Peter Maxwell Davies]]' "Reliqui domum meum", [[Harold Darke]]'s "Meditation on 'Brother James's Air'", [[Healey Willan]]'s "Prelude on 'Ecce jam noctis'", [[Herbert Howells]]' "Psalm Prelude Set 1 No. 2", [[Charles Villiers Stanford]]'s "In the Country, Op. 194 No. 2", [[Malcolm Williamson]]'s "Fantasy on 'O Paradise'", and three works by Elgar: "[[Elegy (Elgar)|Elegy, Op. 58]]", "Andante espressivo" from "Sonata in G Op. 28", and "[[Sospiri]]".<ref name="BBC-Fmusic">{{Cite web |date=18 September 2022 |title=Queen Elizabeth's funeral: Order of service |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-62948934 |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=BBC News}}</ref>}}<ref name="StateF-P" /> The service began at 11:00 and was conducted by the [[:en:Dean_of_Westminster|Dean of Westminster]], [[:en:David_Hoyle_(priest)|David Hoyle]], according to the [[:en:Book_of_Common_Prayer_(1662)|1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'']].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sophie.Hunter |date=19 September 2022 |title=The State Funeral for Her Majesty The Queen |url=https://www.royal.uk/state-funeral-her-majesty-queen-0 |access-date=23 September 2022 |website=The Royal Family |language=en}}</ref><ref name="StateF-P" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sherwood |first=Harriet |date=18 September 2022 |title=Queen did not want 'long, boring' funeral, says former archbishop of York |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2022/sep/18/queen-funeral-service-former-archbishop-of-york-john-sentamu |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> The lessons were read by [[:en:Baroness_Scotland|Baroness Scotland]], [[:en:Commonwealth_Secretary-General|Secretary General of the Commonwealth]], and [[:en:Liz_Truss|Liz Truss]], [[:en:Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom|Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]], and the sermon and commendation were given by the [[:en:Archbishop_of_Canterbury|Archbishop of Canterbury]].<ref name="StateF-P" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunn |first=Charlotte |date=18 September 2022 |title=The State Funeral of Her Majesty The Queen |url=https://www.royal.uk/state-funeral-her-majesty-queen |access-date=22 September 2022 |website=The Royal Family |language=en}}</ref> Prayers were said by clergy from several Christian denominations.<ref>{{Cite news|date=19 September 2022|title=Order of Service for Queen Elizabeth II's funeral|work=AP News|url=https://apnews.com/article/queen-elizabeth-ii-funeral-order-of-service-0954989c2505907a9d5c7a06ee239377|access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref>{{efn|The prayers were said by [[Iain Greenshields]] ([[Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland]]), Shermara Fletcher (Principal Officer for Pentecostal and Charismatic Relations, [[Churches Together in England]]), [[Sarah Mullally]] ([[Bishop of London]] and Dean of His Majesty’s [[Chapel Royal|Chapels Royal]]), Helen Cameron (Moderator of the Free Churches Group), [[Vincent Nichols]] ([[Archbishop of Westminster]]), and [[Stephen Cottrell]] ([[Archbishop of York]]).}}
The music included the psalm setting '[[:en:Like_as_the_hart|Like as the hart]]' by [[:en:Judith_Weir|Judith Weir]] and the anthem '[[:en:Who_shall_separate_us?|Who shall separate us?]]' by [[:en:James_MacMillan|James MacMillan]], both written for the funeral, as well as pieces performed at the Queen's coronation and wedding.{{efn|Besides those mentioned, the works sung at the service were "[[The day thou gavest, Lord, is ended]]" ([[St Clement (hymn tune)|St Clement]]), "[[The Lord's My Shepherd]]" ([[Jessie Seymour Irvine|Crimond]]), "My soul, there is a country" by [[Hubert Parry]], "Taste and see how gracious the Lord is" by [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]], and "[[Love Divine, All Loves Excelling]]" ([[Blaenwern]]).|name=h}} The [[:en:Choir_of_Westminster_Abbey|Choir of Westminster Abbey]] and Choir of the Chapel Royal led the singing, and were conducted by [[:en:James_O'Donnell_(organist)|James O'Donell]].
The end of the service included a sounding of the "[[:en:Last_Post|Last Post]]" and a two-minute silence, which was concluded with the "[[:en:Reveille|Reveille]]".<ref name="RF-FuneralP" /> The [[:en:National_anthem_of_the_United_kingdom|National Anthem]], followed by the bagpipe lament "Sleep, dearie, sleep", marked the end of the ceremony.<ref name="StateF-P" /> The "Allegro maestoso" from [[:en:Edward_Elgar|Elgar]]'s [[:en:Organ_Sonata_(Elgar)|''Organ Sonata in G'']] was played after the service.
=== Processions in London and Windsor ===
Two processions followed the service. The first was from Westminster Abbey to Wellington Arch, where the Queen's coffin was placed in the [[:en:State_hearse|state hearse]]. From there it was transported to Windsor, where the second procession took place through [[:en:Windsor_Great_Park|Windsor Great Park]].
The procession in London began at 12:15 and included around 3,000 military personnel, stretching for over a mile. It began at the abbey and passed down [[:en:Whitehall|Whitehall]], through [[:en:Horse_Guards_(building)|Horse Guards]], and up [[:en:The_Mall,_London|The Mall]] to end at the [[:en:Wellington_Arch|Wellington Arch]] near [[:en:Hyde_Park,_London|Hyde Park]]. Around a million people lined the streets of central London to watch the event.<ref name="SkyN-Crowds">{{Cite news|last=Minelle|first=Bethany|date=19 September 2022|title=Tens of thousands in London and Windsor as world says goodbye to the Queen at her funeral|publisher=Sky News|url=https://news.sky.com/story/crowds-gather-in-london-and-windsor-as-world-prepares-to-say-goodbye-to-the-queen-at-her-funeral-12701321|access-date=19 September 2022}}</ref>
[[File:Queen_Elizabeth_II's_Funeral_and_Procession_(19.Sep.2022)_-_07.jpg|リンク=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Elizabeth_II's_Funeral_and_Procession_(19.Sep.2022)_-_07.jpg|サムネイル|The King, the Princess Royal, the Duke of York, the Earl of Wessex, the Prince of Wales, the Duke of Sussex, Peter Phillips, the Earl of Snowdon and the Duke of Gloucester walk behind Queen Elizabeth II's coffin. Sir Timothy Laurence was also in the procession but is not visible]]
At the front of the procession were representatives of Commonwealth forces, then representatives of the Royal Air Force, the British Army, and the Royal Navy and Royal Marines, followed by defence staff and [[:en:Military_chaplain|armed forces chaplains]], [[:en:Officer_of_arms|officers of arms]], and the [[:en:Royal_Households_of_the_United_Kingdom|royal household]].<ref name="BBC-procession">{{Cite news|date=20 September 2022|title=Queen's funeral: Full guide to the gun carriage and the main procession|work=[[BBC News]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-62941422|access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> The Queen's coffin followed, again on the State Gun Carriage pulled by Royal Navy sailors, and surrounded by an escort party.<ref name="BBC-procession" /> The King and royal family members were next, some marching and some in cars, with a further escot and the household of the former Prince of Wales behind.<ref name="BBC-procession" /> At the rear of the procession were representatives of civilian services.<ref name="BBC-procession" />
Seven military bands were dispersed through the procession, and again played funeral marches.<ref name="BBC-procession" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 September 2022 |title=The Queen's funeral: how music moved a nation at Westminster Abbey and beyond |url=https://www.classicfm.com/music-news/queen-elizabeth-ii-funeral-music/ |access-date=24 September 2022 |website=Classic FM}}</ref> Big Ben tolled each minute and minute guns were fired from Hyde Park by the King's Troop Royal Horse Artillery.<ref name="RF-FuneralP" /> Standards were lowered and those in the procession gave salutes as they passed the [[:en:The_Cenotaph|Cenotaph]]. At Buckingham Palace the King's Guard gave a royal salute to the [[:en:Victoria_Memorial,_London|Victoria Memorial]] and Palace staff waited outside the gates.<ref name="auto3" /><ref name="RF-Burial">{{Cite web |date=19 September 2022 |title=The State Funeral for Her Majesty The Queen |url=https://www.royal.uk/state-funeral-her-majesty-queen-0 |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=The Royal Family}}</ref> At Wellington Arch the coffin was transferred with a royal salute to the [[:en:State_hearse|state hearse]] for the journey to Windsor.<ref name="RF-FuneralP" /> The hearse left London for Windsor at 13:30, accompanied by Princess Anne and Timothy Laurence, travelling on A roads rather than motorways to allow the public to line the route.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 September 2022 |title=Queen Elizabeth II's funeral: What will happen in Windsor? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-berkshire-62939448 |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Clark |first=David |date=16 September 2022 |title=Mourners given chance to pay respects as Queen's final journey avoids motorway |url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/queens-casket-go-roads-m4-28005330 |access-date=24 September 2022 |website=mirror |language=en}}</ref>
At 15:00 the coffin arrived in Windsor, where a final procession involving 1,000 military personnel took place down the [[:en:Windsor_Great_Park#The_Long_Walk|Long Walk]] to [[:en:St_George's_Chapel,_Windsor_Castle|St George's Chapel]].<ref name="BBC-guide">{{Cite web |date=19 September 2022 |title=Your complete guide to the Queen's funeral |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-60617519 |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=BBC News}}</ref><ref name="RF-FuneralP" /> Around 97,000 people lined the route.<ref name="BBC-guide" /><ref name="SkyN-Crowds" /> The Queen's fell pony, Emma, and two [[:en:Royal_corgis|royal corgis]], Muick and Sandy, stood at the side of the procession.<ref name="BBC-CorgiPony">{{Cite web |last=Heald |first=Claire |date=19 September 2022 |title=Queen's corgis and pony wait at Windsor Castle as coffin approaches |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-62961120 |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=BBC News}}</ref> The King and royal family joined the procession in the Quadrangle, during which Sebastopol Bell and the Curfew Tower bell tolled and the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery, fired minute guns from the East Lawn of the castle.<ref name="RF-FuneralP" /> At the end of the procession the coffin was taken to St George's Chapel via the West Steps with the guard of honour formed by the 1st Battalion Grenadier Guards.<ref name="RF-FuneralP" />
=== Committal service ===
The committal service began at 16:00 in the presence of 800 guests, largely made up of the royal household and staff from the Queen's private estates, but also including the royal family, governors general, and prime ministers from the Commonwealth realms.<ref name="BBC-Fplans" /><ref name="RF-FuneralP" /><ref name="BBC-guide" />The Choir of St George's Chapel led the music, which included "The Russian [[:en:Kontakion|Kontakion]] of the Departed", also sung at the funeral of Prince Philip.{{Efn|The other music was [[Psalm 121]] to an arrangement by [[Henry Walford Davies|Sir Henry Walford Davies]], sung as the Queen's coffin made its way through the chapel, the [[motet]] "Bring us, O Lord God, at our last awakening",<ref name="OS-CS" /><ref name="BBC-CSOS" />, "All My Hope on God is Founded",<ref name="OS-CS">{{Cite web |title=Order of Service for The Committal of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II |url=https://www.royal.uk/sites/default/files/media/committal_of_her_majesty_queen_elizabeth_ii_-_order_of_service.pdf |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=The Royal Family}}</ref> "Christ Is Made the Sure Foundation", and [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]]'s "[[Prelude and Fugue in C minor, BWV 546]]", played after the service.<ref name="OS-CS" />}} A selection of music was also played before the service.<ref name="BBC-CSOS">{{Cite web |date=19 September 2022 |title=The order of service for Queen's committal at St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-62952665 |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=BBC News}}</ref>{{efn|Music before the service included "[[Schmücke dich, o liebe Seele]] BWV 654", "[[Orgelbüchlein|O Traurigkeit, O Herzeleid]]", "Master Tallis's Testament", "Psalm Prelude Set 1, No. 1", "Psalm Prelude Set 1, No. 2", "Melody (Three Pieces)", "Andante Sostenuto (Symphonie Gothique, Op. 70)", "The Tree of Peace", "[[Enigma Variations#Variation IX (Adagio) "Nimrod"|'Nimrod' (Variations On An Original Theme, Op.36)]]", "Prelude" by [[William Henry Harris|Sir William Henry Harris]], "[[Sheep may safely graze|Sheep May Safely Graze, BWV 208]]", and "[[Rhosymedre (hymn tune)|Rhosymedre]]".}}
The Dean of Windsor, who conducted the service, read the bidding the readings, and the commendation.<ref name="BBC-Fplans" /><ref name="BBC-CSOS" /><ref name="RF-FuneralP" /> The first reading was [[:en:Revelation_21|Revelation 21]], verses 1–7, which was also included in the order of service for the funerals of Elizabeth's grandparents and father. The Rector of Sandringham, the Minister of Crathie Kirk and the Chaplain of Windsor Great Park delivered the prayers, and the Archbishop of Canterbury gave the concluding blessing.<ref name="RF-FuneralP" />
Near the end of the service the Imperial State Crown, orb, and sceptre were removed from the coffin and placed on the altar.<ref name="Funeral-Con">{{Cite web |last1=Bowden |first1=George |last2=Coughlan |first2=Sean |date=15 September 2022 |title=Queen Elizabeth II's personal touches in plans for funeral day |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-62913337 |access-date=15 September 2022 |website=BBC News}}</ref><ref name="RF-FuneralP" /> The King then placed the Queen's Company Camp Colour of the Grenadier Guards on his mother's coffin, before the [[:en:Lord_Chamberlain|Lord Chamberlain]] symbolically broke his [[:en:Staff_of_office#White_Staves|wand of office]] and also placed its halves atop the coffin.<ref name="RF-FuneralP" /><ref name="BBC-CSOS" /> After this the [[:en:Garter_Principal_King_of_Arms|Garter Principal King of Arms]] recited the [[:en:Style_(form_of_address)|styles]] of Elizabeth II and Charles III, between which a [[:en:Lament_for_the_Children|lament]] — "A Salute to the Royal [[:en:Fendersmith|Fendersmith]]" — was played by the [[:en:Sovereign's_Piper|Sovereign's Piper]]. The singing of the National Anthem marked the end of the ceremony.<ref name="RF-FuneralP" /><ref name="BBC-CSOS" />
=== Interment ===
The Queen was interred in a private service at 19:30 in the crypt of the [[:en:King_George_VI_Memorial_Chapel|King George VI Memorial Chapel]] within St George's Chapel. She lies alongside her parents, King George VI and [[:en:Queen_Elizabeth_The_Queen_Mother|Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother]], the ashes of her sister, Princess Margaret, and Prince Philip, who was buried next to her.<ref name="RF-Burial" /><ref name="BBC-guide" />
Elizabeth II's coffin was made over 30 years before the funeral.<ref name="heartofoak">{{Cite news|last1=McTaggart|first1=India|last2=Rayner|first2=Gordon|date=17 September 2022|title=Heart of oak − international spotlight on Queen Elizabeth's coffin|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/royal-family/2022/09/17/heart-oak-international-spotlight-queen-elizabeths-coffin/|url-status=live|url-access=subscription|access-date=18 September 2022|archive-url=https://archive.today/a2knG|archive-date=18 September 2022|quote=So much time has passed from its manufacture, however, that the coffin has passed through the hands of two funeral companies since then and the precise date of its creation has been lost.}}</ref><ref name="coffin">{{Cite news|last=Low|first=Valentine|date=12 September 2022|title=The Queen's oak coffin was ready 30 years ago|work=[[The Times]]|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/the-queens-oak-coffin-was-ready-30-years-ago-3lmqb58qs|url-status=live|url-access=subscription|access-date=18 September 2022|archive-url=https://archive.today/S6pYz|archive-date=12 September 2022}}</ref>{{efn|The original coffin makers are now closed. It passed through the hands of two funeral directors before [[Leverton & Sons]] received it when they became [[Funeral directors to the Royal Household|undertakers to the Royal Family]] in 1991. The original coffin firm, Henry Smith, had also manufactured the coffin in which [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh|Prince Philip]] lies.<ref name=heartofoak/><ref name=coffin/>}} It is made of [[:en:Quercus_robur|English oak]] and lined with lead to protect from moisture damage. Due to the weight, eight [[:en:Pallbearer|pallbearers]] were required for carrying rather than the usual six.<ref name="heartofoak" /><ref name="coffin" />
== [[:en:Slavery in Africa]] ==
[[File:African slave trade.png|thumbnail|350px|中世アフリカの主要な奴隷交易路]]
{{Slavery}}
[[File:Zanzslgwch.jpg|thumb|[[ザンジバル]]の[[ザンジュ]]人奴隷 (1889年)]]
本項では'''アフリカの奴隷制'''について述べる。[[アフリカ]]では古代から[[奴隷]]制が他の地域同様に一般的なものであった<ref>{{Citation|last=Jennings|first=Justin|title=But Were They Really Global Cultures?|work=Globalizations and the Ancient World|year=2010|pages=121–142|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511778445.007|isbn=978-0-511-77844-5}}</ref>。 {{仮リンク|トランスサハラ奴隷貿易|en|trans-Saharan slave trade}}、{{仮リンク|インド洋奴隷貿易|en|Indian Ocean slave trade}}、[[大西洋奴隷貿易]]<ref>{{Citation|title=The slave trade in the eighteenth century|date=1997-12-13|work=Senegambia and the Atlantic Slave Trade|pages=61–80|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511584084.009|isbn=978-0-521-59226-0}}</ref>が始まると、すでに存在していたアフリカの奴隷制度にアフリカ外の{{仮リンク|奴隷市場|en|slave market}}への奴隷の供給が組み込まれた<ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{Citation|title=The Atlantic Slave Trade in the Century of Abolition|date=2017-06-26|work=The Atlantic Slave Trade from West Central Africa, 1780–1867|pages=16–37|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781316771501.003|isbn=978-1-316-77150-1}}</ref><ref name="Lovejoy-2012" />。現在ではアフリカにおいて奴隷は違法となっているものの、アフリカでは奴隷制度が現在でも続いている。(詳しくは{{仮リンク|現代アフリカの奴隷制|en|Slavery in contemporary Africa}}を参照)
アフリカの奴隷制度はアフリカ大陸内での先住アフリカ人の間での奴隷制度とアフリカ大陸を越えて行われていた輸出奴隷制度に分類される<ref>[https://www.aehnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/AEHN-WP-6.pdf Dirk Bezemer, Jutta Bolt, Robert Lensink, "Slavery, Statehood and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", AFRICAN ECONOMIC HISTORY WORKING PAPER SERIES, No. 6/2012, p. 6]</ref>。
また、奴隷の種類についても、{{仮リンク|借金奴隷|en|Debt slavery}}、戦争捕虜の奴隷、軍事奴隷、[[性的奴隷]]、犯罪者奴隷、宮廷での使役目的の奴隷など様々なものがアフリカ全土で見られた<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty: An American History|year=2012|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|___location=New York|page=18}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Moore|first=Sean D.|title=See Benezet's Account of Africa Throughout|date=2019-02-28|work=Slavery and the Making of Early American Libraries|pages=166–200|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198836377.003.0005|isbn=978-0-19-883637-7}}</ref>。 [[プランテーション]]で使役させる奴隷も主に[[東アフリカ]]や[[西アフリカ]]の一部で見られた<ref name="Lovejoy 2011 160–184">{{Citation|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Slavery and "Legitimate Trade" on the West African Coast|work=Transformations in Slavery|year=2011|pages=160–184|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9781139014946.012|isbn=978-1-139-01494-6}}</ref>。大西洋奴隷貿易が終わった19世紀にはアフリカ内でプランテーションでの使役目的の奴隷 の重要性が増した<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fernyhough|first=Timothy|date=1988|title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in Southern Ethiopia in the 19th Century|journal=Slavery & Abolition|volume=9|issue=3|pages=103–130|doi=10.1080/01440398808574965|issn=0144-039X}}</ref>国際的な奴隷貿易に依存していたアフリカ諸国の多くは、奴隷労働者による合法的な商取引に基づく経済に転換していった<ref>{{Citation|last=Austin|first=Gareth|title=Between abolition and Jihad: the Asante response to the ending of the Atlantic slave trade, 1807–1896|date=1995-08-17|work=From Slave Trade to 'Legitimate' Commerce|pages=93–118|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511523861.005|isbn=978-0-521-48127-4}}</ref><ref name=Austin>{{cite book |year=2017 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |___location=New York |editor1=David Eltis |editor2=Stanley L. Engerman |editor3= Seymour Drescher |editor4=David Richardson |chapter= Slavery in Africa, 1804-1936}}</ref>。
==奴隷制の形成==
アフリカにおける[[奴隷制]]や{{仮リンク|非自発的奴隷制|en|Involuntary servitude}}には多くの形態が存在し、先住民の慣習、[[古代ローマの奴隷制]]、{{仮リンク|キリスト教の奴隷観|en|Christian views on slavery}}<ref>{{Citation|last=Stilwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery in African History|work=Slavery and Slaving in African History|year=2013|pages=29–59|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|isbn=978-1-139-03499-9}}</ref>、{{仮リンク|ムスリム奴隷貿易|en|Muslim slave trade}}を通した{{仮リンク|イスラム教の奴隷観|en|Islamic views on slavery}}、[[大西洋奴隷貿易]]を通して時代と共に形態を変えながら形成された<ref>{{Cite document|title=Slavery, Slave Trade|doi=10.1163/1878-9781_ejiw_com_000524}}</ref><ref name=Lovejoy-2012 />。奴隷制は何世紀にもわたってアフリカ社会における経済の一角をなしていたが、その程度は様々であった<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Painter|first1=Nell Irvin|last2=Berlin|first2=Ira|date=2000|title=Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America|journal=African American Review|volume=34|issue=3|page=515|doi=10.2307/2901390|jstor=2901390|issn=1062-4783}}</ref><ref name=Lovejoy-2012 />。 [[マリ王国]]を14世紀に訪れた[[イブン・バットゥータ]]は、住民が所有する奴隷や召使の数を競い、彼自身もおもてなしとして奴隷の少年を贈られたことを記録している<ref>Noel King (ed.), ''Ibn Battuta in Black Africa'', Princeton 2005, p. 54.</ref>。[[サブサハラアフリカ]]では奴隷制度は複雑なものが多く、奴隷に自由や権利があり、所有者による売買や処罰に制限が加えられていた<ref name=Fage />。また、多くの共同体では奴隷階級に生まれたものと戦争捕虜の奴隷を区別するなど奴隷の種類によって階層化されていた<ref name=Rodney />。
アフリカの奴隷制は[[親族]]の構造に密接に関連していた<ref>{{Citation|last=McMahon|first=Elisabeth|title=Mitigating Vulnerability through Kinship|work=Slavery and Emancipation in Islamic East Africa|year=2013|pages=193–230|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9781139198837.008|isbn=978-1-139-19883-7}}</ref>。土地の所有が禁じられた共同体の多くでは、個人を奴隷化して所有者の持つ影響力を高め、人脈を広げる手段となっていた<ref name=Snell />。このような共同体の奴隷の家系は主人の家系と密接にミス日付きながら存続していた<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gudmestad|first=Robert|date=2006-01-26|title=Technology and the World the Slaves Made|journal=History Compass|volume=4|issue=2|pages=373–383|doi=10.1111/j.1478-0542.2006.00313.x|issn=1478-0542}}</ref><ref name=Lovejoy-2012 />。奴隷の家系に生まれた子供は主人の親族集団に組み込まれ、場合によっては社会の中の重要な地位にまで上り詰めることもあった。また、中には長の位に就くこともあったという<ref name=Rodney />。しかしながら、主人の家族と奴隷の家族との関係に厳しい隔たりがあり、生涯奴隷である者も多かった<ref name=Snell>{{cite book|last=Snell|first=Daniel C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|___location=New York|pages=4–21|editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge|chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref>。
===動産奴隷===
動産奴隷は所有者の財として扱われる奴隷である<ref>{{Citation|title=Othering the Slave Owner|date=2020-08-31|work=American Slavery, American Imperialism|pages=107–146|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781108663908.004|isbn=978-1-108-66390-8}}</ref>。他の動産同様、所有者による自由な売却、取引、取り扱いが可能である。奴隷の子供もしばしば所有者の財とされた<ref name=Alexander />。[[ナイル川|ナイル]]渓谷や[[サヘル]]、[[北アフリカ]]では古くに動産奴隷の制度が現れている。アフリカの他の地域でもアラビアやヨーロッパの文書記録が現れる前の動産奴隷の規模や慣習に関する証拠はほとんどないが、一般的で、広く悪用されていたと考えられている<ref name=Alexander /><ref name=Gaspar>{{cite book|last=Gaspar|first=D. B.|title=More than chattel: black women and slavery in the Americas|year=1998|publisher=Indiana University Press|___location=Bloomington}}</ref>。
===家庭内奴隷===
アフリカの奴隷には主に主人の家庭で労働する家庭内奴隷が多かった<ref>{{Citation|title=2. HOUSE SLAVES|date=2019-12-31|work=The Slave Next Door|pages=18–42|publisher=University of California Press|doi=10.1525/9780520948037-004|isbn=978-0-520-94803-7}}</ref>。家庭内奴隷には家族の一員とみなされる者もおり、余程のことがなければ売られることがなかった<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kett|first=Anna Vaughan|date=2017-04-20|title=Without the Consumers of Slave Produce There Would Be No Slaves|journal=University of Illinois Press|volume=1|doi=10.5406/illinois/9780252038266.003.0005}}</ref>。 奴隷は自らの労働で得た土地やものを所有することもでき、多くの場合は結婚や子供への土地の相続も可能であった<ref name=Rodney>{{cite journal|last=Rodney|first=Walter|title=African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade|journal=The Journal of African History|year=1966|volume=7|issue=3|pages=431–443|jstor=180112|doi=10.1017/s0021853700006514}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Anti-Slavery International |title=Domestic Slavery: What Is It? |url=https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/domestic-work-and-slavery/|accessdate=2021-9-28}}</ref>。
===
負債奴隷は債務の支払いを担保するために債務者本人や債務者の親族(主に債務者の子供)が使役される奴隷であり、債務者やその家族が、信用を得ている人に仕えることを約束するものである<ref>{{Citation|work=GREEK AND ROMAN SLAVERY|place=Abingdon, UK|publisher=Taylor & Francis|doi=10.4324/9780203358993_chapter_2|isbn=978-0-203-37575-4|title=Debt-Bondage and Serfdom|year=1981}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Epilogue: The Debtor and the Slave|work=Of Bondage|year=2013|pages=145–148|place=Philadelphia|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|doi=10.9783/9780812208221.145|isbn=978-0-8122-0822-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1922|title=Pledges. Delivery to Create a Future Pledge. Assignment of Debt to One Person and of Pledge to Another|journal=Harvard Law Review|volume=35|issue=3|page=345|doi=10.2307/1329636|jstor=1329636|issn=0017-811X}}</ref>。負債奴隷は西アフリカにおいて担保を行う際によく用いられた手法であった<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Douglas|first=Mary|date=1964|title=Matriliny and Pawnship in Central Africa|journal=Africa|volume=34|issue=4|pages=301–313|doi=10.2307/1157471|jstor=1157471|issn=0001-9720}}</ref>。負債奴隷制は、奴隷のほとんどの概念と関係していたものの、特定の業務を課すことができる上、血縁関係が人が奴隷として売られるのを守ることから、全く異なるものであった<ref name="Lovejoy 67–88">{{Citation|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Pawnship, slavery and freedom|date=2019-03-07|work=Slavery in the Global Diaspora of Africa|pages=67–88|place=New York, NY : Routledge, 2019. {{!}} Series: Global Africa; 12|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315163499-6|isbn=978-1-315-16349-9}}</ref>。負債奴隷はヨーロッパ人の接触よりも前から西アフリカでは一般的な習慣であった。かつて負債奴隷の習慣があった民族には{{仮リンク|アカン族|en|Akan people}}、{{仮リンク|Ewe people|en|エウェ族}}、{{仮リンク|ガ族|en|Ga people}}、[[ヨルバ人]]、{{仮リンク|エド人|en|Edo people}}などがある<ref>{{Citation|last=Horton|first=Khim|title=Common difficulties experienced by older people|date=2019-07-10|work=Nursing Older People|pages=52–72|place=Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2019.|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315116129-6|isbn=978-1-315-11612-9}}</ref>。負債奴隷に類似した習慣を持った民族には{{仮リンク|エフィク人|en|Efik people}}、[[イボ人]]、[[イジョ]]、[[フォン人]]がある<ref name="Regnier 2015 152–168">{{Cite journal|last=Regnier|first=Denis|date=2015|title=Clean people, unclean people: the essentialisation of 'slaves' among the southern Betsileo of Madagascar|journal=Social Anthropology|volume=23|issue=2|pages=152–168|doi=10.1111/1469-8676.12107|issn=0964-0282|url=https://philpapers.org/rec/REGCPU}}</ref><ref name=" Lovejoy and Richardson">{{cite journal|title=The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, c. 1600–1810|journal=The Journal of African History|year=2001|volume=42|issue=1|pages=67–89|author=Paul E. Lovejoy and David Richardson|doi=10.1017/S0021853700007787|s2cid=145386643}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa |___location=Trenton, NJ |publisher=Africa World Press |year=2003 |editor1=Paul E. Lovejoy |editor2=Toyin Falola}}</ref>。
===
[[軍事奴隷]]は、[[徴兵軍]]の取得と訓練を含み、軍人たちは奉仕後もそのアイデンティティを保持していた<ref name=Johnson>{{cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Douglas H.|title=The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa|journal=Ethnohistory|year=1989|volume=36|issue=1|pages=72–88|doi=10.2307/482742|jstor=482742}}</ref>。 軍事奴隷は[[政府]]のトップや武将などの、お金や自身の政治的利益のために軍隊を送り出す「後援者」によって運営されていた<ref name=Johnson />。
多様なムスリムの組織によって奴隷兵が組織されたため、主に[[スーダン]]や[[ウガンダ]]などナイル川流域や[[西アフリカ]]で多く見られた<ref name=Johnson /><ref name=Wylie>{{cite journal|last=Wylie|first=Kenneth C.|title=Innovation and Change in Mende Chieftaincy 1880–1896|journal=The Journal of African History|year=1969|volume=10|issue=2|jstor=179516|pages=295–308|doi=10.1017/s0021853700009531}}</ref>。 1800年代のスーダンや[[南スーダン]]では軍事襲撃を通して軍団が形成された<ref name=Johnson />。
さらに、[[ガーナ]]や[[ブルキナファソ]]などの[[西アフリカ]]では、かなりの数の1800年代前半に生まれた男性が[[蘭領インドネシア]]での従軍のために拉致された<ref>{{Cite book|date=2018|editor-last=Karg|editor-first=H.|editor2-last=Drechsel|editor2-first=P.|title=Atlas of West African urban food systems: examples from Ghana and Burkina Faso|doi=10.5337/2018.224|hdl=10568/98421|isbn=9789290908753}}</ref>。 ちなみに、このときに拉致された男性は西アフリカの人々よりも平均して3cm程度身長が高く<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2007|title=Children 6 cm taller, 3 kg heavier than 30 years ago|journal=Chinese Medical Journal|volume=120|issue=2|page=173|doi=10.1097/00029330-200701020-00025|issn=0366-6999|doi-access=free}}</ref>、南ヨーロッパの人々とほぼ同じ身長であったという<ref>{{Cite document|last=Savage|first=Sharon|date=2018-04-24|title=Faculty Opinions recommendation of Shorter telomere length in Europeans than in Africans due to polygenetic adaptation.|doi=10.3410/f.726191338.793545190}}</ref>。これは主に栄養価の高かったことや健康面に関連しているとされる<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baten |first1=Jörg |title=The biological standard of living in early nineteenth-century West Africa: new anthropometric evidence for northern Ghana and Burkina Faso |journal=The Economic History Review |date=2011}}</ref>。
===人身御供用の奴隷===
[[File:Victims for sacrifice-1793.jpg|thumb|250px|{{仮リンク|ダホメー王国の年次儀式|en|Annual Customs of Dahomey}}で生贄にされた奴隷]]
19世紀までの西アフリカでは、しばしば人身御供が行われていた。ヨーロッパ人との接触以前の考古学的証拠は明らかになっていないが、人身御供を行っていた社会では奴隷が主な犠牲者となっていた<ref name=Lovejoy-2012 />
{{仮リンク|ダホメー王国の年次儀式|en|Annual Customs of Dahomey}}は西アフリカにおいて奴隷が人身御供にされた有名な例で、500人以上の囚人が生贄とされた。現在の[[ガーナ]]と[[ナイジェリア]]南西部にまたがって存在していた[[ベニン帝国]]では人身御供はよく行われていた。[[ガーナ]]の[[アシャンティ州]]ではよく[[死刑]]と人身御供とが組み合わされていた<ref>Clifford Williams (1988), The International Journal of African Historical Studies, Vol. 21, No. 3. (1988), pp. 433–441</ref><ref>R. Rummel (1997)"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N1j1QdPMockC&pg=&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Death by government]''". Transaction Publishers. p.63. {{ISBN|1-56000-927-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=Human Sacrifice |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-sacrifice |date=26 August 2019}}</ref>。
===西アフリカでの奴隷貿易===
[[ボノ・マンソ|ボノ]]の国家や[[アシャンティ王国]]、[[ヨルバ人]]の国家など多くの国々では奴隷貿易が行われていた<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2015-03-02|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7}}</ref>。かつては[[アンゴラ]]の{{仮リンク|Imbangala|en|Imbangala}}や[[タンザニア]]の[[ニャムウェジ人]]などの集団は人を捕らえて奴隷として輸出するためにアフリカの国々に戦争を仕掛けていた<ref>{{Citation|last=Thornton|first=John|title=Imbangala|date=2005-04-07|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.41788|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref>。 歴史家の{{仮リンク|ジョン K. ソーントン|en|John Thornton (historian)}}と[[ボストン大学]]の{{仮リンク|リンダ・ヘイウッド|en|Linda Heywood}}は捕らえられて、大西洋奴隷貿易で[[新世界]]へ送られて売られたアフリカ人の内およそ90%がアフリカ人によって捕らえられヨーロッパの商人に売られたと推定している<ref name="Freedom">{{Citation|title=Freedom|date=2009-02-16|work=The Atlantic World|pages=615–660|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511816604.018|isbn=978-0-511-81660-4}}</ref> <ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game" />。 [[ハーバード大学]]アフリカン・アメリカン研究プログラム・デュボイス研究所 (現在はハッチンズセンター) の所長[[ヘンリー・ルイス・ゲイツ・ジュニア]]によれば、「アフリカ人エリート層とヨーロッパ人商人や商業エージェントとの複雑なビジネス協定がなければ、新世界への奴隷貿易は少なくとも実際に起こった規模では不可能なものであっただろう。」と述べている<ref>{{Cite document|title=Harvard University, Department of African and African American Studies (AAAS)|doi=10.1163/_afco_asc_1693}}</ref><ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html?_r=1&pagewanted=1&hp|author=Henry Louis Gates Jr.|title=Ending the Slavery Blame-Game|access-date=2012-03-26 |archive-url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 23 April 2010}}</ref>。
[[ブビ族]]は西アフリカ中央部で奴隷として扱われていた様々な民族の人々が逃れて形成された子孫である<ref>{{Citation|title=Reward Offered for Two Escaped Slaves (1745)|date=2014-09-30|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.34166|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref>。
==各地の状況==
[[File:Queen Ranavalona I of Madagascar engraving.jpg|thumb|[[メリナ王国]]王妃{{仮リンク|ラナヴァルナ1世|en|Ranavalona I}}を運ぶ奴隷]]
アフリカにおける奴隷制度や強制労働は、ユーラシアやアメリカにおけるそれらと同様に数千年前から形成されていた<ref name=Manning-1983>{{cite journal|last=Manning|first=Patrick|s2cid=155847068|title=Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa|journal=American Historical Review|year=1983|volume=88|issue=4|pages=835–857|doi=10.2307/1874022|jstor=1874022}}</ref><ref name=Fage />。 Ugo Kwokejiによれば、1600年代のヨーロッパ人によるアフリカにおける奴隷制度の記録は様々なアフリカにおける奴隷制度をほとんど動産奴隷と混同していたため、誤りが多いと指摘している<ref name=Nwokeji>{{cite book|last=Kwokeji|first=G. Ugo|chapter=Slavery in Non-Islamic West Africa, 1420–1820|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Volume II|editor=David Eltis and Stanley Engerman|year=2011|pages=81–110}}</ref>。
海岸沿いに多く見られた数多くの王国では、奴隷制が行われていたという記録が多く残っているが、国家を持たない社会では奴隷制の慣習はあまり記録されていない<ref name=Lovejoy-2012 /><ref name=Fage>{{cite journal|last=Fage|first=J.D.|title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History|journal=The Journal of African History|year=1969|volume=10|issue=3|pages=393–404|doi=10.1017/s0021853700036343}}</ref><ref name=Rodney />。 {{仮リンク|トランス・サハラ奴隷貿易|en|trans-sahara slave trade}}の経路は[[古代ローマ]]の時代やローマ帝国の腸落語の時代には既に存在していた<ref name=Alexander />。しかし、インド洋奴隷貿易や大西洋奴隷貿易が始まる以前は、捕虜奴隷を除いて奴隷の親族や奴隷の権利による奴隷貿易への制限があったようである<ref name=Fage />。
===北アフリカ===
{{further|:en:History of North Africa|:en:Slavery in ancient Egypt|:en:Slavery in the Roman Empire|:en:trans-Saharan slave trade|:en:Barbary slave trade}}
[[File:Slave Market, Mono version.jpg|thumb|[[古代エジプト]]の{{仮リンク|ヌビア人|en|Nubians}}奴隷]]
[[古代エジプト]]には、すでに奴隷制があった。[[エジプト新王国]] (紀元前1558年–紀元前1080年)の時代にはナイル川上流側から戦争捕虜として連れてこられた奴隷が家事労働や監督下での労働に用いられていた<ref>{{Citation|title=Frames of War in New Kingdom Egypt|date=2019-11-11|work=Body and Frames of War in New Kingdom Egypt|pages=133–160|publisher=Harrassowitz, O|doi=10.2307/j.ctvsf1qpk.13|isbn=978-3-447-19925-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Daniel C. Snell|entry=Slavery in the ancient Near East|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=16–17|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref>。 [[プトレマイオス朝]]では、奴隷の輸送に陸路と海路の双方を用いていた<ref>{{Citation|last=Lowery|first=Allison|title=Ancient Egypt (3500 BC–30 BC)|date=2019-11-28|work=Historical Wig Styling|pages=49–68|place=Second edition. {{!}} New York : Routledge, 2019. {{!}} Series: The focal press costume topics series|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780429422713-2|isbn=978-0-429-42271-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Dorothy J. Thompson|entry=Slavery in the Hellenistic world|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=207|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=For the slave-owners of Ptolemaic Egypt, Africa was an obvious source of slaves, and both land and sea routes from the south were well used}}</ref>。
[[File:Purchase of Christian captives from the Barbary States.jpg|thumb|230px|カトリックの僧侶による身代金支払いでの奴隷の解放(1661年、[[アルジェ]]において)]]
[[北アフリカ]]における[[動産奴隷]]の制度は[[ローマ帝国]]統治下の時代(紀元前145年-紀元430年頃)において法制化され、[[東ローマ帝国]]による支配下([[533年]]-[[695年]])でも同様の制度がとられた<ref>{{Citation|last=Peltonen|first=Jaakkojuhani|title=Alexander in an empire of Romans, Greeks, and Jews|date=2019-03-13|work=Alexander the Great in the Roman Empire, 150 BC to AD 600|pages=29–91|place=Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY : Routledge, [2019] {{!}} “Reception of Alexander the Great.”|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780429456046-2|isbn=978-0-429-45604-6}}</ref>。ローマ時代にはサハラ砂漠周辺の人々が奴隷として北アフリカに連れてこられた一方、取り決めによって[[ナイル川]]流域からの奴隷が規制されていたという文書記録が残っている<ref>{{Citation|last=Anstey|first=Roger|title=The Volume of the North American Slave-Carrying Trade from Africa 1761–1810|date=2019-06-18|work=Slave Trade and Migration|pages=1–21|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315057613-1|isbn=978-1-315-05761-3}}</ref><ref name=Alexander>{{cite journal|last=Alexander|first=J.|title=Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa|journal=World Archaeology|year=2001|volume=33|issue=1|pages=44–60|jstor=827888|doi=10.1080/00438240126645}}</ref>。[[古代ローマ]]が拡大すると、征服した土地の捕虜を奴隷としていた<ref>{{Citation|last=Bertrand|first=Estelle|title=Imperialism and the Crisis of the Roman Republic: Dio's View on Late Republican Conquests (Books 36–40)|date=2019-06-28|work=Cassius Dio and the Late Roman Republic|pages=19–35|publisher=BRILL|doi=10.1163/9789004405158_003|isbn=978-90-04-40515-8}}</ref>。[[オロシウス]]の記録によれば、北アフリカでは紀元前256年に27,000人の人々を奴隷としたとされる<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Keith Bradley|entry=Slavery in the Roman Republic|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|page=246|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref>。 [[海賊]]行為によって捕らえられた奴隷はローマ帝国の奴隷の供給源の一つであった。5世紀の海賊は北アフリカの海岸地域における村を略奪し、捕らえた人々を奴隷とした<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Walter Scheidel|entry=The Roman slave supply|editor=K. Bradley, and P. Cartledge|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery|volume=1|pages=297–8|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2011|quote=While large-scale piracy undoubtedly contributed to the Roman slave supply, it is hard to assess the relative significance of this source. Later episodes of piracy show no clear connection with the slave trade, at least not until maritime raiders were said to carry off the inhabitants of coastal villages in Illyria and North Africa in the fifth century AD}}</ref>。動産奴隷制はローマ帝国の凋落後も主にキリスト教徒のコミュニティで存続していた<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fisher|first=Alan|date=1980|title=Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|journal=Slavery & Abolition|volume=1|issue=1|pages=25–45|doi=10.1080/01440398008574806|issn=0144-039X}}</ref>。イスラム帝国の拡大後には、サハラ砂漠における交易路の拡大に伴い、最終的には[[マリ帝国]]や[[ソンガイ帝国]]などサハラ砂漠の南方の地域社会にも同様の奴隷制は広まった<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aden |first1=John Akare |last2=Hanson |first2=John H. |title=Legacies of the Past |chapter=Legacies of the Past Themes in African History}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Haour|first=Anne|title=What made Islamic Trade Distinctive, as Compared to Pre-Islamic Trade?|work=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|year=2017|pages=80–100|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781108161091.004|isbn=978-1-108-16109-1}}</ref><ref name="Lovejoy-2012" />。中世のヨーロッパでの奴隷貿易は主に東部と南部であった。主な目的地は[[ビザンチン帝国]]と[[ムスリム世界]]では、ヨーロッパ中央部と東部は大事な奴隷の源であった<ref>{{Cite document|title=Introduction: Central, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe|doi=10.1163/2451-9537_cmrii_com_33014}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159 |title=Historical survey > The international slave trade |encyclopedia=Britannica.com }}</ref>。しかし、[[ローマカトリック教会]]は、[[中世ヨーロッパの奴隷]]が広がりすぎたため、繰り返し奴隷制(少なくとも[[キリスト教徒]]奴隷をキリスト教ではない土地へ輸出すること)を禁止した<ref>{{Cite document|title=01. Relations of the Roman Catholic Church to non-christian religions|doi=10.1163/wcrc-31401}}</ref>。[[イベリア半島]]の{{仮リンク|ラダニテ|en|Radhanites}}([[ユダヤ人]]商人)は[[中央ヨーロッパ]]の[[ペイガニズム|ペイガン]]の奴隷を[[西ヨーロッパ]]経由で[[アンダルス]]やアフリカへと貿易していた<ref>{{Cite book|date=2014-02-04|title=Some Account of the Trade in Slaves from Africa as Connected with Europe|doi=10.4324/9781315033549|isbn=9781315033549}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=693&letter=C#2276 |title=Routes of the Jewish Merchants Called Radanites |publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com |date=14 November 1902 }}</ref>。
[[File:Christian slavery in Barbary (1859).jpg|thumb|[[バルバリア海岸]]のキリスト教徒奴隷]]
[[中世]]に入ると[[イスラム教]]に改宗して[[カリフ]]や[[スルタン]]に仕えた[[グラーム|奴隷兵士]]である[[マムルーク]]が現れた。最初期のマムルークは9世紀に[[アッバース朝]]の[[カリフ]]に仕えていたマムルークである<ref>{{Citation|title=The Abbasid Caliphs|work=Consorts of the Caliphs|year=2017|pages=95–96|publisher=NYU Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt1pwt9cd.51|isbn=978-1-4798-3657-4}}</ref>。やがてマムルークは強力な軍事階級の一角を占めるようになり、[[エジプト]]の[[マムルーク朝]]のように自らが権力を掌握することもあった<ref>{{Cite document|last1=Cusimano|first1=Corey|last2=Goodwin|first2=Geoffrey|date=2020-04-03|title=People judge others to have more control over beliefs than they themselves do|doi=10.31234/osf.io/xegud|url=http://psyarxiv.com/xegud/}}</ref>。ロバート・デイビスによれば、[[バルバリア海賊]]によって捕らえられ、北アフリカや[[オスマン帝国]]に売り飛ばされたヨーロッパ人奴隷は人口を安定させることや奴隷の死亡、逃亡、身代金支払いによる釈放などを考慮して、毎年8,500人、1530年から1780年までの250年間で125万人にのぼると推定している<ref>{{cite book |author=Robert C. Davis |title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C |___location=[[London]] |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |page=45 |date=December 2003 |isbn=978-0333719664 |access-date=15 May 2015 }}</ref><ref name=Grabmeier>{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm |title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed |author=Jeff Grabmeier |date=8 March 2004 |website=researchnews.osu.edu |___location=[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio |publisher=OSU News Research Archive |access-date=15 May 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm |archive-date=25 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name=Earle>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|last2=correspondent|first2=Africa|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>。
一方、[[私掠船]]により捕らえられたのは、東欧の非キリスト教徒の白人や西アフリカの黒人もいると主張するデイヴィッド・アールなどデイビスの推計に異論を唱えている歴史家もいる<ref name=Earle/>。
さらに、ピーク時の交易された奴隷の数をもってして奴隷の数を数世紀にわたって平均しており、誇張されて推定されているとされる<ref>{{Citation|title=Appendix C. Annual Estimates and Quinquennial Moving Averages for the Years before 1919|date=1962-12-31|work=Capital in the American Economy|pages=534–601|place=Princeton|publisher=Princeton University Press|doi=10.1515/9781400879724-019|isbn=978-1-4008-7972-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Theler, James L., 1946-|title=Twelve millennia : archaeology of the upper Mississippi River Valley|date=2003|publisher=University of Iowa Press|isbn=1-58729-439-7|oclc=56109468}}</ref>。 そのため、特に[[18世紀]]や[[19世紀]]にかけては奴隷の輸入量が大きく変動しており、1840年代以前には奴隷の数に関する一貫した記録がないという事実もある<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Author|first=Not Given|date=1977-07-01|title=Three year progress report|doi=10.2172/5354030|osti=5354030}}</ref>。中東専門家のジョン・ライトは現在の推定が人類の観測による逆算に基づくとしている<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|last=Wright|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2007}}</ref>。
1500年代後期から1600年代始めには、約35,000人のヨーロッパのキリスト教徒奴隷が[[バルバリア海岸]]周辺、主に[[アルジェ]]で拘束されていたと推定されている<ref>{{Citation|last=Sears|first=Christine E.|title=Slavery as Social Mobility? Western Slaves in Late Eighteenth Century Algiers|date=2010-01-01|work=Rough Waters|pages=207–220|publisher=Liverpool University Press|doi=10.5949/liverpool/9780986497346.003.0012|isbn=978-0-9864973-4-6}}</ref>。主に[[船員]] (主に[[英国人]])が彼らの船と共にさらわれたほか、[[漁師]]や沿岸にすんでいる人々も[[拘束]]された。しかし、ほとんどの拘束者はアフリカ周辺の土地（[[スペイン]]や[[イタリア]]など）から誘拐された。<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast|last=Davis|first=Robert|date=17 Feb 2011|publisher=BBC}}</ref>
[[イタリア]]、[[ポルトガル]]、[[スペイン]]と[[地中海]]の島々は[[海賊]]によって頻繁に攻撃され、イタリアやスペインの沿岸は住民によってほぼ完全に破棄されていた<ref>{{Cite document|last=Hixon|first=Mark|title=Experimental results indicating which predators were attacked by Stegastes planiforms in the Cayman Islands and the Bahamas during 2011|year=2019|doi=10.1575/1912/bco-dmo.653159.1}}</ref>。[[1600年]]後、[[バルバリア海賊]]はたまに[[大西洋]]の[[アイスランド]]まで出ていくこともあった<ref>{{Citation|last=Graham|first=James|title=Barbary pirates|date=2007-03-19|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.47304|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref>。有名な海賊には[[オスマン帝国]]の[[バルバロッサ]]など多数がいた<ref name=Grabmeier /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml |title=BBC – History – British Slaves on the Barbary Coast |publisher=Bbc.co.uk }}</ref>。
{{仮リンク|ドラグーツ|en|Dragut}}は、[[1551年]]に[[マルタ]][[ゴゾ島]]住民の約5000～6000人全員を奴隷としてさらい、[[リビア]]へ送った。1554年、[[バルバロス・ハイレッディン]]は[[イスキア島]]を制圧し、4000人の囚人を捕り、[[リーパリ]]人口全体の約9000人を奴隷として追放した<ref>{{cite news|last=Richtel |first=Matt |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/09/26/trsic_ed3_.php |title=The mysteries and majesties of the Aeolian Islands |newspaper=International Herald Tribune }}</ref>。[[1554年]]、[[ヴィエステ]]を海賊が乗っ取ったときは、7000人もの住民が奴隷として連れ去られた。[[1555年]]、ドラグーツは[[バスティア]]を荒らし、6000人を囚人としてさらった<ref>{{Cite document|title=Hospital beds per 1 000 population and hospital discharges per 1 000 population, latest year available|doi=10.1787/888933868348}}</ref>。[[1558年]]、[[バルバリア海賊]]は[[シウタデリャ・デ・メノルカ]]の町を破壊し、住民を[[殺害]]し、生き残った3000人余りを奴隷として捕らえ[[イスタンブール]]に送った<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.holidays2menorca.com/history.php |title=History of Menorca |publisher=Holidays2menorca.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207215521/http://www.holidays2menorca.com/history.php |archive-date=7 February 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>。[[1563年]]、ドラグーツはスペイン[[グラナダ]]の海岸に到着、[[アルムニェーカル]]などの町の住民を約4000人の囚人と共に捕獲した。[[バレアレス諸島]]はよくバルバリア海賊によって攻撃され、多くの監視塔や教会が要塞化された。被害は非常に大きく、[[フォルメンテーラ島]]が無人になってしまったほどであった<ref>{{cite magazine|author=Christopher Hitchens |url=http://www.city-journal.org/html/17_2_urbanities-thomas_jefferson.html |title=Jefferson Versus the Muslim Pirates by Christopher Hitchens |magazine=City Journal |date=Spring 2007 }}</ref><ref>Davis, Robert, [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1403945519 ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800''.]</ref>。
[[File:Arabslavers.jpg|thumb|left|黒人[[ザンジュ]]が[[奴隷市場]]へ歩いている様子]]
Early modern sources are full of descriptions of the sufferings of Christian [[galley slaves]] of the [[Barbary corsairs]]:
{{quote|Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to a plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh...<ref>Morgan, J. [http://snowy.arsc.alaska.edu/gutenberg/2/2/1/6/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_214 ''A complete History of Algiers''], 1731, p. 517.</ref>}}
As late as 1798, the islet near [[Sardinia]] was attacked by the [[Tunisia]]ns and over 900 inhabitants were taken away as slaves.
[[Sahrawi people|Sahrawi]]-[[Moorish]] society in [[Northwest Africa]] was traditionally (and still is, to some extent) stratified into several tribal castes,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=Udhava|date=2018-10-26|title=To What Extent has the EU Taken away the Sovereignty of its Member Nations?|journal=International Journal of New Technology and Research|volume=4|issue=10|doi=10.31871/ijntr.4.10.14|issn=2454-4116|doi-access=free}}</ref> with the [[Hassane]] warrior tribes ruling and extracting tribute – [[horma]] – from the subservient [[Berber people|Berber]]-descended [[znaga]] tribes.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1903-04-18|title=The Berber Tribes of North Africa|journal=Scientific American|volume=55|issue=1424supp|page=22826|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican04181903-22826bsupp|issn=0036-8733}}</ref> Below them ranked servile groups known as [[Haratin]], a black population.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html | work=CNN | title=Slavery's last stand }}</ref>
Enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans were also transported across North Africa into Arabia to do agricultural work because of their resistance to [[malaria]] that plagued the Arabia and North Africa at the time of early enslavement.<ref>{{Cite document|title=Activity ratios in sub-Saharan Africa, North Africa, South Africa and China, 1950-2100|doi=10.1787/888933206878}}</ref> Sub-Saharan Africans were able to endure the malaria-infested lands they were transported to, which is why North Africans were not transported despite their close proximity to Arabia and its surrounding lands.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toldedano |first1=Ehud |title=Expectations and Realities in the Study of Enslavement in Muslim-Majority Societies |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History |date=1 January 2018 |volume=3}}</ref>
===アフリカの角===
{{See also|Slavery in Ethiopia|Slavery in Somalia}}
[[File:Servant or slave woman in Mogadishu.jpg|thumb|[[モガディシュ]]の非自発的奴隷の女性(1882年頃)]]
[[アフリカの角]]では[[エチオピア帝国]]のキリスト教徒の王が西方の国境周辺の[[ナイロート]]の奴隷や征服もしくは再征服した土地からの奴隷を輸出していた<ref>{{Cite book|title=From Isolation to Integration|date=2020-03-01|publisher=World Bank|doi=10.1596/33513}}</ref><ref name="Pkhst">Pankhurst. ''Ethiopian Borderlands'', p. 432.</ref>。中近世の[[ソマリ族]]や[[アファル人]]のスルタン国では、海路を通じてアフリカの内陸部から捕らえてきた[[バントゥー人]]奴隷を取引していた<ref>{{Citation|title=The Master who Conferred his Empire upon his Slaves: Shihāb al-Diīn Ghūriī|date=2016|work=Muslim Rule in Medieval India|publisher=I. B. Tauris|doi=10.5040/9781350987289.ch-003|isbn=978-1-78673-082-4}}</ref><ref name="Eoahac">{{cite book|last=Willie F. Page|first=Facts on File, Inc.|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2|year=2001|publisher=Facts on File|isbn=978-0816044726|page=239|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK1aAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>。
[[File:Slaves in Ethiopia - 19th century.jpg|thumb|left|19世紀[[エチオピア]]の奴隷]]
[[エチオピア]]での奴隷制はアフリカの他の多くのの地域における奴隷制と同様に基本的に女性を対象として家庭内奴隷として扱われていた<ref>{{Citation|last=Candido|first=Mariana P.|title=Women and Slavery in Africa|date=2020-03-31|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.466|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref>。 男性に比べ多くの女性がサハラ地域を通過して、中東やヨーロッパ、インドへ移送された<ref>{{Cite document|title=Figure 7. Mentorship and optimism.|doi=10.7554/elife.46827.022}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book |last1=Robertson |first1=Claire |title=Women and Slavery |date=2019}}</ref>。 奴隷は主人の家庭で奉公し、生産活動にはあまり用いられなかった<ref>{{Citation|last=Gilroy|first=Paul|title=Masters, Mistresses, Slaves, and the Antinomies of Modernity|date=2018-06-29|work=A Political Companion to Frederick Douglass|pages=21–60|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|doi=10.5810/kentucky/9780813175621.003.0002|isbn=978-0-8131-7562-1}}</ref>。奴隷は主人の家庭において「二級の」家族として扱われていた<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/16.htm |title=Ethiopia – The Interregnum |publisher=Countrystudies.us }}</ref>。エチオピアでは、19世紀中ごろに[[テオドロス2世 (エチオピア皇帝)|テオドロス2世]]が奴隷制廃止を試みていたが<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848307.html |title=Tewodros II |publisher=Infoplease.com }}</ref>、エチオピアが[[国際連盟]]に加盟した[[1923年]]まで、奴隷制度は法的には廃止されなかった<ref>[http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/selassie.htm Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie Profile]</ref>。だが、奴隷制の法的廃止後も奴隷制は続けられており、1930年には200万人の奴隷がいたと推定されている<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Warren|first=Robert|date=2015-09-08|title=The Estimated Undocumented Population is 11 Million. How Do We Know?|doi=10.14240/cmsesy090815|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf |title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf |archive-date=15 May 2011 }}</ref>。 1935年10月のイタリアによるエチオピア占領によりエチオピア国内の奴隷制は公的に廃止された<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 183622|title = Trading in Slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border Enclaves in History, 1897-1938|journal = The Journal of African History|volume = 40|issue = 3|pages = 433–446|last1 = Ahmad|first1 = Abdussamad H.|year = 1999|doi = 10.1017/S0021853799007458}}</ref>。また、 第二次世界大戦の欧米の[[連合国 (第二次世界大戦)|連合国]]各国はエチオピアに奴隷制や非自発的給仕を廃止するように圧力をかけ、エチオピアの独立回復後の[[1942年]][[8月26日]]に[[ハイレ・セラシエ]]皇帝は奴隷制を非合法とする布告を出した<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201821/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/Edito%20anglais/Edito6.htm The slave trade: myths and preconceptions]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120521002539/http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf Ethiopia]</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Chronology of slavery |url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5kmCuElxY?url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2691/COS2.html |archive-date=25 October 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>。
[[ソマリ人]]の国家においては、奴隷はもっぱら農園で労働をさせるために奴隷市場から購入されていた<ref name="USRCLS"/>。[[バントゥー人]]奴隷の処遇に関する制度は[[スルタン]]や地方の行政官の出す法令により法的に定められていた<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1969|title=Spain: Decree On Customs Operations In Territorial Waters|journal=International Legal Materials|volume=8|issue=2|pages=331–332|doi=10.1017/s0020782900056771|issn=0020-7829}}</ref>。 これらの奴隷は解放や逃亡、身代金によって自由を得ることもあった<ref name="USRCLS">Catherine Lowe Besteman, ''Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery'' (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83–84.</ref>。
===中央アフリカ===
[[File:Slave market Khartoum 19th c.png|thumb|230px|[[ハルツーム]]の奴隷市場。]]
[[File:Old slave, in Cameroon (IMP-DEFAP CMCFGB-CP010 2).jpg|thumb|Elderly female slave, c. 1911/15, owned by Njapundunke, mother of the [[Kingdom of Bamum|Bamum]] king [[Ibrahim Njoya]]]]
Slaves were transported since antiquity along trade routes crossing the Sahara.<ref>[http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0001 "History & Memory : The Making of an Atlantic World : Pre-colonial Africa", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, USA, 2021.]</ref>
[[コンゴ王国]]の口承によれば、 from the time of its formation with [[Lukeni lua Nimi]] enslaving the [[Mwene Kabunga]] whom he conquered to establish the kingdom.<ref name=Heywood>{{cite journal|last=Heywood|first=Linda M.|author2=2009|s2cid=154942266|title=Slavery and its transformations in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=50|pages=1–22|doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228|year=2009}}</ref> Early Portuguese writings show that the Kingdom did have slavery before contact, but that they were primarily war captives from the [[Kingdom of Ndongo]].<ref name=Heywood /><ref name=Birmingham>{{cite encyclopedia |date=25 January 2010 |last=Birmingham |first=David |title=Central Africa |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa. |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>
Slavery was common along the Upper [[Congo River]], and in the second half of the 18th century the region became a major source of slaves for the [[Atlantic slave trade|Atlantic Slave Trade]],<ref>{{Citation|title=Slaves and Shipping in 18th-Century Virginia|work=The Middle Passage|year=1978|pages=121–140|publisher=Princeton University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt1mf6xwn.11|isbn=978-1-4008-4439-5}}</ref> when high slave prices on the coast made long-distance slave trading profitable.<ref>{{Citation|last=Fuglestad|first=Finn|title=The Database and the Slave Trade from the Slave Coast|date=2018-08-01|work=Slave Traders by Invitation|pages=91–96|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/oso/9780190876104.003.0007|isbn=978-0-19-087610-4}}</ref> When the Atlantic trade came to an end, the prices of slaves dropped dramatically, and the regional slave trade grew, dominated by [[Bangi language|Bobangi]] traders.<ref name="Klein 2010 188–212">{{Citation|last=Klein|first=Herbert S.|title=The End of the Slave Trade|work=The Atlantic Slave Trade|year=2010|pages=188–212|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511779473.013|isbn=978-0-511-77947-3}}</ref> The Bobangi also purchased a large number of slaves with profits from selling ivory, who they used to populate their villages.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Thursby|first1=Jerry|last2=Thursby|first2=Marie|date=2000|title=Who is Selling the Ivory Tower? Sources of Growth in University Licensing|___location=Cambridge, MA|doi=10.3386/w7718|doi-access=free}}</ref> A distinction was made between two different types of slaves in this region; slaves who had been sold by their kin group, typically as a result of undesirable behavior such as adultery, were unlikely to attempt to flee.<ref>{{Citation|title=ten Whose Ancestors Were Imported into This Country and Sold as Slaves?|work=The Dred Scott Case|year=2010|pages=171–176|publisher=Ohio University Press|doi=10.1353/chapter.236760|isbn=978-0-8214-4328-6}}</ref> In addition to those considered socially undesirable, the sale of children was also common in times of famine.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lawrence|first=Richard|title=Observations on the causes which constitute unsoundness in horses : considered in regard to the sale and purchase of those animals / by Richard Lawrence, veterinary surgeon.|date=1809|publisher=printed by R. Jabet|___location=London|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.21425|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/61691}}</ref> Slaves who were captured, however, were likely to attempt to escape and had to be moved hundreds of kilometers from their homes as a safeguard against this.<ref>{{Citation|title=About how it went (to the best of my knowledge) for the good people who had been captured and were taken to that place [Algiers]|work=The Travels of Reverend Olafur Egilsson|year=2016|pages=26–29|publisher=Catholic University of America Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt1g69z98.16|isbn=978-0-8132-2870-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891|last=Harms|first=Robert W.|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0300026160|___location=New Haven|pages=28–39}}</ref>
The slave trade had a profound impact on this region of Central Africa, completely reshaping various aspects of society.<ref name="Slave Prices Data">{{Cite journal|date=2017-06-26|title=– Slave Prices Data|journal=The Atlantic Slave Trade from West Central Africa, 1780–1867|pages=176–177|doi=10.1017/9781316771501.011|isbn=9781316771501}}</ref> For instance, the slave trade helped to create a robust regional trade network for the foodstuffs and crafted goods of small producers along the river.<ref name="Cambridge University Press"/> As the transport of only a few slaves in a canoe was sufficient to cover the cost of a trip and still make a profit,<ref>{{Citation|title=5. Reading/Writing the Wilderness Canoe Trip|date=2012-12-31|work=Inheriting a Canoe Paddle|pages=102–122|place=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press|doi=10.3138/9781442661752-007|isbn=978-1-4426-6175-2}}</ref> traders could fill any unused space on their canoes with other goods and transport them long distances without a significant markup on price.<ref>{{Citation|title=Tanks for transport of dangerous goods. Service equipment for tanks. Fill hole cover|publisher=BSI British Standards|doi=10.3403/02708673u}}</ref> While the large profits from the Congo River slave trade only went to a small number of traders, this aspect of the trade provided some benefit to local producers and consumers.<ref>{{Cite book|title=River of Wealth, River of Sorrow|last=Harms|pages=48–51}}</ref>
===West Africa===
[[File:1743 Homann Heirs Map of West Africa ( Slave Trade references ) "Guinea" - Geographicus - Aethiopia-hmhr-1743.jpg|thumb|left|Homann Heirs map of the slave trade in West Africa, from Senegal and [[Ras Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]] to Guinea, the [[Chiloango River|Cacongo]] and Barbela rivers, and Ghana Lake on the Niger River as far as Regio Auri (1743)]]
Various forms of slavery were practiced in diverse ways in different communities of West Africa prior to European trade.<ref name="Lovejoy 2011 160–184"/><ref name=Manning-1983 /> Even though slavery did exist, it was not nearly as prevalent within most West African societies that were not Islamic before the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.<ref>{{Citation|last=Toledano|first=Ehud R.|title=Ottoman and Islamic Societies: Were They "Slave Societies"?|work=What Is a Slave Society?|year=2018|pages=360–382|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781316534908.015|isbn=978-1-316-53490-8}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Nwokeji|first=U. G.|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=86, 88}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Stillwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery and Slaving in African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|pages=47, 179, 192, 211}}</ref> The prerequisites for slave societies to exist weren't present in West Africa prior to the Atlantic slave trade considering the small market sizes and the lack of a [[division of labour]].<ref name="Cambridge University Press"/><ref name=":4" /> Most West African societies were formed in Kinship units which would make slavery a rather marginal part of the production process within them.<ref>{{Cite document|title=Figure 6.5 If you were to start a business today, which are the two risks you would be most afraid of?|doi=10.1787/888932829514}}</ref><ref name="Lovejoy-2012" /> Slaves within Kinship-based societies would have had almost the same roles that free members had.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012" /> Martin Klein has said that before the Atlantic trade, slaves in [[Western Sudan]] “made up a small part of the population, lived within the household, worked alongside free members of the household, and participated in a network of face-to-face links.”<ref>{{Citation|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|title=The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on the Societies of the Western Sudan|date=2017-05-15|work=African Military History|pages=199–221|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315263212-10|isbn=978-1-315-26321-2}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> With the development of the trans-[[Sahara]]n slave trade and the economies of gold in the western [[Sahel]], a number of the major states became organized around the slave trade, including the [[Ghana Empire]], the [[Mali Empire]], the [[Bono state|Bono State]] and [[Songhai Empire]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Alexandre|first=Valentim|title=The Portuguese Empire, 1825–90|date=2004-08-26|work=From Slave Trade to Empire|pages=110–132|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780203323090-9|isbn=978-0-203-32309-0}}</ref><ref name=Meillassoux>{{cite book|last=Meillassoux|first=Claude|title=The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold|year=1991|publisher=University of Chicago Press|___location=Chicago}}</ref> However, other communities in West Africa largely resisted the slave trade.<ref name="Slave Prices Data"/> The [[Jola people|Jola]] refused to participate in the slave trade up into the end of the seventeenth century, and didn't use slave labour within their own communities until the nineteenth century.<ref>{{Citation|last=Lambert|first=David|title=Slave-trade suppression and the image of West Africa in nineteenth-century Britain|date=2017-03-01|work=The suppression of the Atlantic slave trade|publisher=Manchester University Press|doi=10.7765/9781784992361.00015|isbn=978-1-78499-236-1}}</ref> The [[Kru languages|Kru]] and [[Baga people|Baga]] also fought against the slave trade.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hillbom |first=Ellen |title=An Economic History of Development in sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Palgrave |page=70}}</ref> The [[Mossi Kingdoms]] tried to take over key sites in the trans-Saharan trade and, when these efforts failed, the Mossi became defenders against slave raiding by the powerful states of the western Sahel.<ref>{{Citation|last=Zahan|first=Dominique|title=The Mossi Kingdoms|work=West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century|year=2018|pages=152–178|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780429491641-6|isbn=978-0-429-49164-1}}</ref> The Mossi would eventually enter the slave trade in the 1800s with the Atlantic slave trade being the main market.<ref name="Klein 2010 188–212"/><ref name=Meillassoux />
[[Senegal]] was a catalyst for slave trade, and from the Homann Heirs map figure shown, shows a starting point for migration and a firm port of trade.<ref>{{Citation|last=Anstey|first=Roger|title=The Volume of the North American Slave-Carrying Trade from Africa 1761–1810|date=2019-06-18|work=Slave Trade and Migration|pages=1–21|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315057613-1|isbn=978-1-315-05761-3}}</ref> The culture of the [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] was based largely on the power that individuals held, rather than the land cultivated by a family.<ref>{{Cite document|title=Figure 1.5. Falling employment largely took the form of rising unemployment, rather than labour force withdrawal, 2007 Q4-2010 Q4|doi=10.1787/888932479097}}</ref> [[West Africa|Western Africa]], and specifically places like Senegal, were able to arrive at the development of slavery through analyzing the aristocratic advantages of slavery and what would best suit the region.<ref>{{Citation|title=Slavery in the Western Sudan|date=1998-07-28|work=Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa|pages=1–18|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511584138.003|isbn=978-0-521-59678-7}}</ref> This sort of governing that used "political tool" of discerning the different labours and methods of [[Chattel Slavery|assimilative slavery]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Roshchin|first=Evgeny|title=Political Theory of a Different Sort|date=2015|work=In Debate with Kari Palonen|pages=17–24|publisher=Nomos|doi=10.5771/9783845255439-17|isbn=978-3-8452-5543-9}}</ref> The domestic and agricultural labour became more evidently primary in Western Africa due to slaves being regarded as these "political tools" of access and status.<ref>{{Cite document|title=Figure 2.16. Access to health services became more difficult|doi=10.1787/888932958733}}</ref> Slaves often had more wives than their owners, and this boosted the class of their owners.<ref>{{Cite document|title=Households that receive remittances are often more likely to be business owners|doi=10.1787/888933418034}}</ref> Slaves were not all used for the same purpose. European colonizing countries were participating in the trade to suit the economic needs of their countries.<ref>{{Citation|title=That 'Oman Took Delight in Sellin' Slaves|date=2019-02-19|work=They Were Her Property|pages=123–150|publisher=Yale University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctvbnm3fz.9|isbn=978-0-300-24510-3}}</ref> The parallel of "Moorish" traders found in the desert compared to the Portuguese traders that were not as established pointed out the differences in uses of slaves at this point, and where they were headed in the trade.<ref>{{Citation|last=Ould Cheikh|first=Abdel Wedoud|title=Herders, Traders and Clerics: The Impact of Trade, Religion and Warfare on the Evolution of Moorish Society|date=2019-03-04|work=Herders, Warriors, and Traders|pages=199–218|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780429045615-9|isbn=978-0-429-04561-5}}</ref>
Historian [[Walter Rodney]] identified no slavery or significant domestic servitude in early European accounts on the [[Upper Guinea]] region<ref name="Rodney" /> and I. A. Akinjogbin contends that European accounts reveal that the slave trade was not a major activity along the coast controlled by the [[Yoruba people]] and [[Aja people]] before Europeans arrived.<ref name="Akinjogbin">{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I. A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|year=1967|publisher=Cambridge University Press|oclc=469476592}}</ref> In a paper read to the [[Ethnological Society of London]] in 1866, the [[viceroy]] of [[Lokoja]] Mr T. Valentine Robins, who in 1864 accompanied an expedition up the [[River Niger]] aboard {{HMS|Investigator|1861|6}}, described slavery in the region: {{quote|Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence - food and clothing. A free man is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone.<ref name="Paisley Herald-1866">{{cite news|title=Among the savages|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000464/18660310/049/0006| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |access-date=19 November 2014|publisher=Paisley Herald and Renfrewshire Advertiser|date=10 March 1866|page=6}}</ref>}} With the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade, demand for slavery in West Africa increased and a number of states became centered on the slave trade and domestic slavery increased dramatically.<ref name=Manning-1990 /> [[Hugh Clapperton]] in 1824 believed that half the population of [[Kano (city)|Kano]] were enslaved people.<ref>{{cite book|author=Humphrey J. Fisher|title=Slavery in the History of Muslim Black Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3wYE_dh1alkC&pg=PA33|access-date=31 May 2012|year=2001|publisher=Hurst & Company|isbn=978-1-85065-524-4|page=33}}</ref>
[[File:Costumes de Differents Pays, 'Marchand d'Esclaves de Goree' LACMA M.83.190.334.jpg|thumb|A slave trader of [[Gorée]], c. 1797]]
In the [[Senegambia (geography)|Senegambia]] region, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. In early [[Islamic]] states of the western Sahel, including [[Ghana Empire|Ghana]] (750–1076), [[Mali Empire|Mali]] (1235–1645), [[Bamana Empire|Segou]] (1712–1861), and [[Songhai Empire|Songhai]] (1275–1591), about a third of the population were enslaved. In [[Sierra Leone]] in the 19th century about half of the population consisted of enslaved people. Among the [[Vai people|Vai]] people, during the 19th century, three quarters of people were slaves. In the 19th century at least half the population was enslaved among the [[Duala people|Duala]] of the [[Cameroon]] and other peoples of the lower [[Niger river|Niger]], the [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo]], and the Kasanje kingdom and [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]] of [[Angola]]. Among the [[Ashanti people|Ashanti]] and [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] a third of the population consisted of enslaved people. The population of the [[Kanem Empire|Kanem]] (1600–1800) was about one-third enslaved. It was perhaps 40% in [[Bornu Empire|Bornu]] (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900 from one- to two-thirds of the entire population of the [[Fulani jihad]] states consisted of enslaved people. The population of the largest Fulani state, [[Sokoto]], was at least half-enslaved in the 19th century. Among the Adrar 15 percent of people were enslaved, and 75 percent of the [[Gurma]] were enslaved.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |archive-date=30 December 2007 |url-status=dead |access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Slavery was extremely common among the [[Tuareg people]]s and many still hold slaves today.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711000207|title=Tuareg society within a globalized world : Saharan life in transition|date=2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies/I.B. Tauris|others=Ines Kohl, Anja Fischer|isbn=978-0-85771-924-9|___location=London|oclc=711000207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37300720|title=Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59324-7|___location=Cambridge|oclc=37300720}}</ref>
When British rule was first imposed on the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] and the surrounding areas in [[northern Nigeria]] at the turn of the 20th century, approximately 2 million to 2.5 million people there were enslaved.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)"], Project MUSE – ''Journal of World History''.</ref> Slavery in northern Nigeria was finally outlawed in 1936.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page56.shtml The end of slavery], BBC World Service | The Story of Africa</ref>
===African Great Lakes===
[[File:TipputipPortrait.jpg|thumb|190px|[[Zanzibar]]i slave trader [[Tippu Tip]] owned 10,000 slaves.]]
With sea trade from the eastern [[African Great Lakes]] region to [[Persia]], China, and India during the first millennium AD, slaves are mentioned as a commodity of secondary importance to gold and ivory.<ref>{{Citation|last=Cissé|first=Mamadou|title=The Trans-Saharan Trade Connection with Gao (Mali) during the First Millennium AD|work=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|year=2017|pages=101–130|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781108161091.005|isbn=978-1-108-16109-1}}</ref> When mentioned, the slave trade appears to be of a small-scale and mostly involves slave raiding of women and children along the islands of [[Kilwa Kisiwani]], [[Madagascar]], and [[Pemba Island|Pemba]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Rio|first=Alice|title=Slave Raiding and Slave Trading|date=2017-04-06|work=Slavery After Rome, 500-1100|pages=19–41|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198704058.003.0002|isbn=978-0-19-870405-8}}</ref> In places such as [[Uganda]], the experience for women in slavery was different than that of customary slavery practices at the time. The roles assumed were based on gender and position within the society <ref>{{Citation|title=Joking Market Women|work=Work, Social Status, and Gender in Post-Slavery Mauritania|year=2018|pages=81–100|publisher=Indiana University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctv65sw49.8|isbn=978-0-253-03625-4}}</ref> First one must make the distinction in Ugandan slavery of peasants and slaves. Researchers Shane Doyle and Henri Médard assert the distinction with the following:
"Peasants were rewarded for valour in battle by the present of slaves by the lord or chief for whom they had fought. They could be given slaves by relatives who had been promoted to the rank of chiefs, and they could inherit slaves from their fathers.<ref>{{Citation|title=FRANCIS GAMMONS|work=Homeless, Friendless, and Penniless|year=2000|page=138|publisher=Indiana University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt2005wbk.57|isbn=978-0-253-02857-0}}</ref> There were the abanyage (those pillaged or stolen in war) as well as the abagule (those bought).<ref>{{Citation|last1=Hart|first1=David M.|title=James Mill, "On Those Who Pillage and Those Who Are Pillaged" (1835)|date=2017-12-01|work=Social Class and State Power|pages=63–69|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-64893-4|last2=Chartier|first2=Gary|last3=Kenyon|first3=Ross Miller|last4=Long|first4=Roderick T.|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-64894-1_11}}</ref> All these came under the category of abenvumu or true slaves, that is to say people not free in any sense.<ref>{{Citation|title=How "The True Story of Ah Q" Came About (1926)|work=Jottings under Lamplight|year=2017|pages=36–44|publisher=Harvard University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctvgd353.8|isbn=978-0-674-98144-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Signposter, author.|title=The delusion of being human|date=22 January 2013|isbn=978-1-4820-2675-7|oclc=842138140}}</ref> In a superior position were the young Ganda given by their maternal uncles into slavery (or pawnship), usually in lieu of debts... Besides such slaves both chiefs and king were served by sons of well to do men who wanted to please them and attract favour for themselves or their children.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bottero|first=Wendy|date=2012|title=Who do you think they were? How family historians make sense of social position and inequality in the past|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=63|issue=1|pages=54–74|doi=10.1111/j.1468-4446.2011.01393.x|pmid=22404389|issn=0007-1315|url=https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/who-do-you-think-they-were-how-family-historians-make-sense-of-social-position-and-inequality-in-the-past(c923c984-899a-417a-ac23-99526446c35c).html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Moody, Eleazer, -1720.|title=The school of good manners : composed for the help of parents in teaching their children how to behave during their minority.|date=1818|publisher=E.P. Walton|oclc=40023384}}</ref> These were the abasige and formed a big addition to a noble household.... All these different classes of dependents in a household were classed as Medard & Doyle abaddu (male servants) or abazana (female servants) whether they were slave or free-born.(175)"<ref>{{Citation|last=O’Leary|first=Patrick|title=Who were they?|date=2017-02-01|work=Servants of the empire|publisher=Manchester University Press|doi=10.7765/9781526118417.00014|isbn=978-1-5261-1841-7}}</ref>
In the [[African Great Lakes|Great Lakes region]] of Africa (around present-day Uganda), linguistic evidence shows the existence of slavery through war capture, trade, and pawning going back hundreds of years; however, these forms, particularly pawning, appear to have increased significantly in the 18th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Woloson|first=Wendy A.|title=In Hock|date=2009|publisher=University of Chicago Press|doi=10.7208/chicago/9780226905693.001.0001|isbn=978-0-226-90568-6}}</ref><ref name=Schoenbrun>{{cite book|last=Schoenbrun|first=David|title=Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa|year=2007|publisher=James Currey Ltd.|___location=Oxford, England|pages=38–74|chapter=Violence, Marginality, Scorn & Honor: Language Evidence of Slavery in the Eighteenth Century}}</ref> These slaves were considered to be more trustworthy than those from the Gold Coast. They were regarded with more prestige because of the training they responded to.<ref>{{Citation|title=VIII. "And although these men were rare and wonderful, they were nevertheless but men, and the opportunities which they had were far less favorable than the present; nor were their undertakings more just or more easy than this; neither was God more a friend of them than of you."|date=2016-12-31|work=How to Choose a Leader|pages=37–41|place=Princeton|publisher=Princeton University Press|doi=10.1515/9781400880409-009|isbn=978-1-4008-8040-9}}</ref>
The language for slaves in the [[Great Lakes region (Africa)|Great Lakes region]] varied.<ref>{{Citation|last=Hartmut|first=Hamann|title=Great Lakes Region, Africa|date=2017|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/e1289|encyclopedia=Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-923169-0|access-date=2020-08-28}}</ref> This region of water made it easy for capture of slaves and transport. Captive, refugee, slave, peasant were all used in order to describe those in the trade.<ref>{{Citation|title=The Acquisition Of Slaves|work=From Capture to Sale: The Portuguese Slave Trade to Spanish South America in the Early Seventeenth Century|year=2007|pages=32–71|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|doi=10.1163/ej.9789004156791.i-373.12|isbn=978-90-04-15679-1}}</ref> The distinction was made by where and for what purpose they would be utilized for. Methods like pillage, [[Looting|plunder]], and capture were all semantics common in this region to depict the trade.<ref>{{Citation|last=Ando|first=Clifford|chapter=Piracy, Pillage and Plunder in Antiquity|date=2019-08-05|pages=1–8|place=Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY : Routledge, 2019. {{!}} Series: Routledge monographs in classical studies|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780429440441-1|isbn=978-0-429-44044-1}}</ref>
Historians Campbell and Alpers argue that there were a host of different categories of labour in [[Southeast Africa]] and that the distinction between slave and free individuals was not particularly relevant in most societies.<ref>{{Cite document|title=Distinction between different categories of contracts|doi=10.1163/1875-8096_pplrdc_ej.9789028605350.001_070.4}}</ref><ref name="Campbell & Alpers">{{cite journal|last1=Campbell|first1=Gwyn|last2=Alpers|first2=Edward A.|title=Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia|journal=Slavery & Abolition|year=2004|volume=25|issue=2|pages=ix–xxvii|doi=10.1080/0144039042000292992|s2cid=144847867}}</ref> However, with increasing international trade in the 18th and 19th century, Southeast Africa began to be involved significantly in the Atlantic slave trade; for example, with the king of Kilwa island signing a treaty with a French merchant in 1776 for the delivery of 1,000 slaves per year.<ref>{{Citation|title=Chapter Eight. The French Slave Trade in the 18th Century|date=2017-12-31|work=The Middle Passage|pages=175–208|place=Princeton|publisher=Princeton University Press|doi=10.1515/9781400844395-011|isbn=978-1-4008-4439-5}}</ref><ref name=Kusimba>{{cite journal|last=Kusimba|first=Chapurukha M.|title=The African Archaeological Review|journal=Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa|year=2004|volume=21|issue=2|pages=59–88|jstor=25130793|doi=10.1023/b:aarr.0000030785.72144.4a|s2cid=161103875}}</ref>
At about the same time, merchants from [[Oman]], [[India]], and Southeast Africa began establishing plantations along the coasts and on the islands,<ref>{{cite news | title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm | newspaper=BBC News | date=25 July 2009}}</ref> To provide workers on these plantations, slave raiding and slave holding became increasingly important in the region and slave traders (most notably [[Tippu Tip]]) became prominent in the political environment of the region.<ref>{{Citation|last=Swanepoel|first=Natalie|title=Different Conversations about the Same Thing? Source Materials in the Recreation of a Nineteenth-Century Slave-Raiding Landscape, Northern Ghana|date=2011-11-17|work=Slavery in Africa|publisher=British Academy|doi=10.5871/bacad/9780197264782.003.0009|isbn=978-0-19-726478-2}}</ref><ref name=Kusimba /> The Southeast African trade reached its height in the early decades of the 1800s with up to 30,000 slaves sold per year. However, slavery never became a significant part of the domestic economies except in [[Sultanate of Zanzibar]] where plantations and agricultural slavery were maintained.<ref name=Manning-1990 /> Author and historian [[Timothy Insoll]] wrote: "Figures record the exporting of 718,000 slaves from the Swahili coast during the 19th century, and the retention of 769,000 on the coast."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carlson|first=Roy L.|editor1-first=Timothy|editor1-last=Insoll|date=2017-06-06|title=Figurines and Figural Art of the Northwest Coast|journal=Oxford Handbooks Online|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199675616.013.017}}</ref><ref>Timothy Insoll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8 "Swahili"], in Junius P. Rodriguez (1997), ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'', ABC-CLIO, p. 623. {{ISBN|0-87436-885-5}}.</ref> At various times, between 65 and 90 percent of [[Zanzibar]] was enslaved. Along the [[Kenya]] coast, 90 percent of the population was enslaved, while half of [[Madagascar]]'s population was enslaved.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Suzuki|first=Hideaki|date=2012|title=Enslaved Population and Indian Owners Along the East African Coast: Exploring the Rigby Manumission List, 1860–1861|journal=History in Africa|volume=39|pages=209–239|doi=10.1353/hia.2012.0014|s2cid=162405054|issn=0361-5413}}</ref><ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |title=Historical survey, Slave societies |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |archive-date=2014-10-06}}</ref>
==Transformations of slavery in Africa==
{{main article|:en:Trans-Saharan slave trade|大西洋奴隷貿易|:en:Indian Ocean slave trade}}
[[File:The Door of No Return in Ouidah, November 2007.jpg|thumbnail|left|[[ベナン]]の[[ウィダー]]にある{{仮リンク|還らずの門|en|Door of No Return, Ouidah}}]]
アフリカでの奴隷制は{{仮リンク|トランスサハラ奴隷貿易|en|trans-Saharan slave trade}}の開始、{{仮リンク|インド洋奴隷貿易|en|Indian Ocean slave trade}}の開始、[[大西洋奴隷貿易]]の開始、そして[[19世紀]]から[[20世紀]]に行われた[[奴隷解放運動]]のそれぞれにより、その経済性や形態といった性質が大きく変容している<ref name="Klein 2010 49–74">{{Citation|last=Klein|first=Herbert S.|title=Africa at the Time of the Atlantic Slave Trade|work=The Atlantic Slave Trade|year=2010|pages=49–74|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511779473.008|isbn=978-0-511-77947-3}}</ref><ref name=Lovejoy-2012>{{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|year=2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|___location=London}}</ref>。
Slave practices in Africa were used during different periods to justify specific forms of European engagement with the peoples of Africa.<ref>{{Citation|title=The Ending of the Slave Trade and the Evolution of European Scientific Racism|date=1992|work=The Atlantic Slave Trade|pages=361–396|publisher=Duke University Press|doi=10.1215/9780822382379-014|isbn=978-0-8223-1230-7|last1=Drescher|first1=Seymour}}</ref> 18世紀のヨーロッパの作家には、大西洋奴隷貿易の正当化のためにかなり残酷な奴隷制を行っていると非難する者もいた<ref>{{Citation|last=MILLER|first=JOSEPH C.|title=The Numbers, Origins, and Destinations of Slaves in the Eighteenth-Century Angolan Slave Trade|date=1992-04-30|work=The Atlantic Slave Trade|pages=77–116|publisher=Duke University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctv1220pd1.7|isbn=978-0-8223-8237-9}}</ref>。また1その後の世代でも、ヨーロッパ諸国が奴隷制度を終わらせるために、アフリカへの干渉や植民地化を正当化していると非難する作家も現れている<ref name=Klein-1978>{{cite journal|last=Klein|first=Martin A.|title=The Study of Slavery in Africa|journal=The Journal of African History|year=1978|volume=19|issue=4|pages=599–609|doi=10.1017/s0021853700016509}}</ref>。
多くのアフリカ人は新世界での奴隷制が過酷なものであることを知っていた<ref>{{Citation|title=1. The Challenge: Understanding the World of New Slavery|date=2019-12-31|work=Ending Slavery|pages=5–20|publisher=University of California Press|doi=10.1525/9780520934641-002|isbn=978-0-520-93464-1}}</ref>。大西洋奴隷貿易が行われていた時代には、上層のアフリカ人も[[卓越風]]を利用した奴隷船に乗ってヨーロッパを訪れている<ref name="Freedom"/>。その一例として、1604年に[[コンゴ王国]]の[[バチカン]]使節アントニオ・マニュエルはヨーロッパに渡る際、[[ブラジル]]の[[バイーア州]]に立ち寄っている。この際、奴隷化されたコンゴ国民を解放するよう手配を行っている<ref>{{Citation|title=Advice To Raffaello Girolami When He Went As Ambassador To The Emperor|date=1989|work=Machiavelli|pages=116–119|publisher=Duke University Press|doi=10.1215/9780822381570-005|isbn=978-0-8223-0920-8}}</ref> また、アフリカの君主らはヨーロッパで教育を受けさせるために自らの子供を奴隷船に乗せて新世界経由でヨーロッパに送っている<ref>{{Citation|title=Slave Trade Interventionism|work=Abolition and Empire in Sierra Leone and Liberia|year=2012|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|doi=10.1057/9781137291813.0013|isbn=978-1-137-29181-3}}</ref><ref name="Ending the Slavery Blame-Game"/>。
===トランスサハラ奴隷貿易とインド洋奴隷貿易===
{{main article|:en:Trans-Saharan slave trade|:en:Indian Ocean slave trade}}
{{仮リンク|トランスサハラ奴隷貿易|en|trans-Saharan slave trade}}に関する初期の記録は[[古代ギリシャ]]の[[ヘロドトス]]の記録(紀元前5世紀)に現れる<ref name="apuleius2">{{cite book|author=Keith R. Bradley|title=Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays|page=177|chapter=Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade}}</ref><ref name="exports22">{{cite book|author=Andrew Wilson|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=192–3|chapter=Saharan Exports to the Roman World}}</ref>。 ヘロドトスによれば、{{仮リンク|Garamentes|en|ガラマンテス人}}がトランスサハラ奴隷貿易に従事し、エチオピア人や洞窟住居民を奴隷にしていたという。ガラマンテス人は労働力の多くを奴隷に依存しており<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-11-05|title=Fall of Gaddafi opens a new era for the Sahara's lost civilisation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/05/gaddafi-sahara-lost-civilisation-garamantes|access-date=2020-12-09|website=The Guardian}}</ref>、奴隷を[[ベルベル人]]が[[カナート|フォガラ]]と呼ぶ地下灌漑施設の建設維持に用いていた<ref>{{cite book|author=David Mattingly|title=Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=27–28|chapter=The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade}}</ref>。
[[ローマ帝国]]時代初期、[[レプティス・マグナ|レプティス]]では{{仮リンク|奴隷市場|en|slave market}}が開かれ、アフリカ内陸部から運ばれた多くの奴隷が取引されていた<ref name="apuleius2"/>。ローマ帝国は奴隷貿易において関税をかけた <ref name="apuleius2" />。5世紀には、[[カルタゴ]]において黒人奴隷の取引が行われていた<ref name="exports22"/>。黒人奴隷はその見た目から地中海地域における家庭用奴隷として価値があったという<ref name="exports22" />。古代ローマにおいて奴隷の需要は高く、奴隷貿易の規模は中世よりも大きなものであったとする歴史家もいる<ref name="exports22" />。
[[インド洋]]での奴隷貿易は紀元前2,500年にまでさかのぼる<ref name="indianocean">{{cite book|author=Bernard K. Freamon|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|page=78}}</ref>。 古代[[バビロニア]]人、 [[古代エジプト|エジプト]]人、[[古代ギリシャ|ギリシャ]]人、 [[古代インド|インド]]人、[[古代ペルシア|ペルシア]]人はインド洋や紅海で奴隷貿易を行っていた<ref name="indianocean2">{{cite book|author=Bernard K. Freamon|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=79–80}}</ref>。[[アレクサンドロス3世]]の時代の紅海での奴隷貿易は {{仮リンク|アガタルキデス|en|Agatharchides}}によって記述されている<ref name="indianocean2" />。[[ストラボン]]の [[地理誌]]では、[[:en:Adulis|Adulis]]やソマリアの海岸の港での具入り者人による奴隷貿易の様子が記されている<ref name="indianocean4">{{cite book|author=Bernard K. Freamon|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=82–83}}</ref>。[[大プリニウス]]の[[博物誌]]や紀元[[1世紀]]に書かれた[[エリュトゥラー海案内記]]でもインド洋奴隷貿易について記述している<ref name="indianocean2" />。エリュトゥラー海案内記によれば、奴隷はOmana (現代のオマーンと推測されている) やKanê(現在のイエメン・[[ハドラマウト]])からインド西海岸へ輸出されていたとされる<ref name="indianocean2" />。古代の{{仮リンク|インド洋奴隷貿易|en|Indian Ocean slave trade}}は[[バビロニア]]や[[アケメネス朝]]の時代から行われていた多くの人々を乗せることができる[[造船|造船技術]]によって成立していた<ref name="indianocean3">{{cite book|author=Bernard K. Freamon|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=81–82}}</ref>。
[[ビザンツ帝国]]や[[サーサーン朝]]の時代には奴隷貿易は主要な事業となっていた<ref name="indianocean2" />。 [[コスマス・インディコプレウステース]]は自著{{仮リンク|キリスト教地誌|en|Christian Topography}}(550年)においてエチオピアの奴隷は紅海経由で{{仮リンク|ビザンツ時代のエジプト|en|Byzantine Egypt|label=エジプト}}に輸入されていたとしている<ref name="indianocean4" />。なお、サーサーン朝の時代にはインド洋奴隷貿易では奴隷だけではなく、宦官や学者、商人の移送にも使われていた<ref name="indianocean2" /><ref name="indianocean4" />。
The enslavement of Africans for eastern markets started before 7th century but remained at low levels until 1750.<ref name="Oriental12">{{cite book|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|author=Patrick Manning|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=12}}</ref> The trade volume peaked around 1850 but would largely have ended around 1900.<ref name="Oriental12" /> Muslim participation in the slave trade started in the eighth and ninth centuries AD, beginning with small-scale movement of people largely from the eastern Great Lakes region and the [[Sahel]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Zhivkov|first=Boris|title=3 Khazaria and International Trade in Eastern Europe in the Late Ninth and Tenth Centuries|date=2015-01-01|work=Khazaria in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries|pages=147–170|publisher=BRILL|doi=10.1163/9789004294486_005|isbn=978-90-04-29448-6}}</ref> [[Islamic law]] allowed slavery, but prohibited slavery involving other pre-existing [[Muslim]]s; as a result, the main target for slavery were the people who lived in the frontier areas of Islam in Africa.<ref name="Alexander" /> The trade of slaves across the [[Sahara]] and across the [[Indian Ocean]] also has a long history beginning with the control of sea routes by [[Afro-Arab]] traders in the ninth century.<ref>{{Citation|last=Beaujard|first=Philippe|title=Gujarat and Long-Distance Trade in the Indian Ocean Region before the Sixteenth Century|date=2019-05-02|work=Transregional Trade and Traders|pages=68–99|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/oso/9780199490684.003.0004|isbn=978-0-19-949068-4}}</ref> It is estimated that, at that time, a few thousand enslaved people were taken each year from the [[Red Sea]] and Indian Ocean coast.<ref>{{Citation|title=Navigation in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea|work=SpringerReference|year=2011|place=Berlin/Heidelberg|publisher=Springer-Verlag|doi=10.1007/springerreference_78052}}</ref> They were sold throughout the [[Middle East]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sarant|first=Louise|date=2018-12-04|title=Ancient North African tools show hominins were apt butchers|journal=Nature Middle East|doi=10.1038/nmiddleeast.2018.153|issn=2042-6046}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Waite, Diana S., author.|title=The architecture of downtown Troy : an illustrated history|date=September 2019|isbn=978-1-4384-7475-5|oclc=1118691930}}</ref> This trade accelerated as superior ships led to more trade and greater demand for labour on [[plantation]]s in the region.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2014|title=Middle East Oil Trade, 2012 and 2013|journal=World Oil Trade|volume=36|issue=1|pages=155–175|doi=10.1002/wot.47|issn=0950-1029}}</ref> Eventually, tens of thousands per year were being taken.<ref>{{cite book |author1=John Donnelly Fage|author1-link=John Donnelly Fage|author2=William Tordoff |title=A History of Africa |___location=Budapest |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=258 |edition=4 |date=December 2001 |isbn=978-0415252485 }}</ref> On the [[Swahili Coast]], the Afro-Arab slavers captured [[Bantu peoples]] from the interior and brought them to the [[littoral]].<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book|last=Lodhi|first=Abdulaziz|title=Oriental Influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts|year=2000|publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis|isbn=978-9173463775|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcLAQAAMAAJ}}</ref><ref name="Tannenbaum">{{cite book|last=Edward R. Tannenbaum|first=Guilford Dudley|title=A History of World Civilizations|year=1973|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0471844808|page=615|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> There, the slaves gradually assimilated in the rural areas, particularly on the [[Unguja]] and [[Pemba Island|Pemba]] islands.<ref name="Lodhi" />
This changed the slave relationships by creating new forms of employment by slaves (as [[eunuch]]s to guard [[harem]]s, and in military units) and creating conditions for freedom (namely [[Conversion to Islam|conversion]]—although it would only free a slave's children).<ref name=Lovejoy-2012 /><ref name=Johnson /> Although the level of the trade remained relatively small, the size of total slaves traded grew to a large number over the multiple centuries of its existence.<ref name=Lovejoy-2012 /> Because of its small and gradual nature, the impact on slavery practices in communities that did not convert to Islam was relatively small.<ref name=Lovejoy-2012 /> However, in the 1800s, the slave trade from Africa to the Islamic countries picked up significantly. When the European slave trade ended around the 1850s,<ref>{{Citation|last=Green|first=Toby|title=The Early Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade from Western Africa|work=The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589|year=2011|pages=177–207|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9781139016407.011|isbn=978-1-139-01640-7}}</ref> the slave trade to the east picked up significantly only to be ended with European colonization of Africa around 1900.<ref name=Manning-1990>{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades|year=1990|publisher=Cambridge|___location=London}}</ref> Between 1500 and 1900, up to 17 million Africans slaves were transported by Muslim traders to the coast of the Indian Ocean, the Middle East, and [[North Africa]].<ref name="bbcFocus">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Focus on the slave trade|date=3 September 2001}}</ref>
In 1814, Swiss explorer [[Johann Ludwig Burckhardt|Johann Burckhardt]] wrote of his travels in [[Egypt]] and [[Nubia]], where he saw the practice of slave trading: "I frequently witnessed scenes of the most shameless indecency, which the traders, who were the principal actors, only laughed at. I may venture to state, that very few female slaves who have passed their tenth year, reach Egypt or Arabia in a state of virginity."<ref>[http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis//nubia/chapter2.html Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt] (ebook).</ref>
[[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|right|Swahili-Arab slave traders and their captives along the [[Ruvuma River]] in [[Mozambique]], 19th century]]
[[David Livingstone]] while talking about the slave trade in [[East Africa]] in his journals:
{{quote|To overdraw its evil is a simple impossibility.<ref name="LivingstoneWaller2011">{{cite book|last=Livingstone|first=David |editor-first=Horace|editor-last=Waller|title=The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death: Continued by a Narrative of His Last Moments and Sufferings, Obtained from His Faithful Servants, Chuma and Susi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=boicxwpPeAkC&pg=PA62|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-03261-2}}</ref>{{rp|442}} }}
Livingstone wrote about a group of slaves forced to march by Arab slave traders in the [[African Great Lakes]] region when he was travelling there in 1866:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rutinwa|first=Bonaventura|date=1998-02-01|title=Forced displacement and refugee rights in the Great Lakes Region|journal=African Journal of International Affairs|volume=1|issue=2|doi=10.4314/ajia.v1i2.27247|issn=0850-7902|doi-access=free}}</ref>
{{quote|19th June 1866 - We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead, the people of the country explained that she had bene unable to keep up with the other slaves in a gang, and her master had determined that she should not become anyone's property if she recovered.<ref name="LivingstoneWaller2011"/>{{rp|56}}<br/>26th June 1866 – ... We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed through the body and lying on the path: a group of mon stood about a hundred yards off on one side, and another of the women on the other side, looking on; they said an Arab who passed early that morning had done it in anger at losing the price he had given for her, because she was unable to walk any longer.<br/>
27th June 1866 – To-day we came upon a man dead from starvation, as he was very thin. One of our men wandered and found many slaves with [[slave-stick]]s on, abandoned by their masters from want of food; they were too weak to be able to speak or say where they had come from; some were quite young.<ref name="LivingstoneWaller2011"/>{{rp|62}}}}
The lethality of the trans-Saharan routes of slavery is comparable to the trans-Atlantic ones. Deaths of slaves in Egypt and North Africa were very high, even if they were fed and treated well. Medieval manuals for slave buyers - written in Arabic, Persian and Turkish - explained that Africans from Sudanic and Ethiopian areas are prone to illness and death in their new environments.<ref>[https://issuu.com/orbisvita/docs/madeline_c._zifli__women_and_slaver Madeline c. Zifli, Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire, Cambridge U.P., 2010, pp 118, 119]</ref>
[[Zanzibar]] was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, and under [[Oman]]i Arabs in the 19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html |title=Swahili Coast |publisher=.nationalgeographic.com |date=17 October 2002 }}</ref>
European slave trade in the Indian Ocean began when Portugal established [[Portuguese India|Estado da Índia]] in the early 16th century. From then until the 1830s, {{circa|200}} slaves were exported from Mozambique annually and similar figures has been estimated for slaves brought from Asia to the Philippines during the [[Iberian Union]] (1580–1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref>
The establishment of the [[Dutch East India Company]] in the early 17th century lead to a quick increase in volume of the slave trade in the region; there were perhaps up to {{formatnum:500000}} slaves in various [[Dutch Empire|Dutch colonies]] during the 17th and 18th centuries in the Indian Ocean. For example, some 4000 African slaves were used to build the [[Fort (Colombo)|Colombo fortress]] in [[Dutch Ceylon]]. Bali and neighbouring islands supplied regional networks with {{circa|{{formatnum:100000}}–{{formatnum:150000}}}} slaves 1620–1830. Indian and Chinese slave traders supplied Dutch Indonesia with perhaps {{formatnum:250000}} slaves during 17th and 18th centuries.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2"/>
The [[East India Company]] (EIC) was established during the same period and in 1622 one of its ships carried slaves from the [[Coromandel Coast]] to [[Dutch East Indies]]. The EIC mostly traded in African slaves but also some Asian slaves purchased from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. The French established colonies on the islands of [[Réunion]] and [[Mauritius]] in 1721; by 1735 some 7,200 slaves populated the [[Mascarene Islands]], a number which had reached {{formatnum:133000}} in 1807. The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] captured the islands in 1810, however, and because the British had [[Slave Trade Act 1807|prohibited the slave trade in]] 1807 a system of clandestine slave trade developed to bring slaves to French planters on the islands; in all {{formatnum:336000}}–{{formatnum:388000}} slaves were exported to the Mascarane Islands from 1670 until 1848.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" />
In all, Europeans traders exported {{formatnum:567900}}–{{formatnum:733200}} slaves within the Indian Ocean between 1500 and 1850 and almost that same amount were exported from the Indian Ocean to the Americas during the same period. Slave trade in the Indian Ocean was, nevertheless, very limited compared to {{circa|{{formatnum:12000000}}}} slaves exported across the Atlantic.<ref name="Allen-2017-overview2" />
===Atlantic slave trade===
{{main article|Atlantic slave trade}}
[[File:Tobacco cultivation (Virginia, ca. 1670).jpg|thumb|240px|African slaves working in 17th-century [[Virginia]], by an unknown artist, 1670]]
The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade took place across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] from the 15th through to the 19th centuries.<ref>{{Citation|title=Three Centuries of Transatlantic Slaving|date=2016|work=Opposing the Slavers|publisher=I.B.Tauris|doi=10.5040/9781350987432.ch-001|isbn=978-0-85772-595-0}}</ref> According to Patrick Manning, the Atlantic slave trade was significant in transforming Africans from a minority of the global population of slaves in 1600 into the overwhelming majority by 1800 and by 1850 the number of African slaves within Africa exceeded those in the Americas.<ref name=Manning>{{cite journal|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=The Slave Trade: The Formal Demography of a Global System|journal=Social Science History|year=1990|volume=14|issue=2|pages=255–279|doi=10.2307/1171441|jstor=1171441}}</ref>
The slave trade was transformed from a marginal aspect of the economies into the largest sector in a relatively short span.<ref>{{Cite document|title=Figure 1.19. Service trade barriers remain relatively important in the telecommunications sector|doi=10.1787/888934048850}}</ref> In addition, [[Plantation economy|agricultural plantations]] increased significantly and became a key aspect in many societies.<ref>{{Cite document|title=Figure 1.26. Labour force participation of younger women has significantly increased but many women work considerably fewer hours|doi=10.1787/888934079535}}</ref><ref name=Lovejoy-2012 /> Economic urban centers that served as the root of main trade routes shifted towards the West coast.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Dantzig|first=Albert|date=1975|title=Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Some West African Societies|journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire|volume=62|issue=226|pages=252–269|doi=10.3406/outre.1975.1831}}</ref> At the same time, many African communities relocated far away from slave trade routes, often protecting themselves from the Atlantic slave trade but hindering economic and technological development at the same time.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/print.cfm;jsessionid=f8303451031574653583290?migration=1&bhcp=1|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|website=AAME|access-date=24 November 2019}}</ref>
In many African societies traditional lineage slavery became more like chattel slavery due to an increased work demand.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Holding the World Together: African Women in Changing Perspective|last1=Robertson|first1=Claire|last2=Achebe|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0299321109|pages=191–204}}</ref> This resulted in a general decrease in quality of life, working conditions, and status of slaves in West African societies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=David M.|date=2018-09-20|title=Slave Societies, Societies with Slaves|journal=Oxford Scholarship Online|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198769941.003.0005}}</ref> Assimilative slavery was increasingly replaced with chattel slavery.<ref>{{Citation|title=Chattel Slavery, Sugar and Salt|work=The Dutch Atlantic|year=2015|pages=52–86|publisher=Pluto Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt183p3kr.8|isbn=978-1-84964-615-4}}</ref> Assimilitave slavery in Africa often allowed eventual freedom and also significant cultural, social, and/or economic influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Twaddle|first=Michael|editor1-first=Michael|editor1-last=Twaddle|date=2013-06-17|title=The Wages of Slavery|doi=10.4324/9781315037288|isbn=9781315037288}}</ref> Slaves were often treated as part of their owner's family, rather than simply property.<ref name=":2" />
The distribution of gender among enslaved peoples under traditional lineage slavery saw women as more desirable slaves due to demands for domestic labour and for reproductive reasons.<ref name=":2" /> Male slaves were used for more physical agricultural labour,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wood|first=Kirsten E.|editor2-first=Robert L|editor2-last=Paquette|editor1-first=Mark M|editor1-last=Smith|date=2010-07-29|title=Gender and Slavery|url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199227990-e-24|journal=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0024}}</ref> but as more enslaved men were taken to the West Coast and across the Atlantic to the [[New World]], female slaves were increasingly used for physical and agricultural labour and [[polygyny]] also increased.<ref>{{Cite document|title=Table 4: Male and female mortality rates used in the sensitivity analyses that were run to assess the robustness of the baseline models; three values for female breeding rate were also used in these analyses: 0.16, 0.18, and 0.20 offspring/mature female/y.|doi=10.7717/peerj.8209/table-4}}</ref> Chattel slavery in America was highly demanding because of the physical nature of plantation work and this was the most common destination for male slaves in the New World.<ref name=":2" />
[[File:A Brazilian family in Rio de Janeiro by Jean-Baptiste Debret 1839.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jean-Baptiste Debret]]'s conception of enslaved persons in Brazil (1839)]]
It has been argued that a decrease in able-bodied people as a result of the Atlantic slave trade limited many societies ability to cultivate land and develop.<ref>{{Citation|last=KLEIN|first=MARTIN A.|title=The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on the Societies of the Western Sudan|date=1992-04-30|work=The Atlantic Slave Trade|pages=25–48|publisher=Duke University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctv1220pd1.5|isbn=978-0-8223-8237-9}}</ref> Many scholars argue that the transatlantic slave trade, left Africa underdeveloped, demographically unbalanced, and vulnerable to future European colonization.<ref name=":1" />
The first Europeans to arrive on the coast of [[Guinea (region)|Guinea]] were the [[Portugal|Portuguese]]; the first European to actually buy enslaved Africans in the region of Guinea was [[Antão Gonçalves]], a Portuguese explorer in 1441 AD.<ref>{{Citation|last=Unger|first=Richard W.|title=Portuguese Shipbuilding and the Early Voyages to the Guinea Coast|date=2019-10-28|work=The European Opportunity|pages=43–63|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315239859-3|isbn=978-1-315-23985-9}}</ref> Originally interested in trading mainly for [[gold]] and [[spice]]s, they set up colonies on the uninhabited islands of [[São Tomé]].<ref>{{Citation|date=1995-12-31|work=Where to Watch Birds in Africa|pages=287–290|place=Princeton|publisher=Princeton University Press|doi=10.1515/9781400864287.287|isbn=978-1-4008-6428-7|title=São Tomé and Principe Islands}}</ref> In the 16th century the Portuguese settlers found that these volcanic islands were ideal for growing sugar.<ref>{{Citation|title=Slaves and settlers: the sugar islands in the new geopolitics|date=2005-10-27|work=Barbarism and Religion|pages=294–312|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511490682.017|isbn=978-0-521-85625-6}}</ref> Sugar growing is a labour-intensive undertaking and Portuguese settlers were difficult to attract due to the heat, lack of infrastructure, and hard life.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Charles Fahey|last2=John Lack|date=2011|title='Silent forms of coercion': Welfare Capitalism, State Labour Regulation and Collective Action at the Yarraville Sugar Refinery, 1890-1925|journal=Labour History|issue=101|page=105|doi=10.5263/labourhistory.101.0105|issn=0023-6942}}</ref> To cultivate the sugar the Portuguese turned to large numbers of enslaved Africans. [[Elmina Castle]] on the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]], originally built by African labour for the Portuguese in 1482 to control the gold trade, became an important depot for slaves that were to be transported to the New World.<ref>John Henrik Clarke. ''Critical Lessons in Slavery & the Slavetrade''. A & B Book Pub.</ref>
[[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|thumb|left|Slave trade along the [[Senegal River]], kingdom of [[Cayor]]]]
The [[Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies|Spanish]] were the first Europeans to use enslaved Africans in America on islands such as [[Cuba]] and [[Hispaniola]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha®ionCode=ca&#ha |title=CIA Factbook: Haiti |publisher=Cia.gov }}</ref> where the alarming death rate in the native population had spurred the first royal laws protecting the native population ([[Laws of Burgos]], 1512–13).<ref>{{Cite document|date=2015-07-02|title=Native-born population by foreign citizenship, 2012-13|doi=10.1787/9789264234024-graph199-en}}</ref> The first enslaved Africans arrived in Hispaniola in 1501 soon after the [[Inter caetera|Papal Bull of 1493]] gave almost all of the New World to Spain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html |title=Health in Slavery|year=1989|work=Of Germs, Genes, and Genocide: Slavery, Capitalism, Imperialism, Health and Medicine|publisher=United Kingdom Council for Human Rights|access-date=13 January 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080617150332/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html |archive-date = 17 June 2008}}</ref>
In [[Igboland]], for example, the Aro oracle (the [[Igbo people|Igbo]] religious authority) began condemning more people to slavery due to small infractions that previously probably wouldn't have been punishable by slavery, thus increasing the number of enslaved men available for purchase.<ref name=":2" />
The [[Atlantic slave trade]] peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of people were bought or captured from West Africa and taken to the Americas.<ref>{{cite web|title=transatlantic slave trade {{!}} History & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2020-05-28}}</ref> The increase of demand for slaves due to the expansion of European colonial powers to the New World made the slave trade much more lucrative to the West African powers, leading to the establishment of a number of actual [[African empires|West African empires]] thriving on slave trade.<ref>{{Citation|title=Chapter 2. ''The Number of Women Doeth Much Disparayes the Whole Cargoe'': The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and West African Gender Roles|date=2004-12-31|work=Laboring Women|pages=50–68|place=Philadelphia|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|doi=10.9783/9780812206371-005|isbn=978-0-8122-0637-1}}</ref> These included the [[Bono state|Bono State]], [[Oyo empire]] ([[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]), [[Kong Empire]], [[Imamate of Futa Jallon]], [[Imamate of Futa Toro]], [[Kingdom of Koya]], [[Kingdom of Khasso]], [[Kaabu|Kingdom of Kaabu]], [[Fante Confederacy]], [[Ashanti Confederacy]], and the kingdom of [[Dahomey]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Fall|first=Mamadou|title=Kaabu Kingdom|date=2016-01-11|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Empire|pages=1–3|place=Oxford, UK|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd|doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe137|isbn=978-1-118-45507-4}}</ref> These kingdoms relied on a militaristic culture of constant warfare to generate the great numbers of human captives required for trade with the Europeans.<ref name="Lovejoy-2012" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|last=Bortolot|first=Alexander Ives|date=October 2003|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]|access-date=13 January 2010}}</ref> It is documented in the Slave Trade Debates of England in the early 19th century: "All the old writers concur in stating not only that wars are entered into for the sole purpose of making slaves, but that they are fomented by Europeans, with a view to that object."<ref>''Slave Trade Debates 1806'', Colonial History Series, Dawsons of Pall Mall, London 1968, pp. 203–204.</ref> The gradual abolition of slavery in European colonial empires during the 19th century again led to the decline and collapse of these African empires.<ref>{{Citation|title=Negotiating Slavery and Empire|date=2017-09-08|work=European Empires in the American South|publisher=University Press of Mississippi|doi=10.14325/mississippi/9781496812193.003.0004|isbn=978-1-4968-1219-3}}</ref> When European powers began to stop the Atlantic slave trade, this caused a further change in that large holders of slaves in Africa began to exploit enslaved people on plantations and other agricultural products.<ref name=Gueye>{{cite book|last=Gueye|first=Mbaye|title=The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century|year=1979|publisher=UNESCO|___location=Paris|pages=150–163|chapter=The slave trade within the African continent}}</ref>
===Abolition===
{{main article|Abolitionism|Blockade of Africa}}
{{Suppression of the Slave Trade}}
The final major transformation of slave relationships came with the inconsistent [[emancipation]] efforts starting in the mid-19th century.<ref>{{Citation|last=Yokoyama|first=Yuriko|title=The Yūjo Release Act as Emancipation of Slaves in Mid-19th-Century Japan|work=Abolitions as a Global Experience|year=2017|pages=161–198|publisher=NUS Press Pte Ltd|doi=10.2307/j.ctv1qv3hg.12|isbn=978-981-4722-72-8}}</ref> As European authorities [[Scramble for Africa|began to take over]] large parts of inland Africa starting in the 1870s, the colonial policies were often confusing on the issue.<ref>{{Citation|work=Colonial Policies in Africa|pages=25–61|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctv5rf719.6|isbn=978-1-5128-1934-2|title=The Principles of Colonial Policies|year=2015}}</ref> For example, even when slavery was deemed illegal, colonial authorities would return escaped slaves to their masters.<ref>{{Citation|last=Johnson|first=Walter|title=Masters and Slaves: Paternalism and Exploitation|work=Slavery and Emancipation|year=2002|pages=206–232|place=Malden, MA, USA|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Company|doi=10.1002/9780470755600.ch9|isbn=978-0-470-75560-0}}</ref><ref name=Lovejoy-2012 /> Slavery persisted in some countries under colonial rule, and in some instances it was not until independence that slavery practices were significantly transformed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morier-Genoud|first=Eric|date=2014-03-06|title=Slavery by Any Other Name: African Life under Company Rule in Colonial Mozambique|journal=Slavery & Abolition|volume=35|issue=2|pages=387–388|doi=10.1080/0144039x.2014.893689|issn=0144-039X}}</ref><ref name=Hahonou>{{cite journal|last1=Hahonou|first1=Eric|last2=Pelckmans|first2=Lotte|title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery|journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien|year=2011|issue=20|pages=141–162|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf|archive-date=12 May 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Anti-imperialism|Anti-colonial]] struggles in Africa often brought slaves and former slaves together with masters and former masters to fight for independence;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Milewski|first=Melissa|date=2019-04-03|title=Taking former masters to court: civil cases between former masters and slaves in the US South, 1865–1899|journal=Slavery & Abolition|volume=40|issue=2|pages=240–255|doi=10.1080/0144039x.2019.1606529|s2cid=159414174|issn=0144-039X|url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/81837/1/S%26A%20draft%20Milewski%20Dec.%202018.pdf}}</ref> however, this cooperation was short-lived and following independence political parties would often form based upon the stratifications of slaves and masters.<ref>{{Citation|title=We Set No Great Value upon Money|work=American Slaves and African Masters|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|doi=10.1057/9781137295033.0010|isbn=978-1-137-29503-3}}</ref><ref name=Manning-1990 />
In some parts of Africa, slavery and slavery-like practices continue to this day, particularly the illegal trafficking of women and children.<ref>{{Citation|title=Introduction and History of Human Trafficking and Modern Day Slavery|date=2018|work=Ending Human Trafficking and Modern-Day Slavery: Freedom’s Journey|pages=7–28|place=2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320|publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc|doi=10.4135/9781506316789.n1|isbn=978-1-5063-1673-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake : Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard L.|last2=Lawrance|first2=Benjamin N.|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780821420027}}</ref> The problem has proven to be difficult for governments and civil society to eliminate.<ref>{{Citation|last=Wood|first=Jacqueline|title=Unintended consequences: DAC governments and shrinking civil society space in Kenya|date=2018-04-19|work=Civil Society Sustainability|pages=6–17|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315160948-2|isbn=978-1-315-16094-8}}</ref><ref name=Dottridge>{{cite journal|last=Dottridge|first=Mike|title=Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification|journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines|year=2005|volume=45|issue=179/180|pages=689–712|url=http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/14968|doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.5619}}</ref>
[[File:Slavery memorial - Stone Town-1.jpg|thumbnail|Slave Memorial in [[Zanzibar]]]]
Efforts by Europeans against slavery and the slave trade began in the late 18th century and had a large impact on slavery in Africa.<ref>{{Citation|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=The Nineteenth-Century Slave Trade|work=Transformations in Slavery|year=2011|pages=135–159|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9781139014946.011|isbn=978-1-139-01494-6}}</ref> Portugal was the first country in the continent to abolish slavery in metropolitan Portugal and [[Portuguese India]] by a bill issued on 12 February 1761, but this did not affect their colonies in [[Colonial Brazil|Brazil]] and Africa.<ref>{{Citation|last=Newitt|first=Malyn|title=The Portuguese in Brazil|date=2015-07-01|work=Emigration and the Sea|pages=107–128|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190263935.003.0006|isbn=978-0-19-026393-5}}</ref> France abolished slavery in 1794. However, slavery was again allowed by [[Napoleon]] in 1802 and not abolished for good until 1848.<ref>{{Citation|date=2009-06-30|work=The Forgotten Fifth|pages=69–122|publisher=Harvard University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctvjsf6t4.5|isbn=978-0-674-04134-9|title=Could Slavery Have Been Abolished?}}</ref> In 1803, [[Denmark-Norway]] became the first country from Europe to implement a ban on the slave trade.<ref>{{Citation|last=POSTMA|first=JOHANNES|title=The Dispersal of African Slaves in the West by Dutch Slave Traders, 1630–1803|date=1992-04-30|work=The Atlantic Slave Trade|pages=283–300|publisher=Duke University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctv1220pd1.13|isbn=978-0-8223-8237-9}}</ref> Slavery itself was not banned until 1848.<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book|author=Junius P. Rodriguez|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.|volume= 1. A – K|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA8|access-date=14 March 2013|year=1997|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7}}</ref> Britain followed in 1807 with the passage of the [[Abolition of the Slave Trade Act]] by [[Parliament]].<ref>{{Citation|title=British people, government and Parliament|date=2007|work=After Abolition|publisher=I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd.|doi=10.5040/9780755622245.ch-006|isbn=978-1-84511-365-0}}</ref> This law allowed stiff fines, increasing with the number of slaves transported, for captains of slave ships.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hibgame|first=Frederick T.|date=1904-09-24|title=Bristol Slave Ships, Their Owners and Captains|journal=Notes and Queries|volume=s10-II|issue=39|page=257|doi=10.1093/nq/s10-ii.39.257e|issn=1471-6941}}</ref> Britain followed this with the [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833]] which freed all slaves in the [[British Empire]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pipes|first=Daniel|date=1980|title=Mawlas: Freed slaves and converts in early Islam|journal=Slavery & Abolition|volume=1|issue=2|pages=132–177|doi=10.1080/01440398008574811|issn=0144-039X}}</ref> British pressure on other countries resulted in them agreeing to end the slave trade from Africa.<ref>{{Citation|title=British Act to Settle the Slave Trade to Africa (1698)|date=2009-09-30|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.33574|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> For example, the [[1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade]] made slave trading [[piracy]], punishable by [[capital punishment|death]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08trouvadore/background/piracy/piracy.html|title=The U.S. Navy and the Anti-Piracy Patrol in the Caribbean|last=Carrell|first=Toni L|publisher=[[NOAA]]|access-date=11 January 2010}}</ref> In addition, the [[Ottoman Empire]] abolished slave trade from Africa in 1847 under British pressure.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ehûd R. Tôledānô|title=Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7p_S58y2BUC&pg=PA11|year=1998|publisher=U. of Washington Press|page=11|isbn=9780295802428}}</ref>
By 1850, the year that the last major Atlantic slave trade participant (Brazil) passed the [[Eusébio de Queirós Law]] banning the slave trade,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/110 110] |title=A Concise History of Brazil|publisher=Cambridge University Press|access-date=4 June 2011|isbn=9780521565264|date=1999-04-28}}</ref> the slave trades had been significantly slowed and in general only illegal trade went on.<ref>{{Citation|last=Ford|first=Lacy|title=Reconsidering the Internal Slave Trade|date=2005-03-08|work=The Chattel Principle|pages=143–161|publisher=Yale University Press|doi=10.12987/yale/9780300103557.003.0007|isbn=978-0-300-10355-7}}</ref> Brazil continued the practice of slavery and was a major source for illegal trade until about 1870 and the abolition of slavery became permanent in 1888 when Princess [[Isabel of Brazil]] and Minister [[Rodrigo Silva (politician)|Rodrigo Silva]] (son-in-law of senator Eusebio de Queiroz) banned the practice.<ref name=Manning-1990 /> The British took an active approach to stopping the illegal Atlantic slave trade during this period.<ref>{{Citation|last=Forrest|first=Alan|title=The Illegal Slave Trade|date=2020-01-30|work=The Death of the French Atlantic|pages=250–269|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/oso/9780199568956.003.0013|isbn=978-0-19-956895-6}}</ref> The [[West Africa Squadron]] was credited with capturing 1,600 slave ships between 1808 and 1860, and freeing 150,000 Africans who were aboard these ships.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml|title=Sailing Against Slavery|last=Loosemore|first=Jo|date=8 July 2008|publisher=BBC|access-date=12 January 2010}}</ref> Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against ‘the usurping [[Oba of Lagos|King of Lagos]]’, deposed in 1851.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2012-02-14|title=Clinton Warns Pakistani Leaders that U.S. Wants Action Taken Against Terrorists|journal=Foreign Policy Bulletin|volume=22|issue=1|pages=168–189|doi=10.1017/s105270361200086x|issn=1052-7036}}</ref> Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.
<ref>{{Citation|last=Heafner|first=Christopher A.|title=Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society|date=2006-04-06|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.44880|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref>[[File:HMS Brisk and Emanuela.jpg|thumb|left|Capture of slave ship ''[[Sunny South (clipper)|Emanuela]]'' by {{HMS|Brisk|1851|6}}.]]
According to Patrick Manning, internal slavery was most important to Africa in the second half of the 19th century, stating "if there is any time when one can speak of African societies being organized around a slave mode production, [1850–1900] was it".<ref>{{Citation|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery in Africa|date=2005-04-07|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.43395|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> The abolition of the Atlantic slave trade resulted in the economies of African states dependent on the trade being reorganized towards domestic plantation slavery and legitimate commerce worked by slave labour.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=DeCorse|first=Christopher R.|date=1991|title=West African archaeology and the Atlantic slave trade|journal=Slavery & Abolition|volume=12|issue=2|pages=92–96|doi=10.1080/01440399108575035|issn=0144-039X|url=https://surface.syr.edu/ant/11}}</ref> Slavery before this period was generally domestic.<ref name=Manning-1990 /><ref name=Austin/>
The continuing [[Abolitionism|anti-slavery movement]] in Europe became an excuse and a [[casus belli]] for the European conquest and colonization of much of the African continent.<ref name=Klein-1978 /> It was the central theme of the [[Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889-90]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Allain|first=Jean|title=Fydor Martens and the Question of Slavery at the 1890 Brussels Conference|date=2015-01-01|work=The Law and Slavery|pages=101–120|publisher=Brill {{!}} Nijhoff|doi=10.1163/9789004279896_005|isbn=978-90-04-27989-6}}</ref> In the late 19th century, the Scramble for Africa saw the continent rapidly divided between imperialistic European powers, and an early but secondary focus of all [[colony|colonial]] [[regime]]s was the suppression of slavery and the slave trade.<ref>{{Citation|last=Burroughs|first=Robert|title=Slave-trade suppression and the culture of anti-slavery in nineteenth-century Britain|date=2017-03-01|work=The suppression of the Atlantic slave trade|publisher=Manchester University Press|doi=10.7765/9781784992361.00014|isbn=978-1-78499-236-1|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1699/3/6%20CULTURE%20RB.pdf}}</ref> [[Seymour Drescher]] argues that European interests in abolition were primarily motivated by economic and imperial goals.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery|last=Drescher|first=Seymour|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780521841023}}</ref> Despite slavery often being a justification behind conquest, colonial regimes often ignored slavery or allowed slavery practices to continue.<ref>{{Citation|title=With smoke and mirrors: slavery and the conquest of Guinea|date=1998-07-28|work=Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa|pages=141–158|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511584138.011|isbn=978-0-521-59678-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Piper, John, 1946-|title=50 crucial questions : an overview of central concerns about manhood and womanhood|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4335-5181-9|oclc=936205162}}</ref> This was because the colonial state depended on the cooperation of indigenous political and economic structures which were heavily involved in slavery.<ref>{{Citation|last=Marques|first=Leonardo|title=The Economic Structures of Slavery in Colonial Brazil|date=2019-12-23|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.772|isbn=978-0-19-936643-9}}</ref> As a result, early colonial policies usually sought to end slave trading while regulating existing slave practices and weakening the power of slave masters.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fontaine|first=Janel M.|date=2017-10-30|title=Early medieval slave-trading in the archaeological record: comparative methodologies|journal=Early Medieval Europe|volume=25|issue=4|pages=466–488|doi=10.1111/emed.12228|issn=0963-9462}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> Furthermore, the early colonial states had weak effective control over their territories, which precluded efforts to widespread abolition. Abolition attempts became more concrete later during the colonial period.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Petley|first=Christer|date=2015-10-06|title=Slaveholders in Jamaica|doi=10.4324/9781315652726|isbn=9781315652726}}</ref><ref name=":5" />
There were many causes for the decline and abolition of slavery in Africa during the colonial period including colonial abolition policies, various economic changes, and slave resistance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morgan|first=Philip D.|date=1985|title=Colonial South Carolina runaways: Their significance for slave culture|journal=Slavery & Abolition|volume=6|issue=3|pages=57–78|doi=10.1080/01440398508574893|issn=0144-039X}}</ref> The economic changes during the colonial period, including the rise of wage labour and cash crops, hastened the decline of slavery by offering new economic opportunities to slaves.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fregert|first=Klas|date=1994|title=Relative wage struggles during the interwar period, general equilibrium and the rise of the Swedish model|journal=Scandinavian Economic History Review|volume=42|issue=2|pages=173–186|doi=10.1080/03585522.1994.10415883|issn=0358-5522}}</ref> The abolition of slave raiding and the end of wars between African states drastically reduced the supply of slaves.<ref>{{Citation|title=Slave Trade Abolition Act (2 March 1807)|date=2009-09-30|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.33527|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> Slaves would take advantage of early colonial laws that nominally abolished slavery and would migrate away from their masters although these laws often were intended to regulate slavery more than actually abolish it.<ref>{{Cite document|title=other-documents-slavery-was-abolished-more-than-a-century-ago-so-why-are-there-millions-of-slaves-in-the-world-today-1995-8-pp|doi=10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-1022-0099}}</ref> This migration led to more concrete abolition efforts by colonial governments.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Greene|first=Sandra E.|date=2015-10-02|title=Minority Voices: Abolitionism in West Africa|journal=Slavery & Abolition|volume=36|issue=4|pages=642–661|doi=10.1080/0144039X.2015.1008213|s2cid=144012357|issn=0144-039X}}</ref><ref name="Lovejoy-2012" />
Following conquest and abolition by the French, over a million slaves in [[French West Africa]] fled from their masters to earlier homes between 1906 and 1911.<ref>Martin Klein, ‘Slave Descent and Social Status in Sahara and Sudan’, in Reconfiguring Slavery: West African Trajectories, ed. Benedetta Rossi (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2009), 29.</ref> In [[Madagascar]] over 500,000 slaves were freed following French abolition in 1896.<ref>Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African history. New York: CRC Press, p. 878</ref> In response to this pressure, Ethiopia officially abolished slavery in 1932, [[Sokoto Caliphate]] abolished slavery in 1900, and the rest of the Sahel in 1911.<ref>{{Citation|title=Race and Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate|date=2018-11-15|work=Plantation Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate|pages=31–46|publisher=Boydell and Brewer Limited|doi=10.1017/9781787444133.002|isbn=978-1-78744-413-3}}</ref> Colonial nations were mostly successful in this aim, though slavery is still very active in Africa even though it has gradually moved to a [[wage]] economy.<ref>{{Cite document|title=Figure 5. Real investment has fallen and unemployment remains high even though it has declined|doi=10.1787/888933582379}}</ref> Independent nations attempting to westernize or impress Europe sometimes cultivated an image of slavery suppression, even as they, in the case of Egypt, hired European soldiers like [[Samuel White Baker]]'s expedition up the [[Nile]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Baker|first=Samuel White|title=Exploration of the Old White Nile|work=Ismailïa|year=2011|pages=140–169|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9781139014496.005|isbn=978-1-139-01449-6}}</ref> Slavery has never been eradicated in Africa, and it commonly appears in African states, such as [[Chad]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Mali]], [[Niger]], and [[Sudan]], in places where law and order have collapsed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/africa/sudanupdate.htm|title=Slavery and Slave Redemption in the Sudan|date=March 2002|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|access-date=12 January 2010}}</ref>
Although outlawed in all countries today, slavery is practised in secret in many parts of the world.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/2010401.stm|title=Millions 'forced into slavery'|date=27 May 2002|work=BBC News|access-date=12 January 2010}}</ref> There are an estimated 30 million victims of slavery worldwide.<ref>"[http://edition.cnn.com/2013/10/17/world/global-slavery-index/ India, China, Pakistan, Nigeria on slavery's list of shame, says report]". [[CNN]]. 18 October 2013.</ref> In [[Mauritania]] alone, up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are enslaved, many of them used as [[bonded labour]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1458_abolition/page4.shtml|title=Modern slavery|publisher=[[BBC World Service]]|access-date=12 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L01877550.htm|title=Poverty, tradition shackle Mauritania's slaves|last=Flynn|first=Daniel|date=1 December 2006|agency=Reuters|access-date=12 January 2010}}</ref> [[Slavery in Mauritania]] was finally criminalized in August 2007.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6938032.stm|title=Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law |date=9 August 2007|work=BBC News|access-date=12 January 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100106014658/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6938032.stm| archive-date= 6 January 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> During the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]] people were taken into slavery; estimates of abductions range from 14,000 to 200,000.<ref>{{cite web|title=Slavery, Abduction and Forced Servitude in Sudan|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/af/rls/rpt/2002/10445.htm|publisher=US Department of State|access-date=20 March 2014|date=22 May 2002}}</ref> In [[Niger]], where the practice of slavery was outlawed in 2003, a study found that almost 8% of the population are still slaves.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/4250709.stm|title=Born to Be a Slave in Niger|last=Andersson|first=Hilary|date=11 February 2005|work=BBC News|access-date=12 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/Story?id=813618&page=1|title=The Shackles of Slavery in Niger|last=Steeds|first=Oliver|date=3 June 2005|publisher=[[ABC News]]|access-date=12 January 2010}}</ref>
==Effects==
===Demographics===
[[File:African_Slave_Trade.png|thumb|Slave trade out of Africa, 1500–1900]]
Slavery and the slave trades had a significant impact on the size of the population and the gender distribution throughout much of Africa. The precise impact of these demographic shifts has been an issue of significant debate.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Holding It Together:African Women in Changing Perspectives|last=Robertson|first=Claire|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0-299-32110-9|___location=Wisconsin|pages=191–192}}</ref> The Atlantic slave trade took 70,000 people, primarily from the west coast of Africa, per year at its peak in the mid-1700s.<ref name=Manning-1990 /> The trans-Saharan slave trade involved the capture of peoples from the continental interior, who were then shipped overseas through ports on the Red Sea and elsewhere.<ref name="Gcam"/> It peaked at 10,000 people bartered per year in the 1600s.<ref name=Manning-1990 /> According to Patrick Manning, there was a consistent population decrease in large parts of Sub-Saharan Africa as a result of these slave trades.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa 1880–1995|date=1999-04-01|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511612282|isbn=978-0-521-64519-5}}</ref> This population decline throughout West Africa from 1650 until 1850 was exacerbated by the preference of slave traders for male slaves.<ref>{{Citation|last=POSTMA|first=JOHANNES|title=The Dispersal of African Slaves in the West by Dutch Slave Traders, 1630–1803|date=1992-04-30|work=The Atlantic Slave Trade|pages=283–300|publisher=Duke University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctv1220pd1.13|isbn=978-0-8223-8237-9}}</ref> It is important to note that this preference only existed in the transatlantic slave trade. More female slaves than male were traded across the continent of Africa.<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref name=Manning-1990 /> In eastern Africa, the slave trade was multi-directional and changed over time.<ref name="Klein 2010 49–74"/> To meet the demand for menial labour, [[Zanj]] slaves captured from the southern interior were sold through ports on the northern seaboard in cumulatively large numbers over the centuries to customers in the [[Nile Valley]], [[Horn of Africa]], [[Arabian Peninsula]], [[Persian Gulf]], [[India]], [[Far East]] and the [[List of islands in the Indian Ocean|Indian Ocean islands]].<ref name="Gcam">Gwyn Campbell, ''The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia'', 1 edition, (Routledge: 2003), p.ix</ref>
====Extent of slavery====
The extent of slavery within Africa and the trade in slaves to other regions is not known precisely.<ref>{{Citation|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=The Export Trade in Slaves, 1600–1800|work=Transformations in Slavery|year=2011|pages=45–65|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9781139014946.007|isbn=978-1-139-01494-6}}</ref> Although the Atlantic slave trade has been best studied, estimates range from 8 million people to 20 million.<ref name="Curtin1972">{{cite book|last=Curtin|first=Philip D.|title=The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4uEWu0GwwhkC&pg=PR5|access-date=29 March 2013|year=1972|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-05403-8}}</ref> The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database estimates that the Atlantic slave trade took around 12.8 million people between 1450 and 1900.<ref name=Lovejoy-2012 /><ref name="TAST Database">{{cite web|title=Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade |url=http://www.slavevoyages.org/tast/index.faces |publisher=Emory University |access-date=29 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130325095837/http://www.slavevoyages.org/tast/index.faces |archive-date=25 March 2013 }}</ref> The slave trade across the Sahara and Red Sea from the Sahara, the Horn of Africa, and East Africa, has been estimated at 6.2 million people between 600 and 1600.<ref>{{Citation|last=McDougall|first=E. Ann|title=In search of a desert-edge perspective: the Sahara-Sahel and the Atlantic trade, c. 1815–1900|date=1995-08-17|work=From Slave Trade to 'Legitimate' Commerce|pages=215–239|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511523861.010|isbn=978-0-521-48127-4}}</ref><ref name=Lovejoy-2012 /> Although the rate decreased from East Africa in the 1700s, it increased in the 1800s and is estimated at 1.65 million for that century.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020|title=Boswellin|journal=Reactions Weekly|volume=1795|issue=1|page=71|doi=10.1007/s40278-020-76092-y|s2cid=212742104|issn=0114-9954}}</ref><ref name=Lovejoy-2012 />
Estimates by Patrick Manning are that about 12 million slaves entered the Atlantic trade between the 16th and 19th century, but about 1.5 million died on board ship.<ref name=":0" /> About 10.5 million slaves arrived in the Americas.<ref name=":0" /> Besides the slaves who died on the [[Middle Passage]], more Africans likely died during the [[slave raid]]s in Africa and [[forced march]]es to ports.<ref>{{Citation|title=More, Brig.-Gen. Robert Henry, (died 1 Nov. 1951)|date=2007-12-01|work=Who Was Who|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u240972}}</ref> Manning estimates that 4 million died inside Africa after capture, and many more died young.<ref name=":0" /> Manning's estimate covers the 12 million who were originally destined for the Atlantic, as well as the 6 million destined for Asian slave markets and the 8 million destined for African markets.<ref name=":0">Patrick Manning, "The Slave Trade: The Formal Dermographics of a Global System" in Joseph E. Inikori and Stanley L. Engerman (eds), ''The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe'' (Duke University Press, 1992), pp. 117-44, [https://books.google.com/books?id=abvkqNGSTZ0C&pg=PA119 online at pp. 119-20.]</ref>
====Debate about demographic effect====
[[File:Slavezanzibar2.JPG|thumb|160px|Photograph of a slave boy in [[Zanzibar]]. 'An Arab master's punishment for a slight offence.' c. 1890.]]
The demographic effects of the slave trade are some of the most controversial and debated issues.<ref>{{Citation|title=Chapter 4: A 'most miserable business': naval officers' experiences of slave-trade suppression|work=The suppression of the Atlantic slave trade|year=2017|pages=73–94|publisher=Manchester University Press|doi=10.7765/msi/9781784992361.04|isbn=978-1-78499-236-1}}</ref> [[Walter Rodney]] argued that the export of so many people had been a demographic disaster and had left Africa permanently disadvantaged when compared to other parts of the world, and that this largely explains that continent's continued poverty.<ref>Rodney, Walter, ''How Europe Underdeveloped Africa'', London: [[Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications]], 1972.</ref> He presents numbers that show that Africa's population stagnated during this period, while that of Europe and Asia grew dramatically. According to Rodney all other areas of the economy were disrupted by the slave trade as the top merchants abandoned traditional industries to pursue slaving and the lower levels of the population were disrupted by the slaving itself.<ref>{{Citation|last=Klein|first=Herbert S.|title=Major slaving ports of southwestern and southeastern Africa|work=The Atlantic Slave Trade|year=2010|page=xiv|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511779473.004|isbn=978-0-511-77947-3}}</ref>
Others have challenged this view. [[J. D. Fage]] compared the number effect on the continent as a whole.<ref>{{Cite document|title=53190a, 1895-02-14, [COHEN], [GORDON], [WHITE], [FAGE], [GRUBB], and others|doi=10.1163/2210-7886_asc-53190a}}</ref> David Eltis has compared the numbers to the rate of [[emigration]] from [[Europe]] during this period.<ref>{{Cite book|date=2017-02-17|chapter=Cambodia has seen the greatest growth in emigration|doi=10.1787/9789264265615-graph79-en|title=Interrelations between Public Policies, Migration and Development|isbn=9789264265608}}</ref> In the 19th century alone over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas, a far higher rate than were ever taken from Africa.<ref>David Eltis, ''Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic Slave Trade'', Oxford University Press, 1987.</ref>
Others in turn challenged that view. [[Joseph E. Inikori]] argues the history of the region shows that the effects were still quite deleterious.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Thornton|first1=John K.|last2=Inikori|first2=Joseph E.|last3=Engerman|first3=Stanley L.|date=1993|title=The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies, and Peoples in Africa, the Americas and Europe|journal=African Economic History|issue=21|page=151|doi=10.2307/3601814|jstor=3601814|issn=0145-2258}}</ref> He argues that the African economic model of the period was very different from the European, and could not sustain such population losses.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2013|title="Third pillar" model could reduce strain on NHS, argues PSNC|journal=The Pharmaceutical Journal|doi=10.1211/pj.2013.11119172|issn=2053-6186}}</ref> Population reductions in certain areas also led to widespread problems.<ref>{{Cite document|title=Figures 17 and 1.22. Housing problems among the vulnerable population are widespread|doi=10.1787/888933336995}}</ref> Inikori also notes that after the suppression of the slave trade Africa's population almost immediately began to rapidly increase, even prior to the introduction of modern medicines.<ref>Joseph E. Inikori, "Ideology versus the Tyranny of Paradigm: Historians and the Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on African Societies", ''African Economic History'', 1994.</ref>
===Effect on the economy of Africa===
[[File:Different cowries.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Cowrie]] shells were used as money in the slave trade]]
[[File:ManillaOkhapos.JPG|thumb|left|Two slightly differing Okpoho [[Manillas]] as used to purchase slaves]]
There is a longstanding debate among analysts and scholars about the destructive impacts of the slave trades.<ref name=Manning-1983 /> It is often claimed that the slave trade undermined local economies and political stability as villages' vital labour forces were shipped overseas as slave raids and [[civil war]]s became commonplace.<ref>{{Citation|title=Slave Raids, Wars, and Migrations|date=2004-02-15|work=Sudan's Blood Memory|pages=29–42|publisher=Boydell and Brewer Limited|doi=10.1017/9781580466271.008|isbn=978-1-58046-627-1}}</ref> With the rise of a large commercial slave trade, driven by European needs, enslaving your enemy became less a consequence of war, and more and more a reason to go to war.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thomas, Hugh, 1931-2017.|title=The slave trade : the history of the Atlantic slave trade, 1440-1870|date=12 November 2015|isbn=978-1-4746-0336-2|oclc=935680918}}</ref> The slave trade was claimed to have impeded the formation of larger ethnic groups, causing ethnic factionalism and weakening the formation for stable political structures in many places.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tadao Tsukashima|first=Ronald|date=2007|title=Ethnic-collective action, intergroup competition and social networks: Formation of ethnic-trade guilds|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|volume=30|issue=5|pages=845–874|doi=10.1080/01419870701491846|s2cid=217512375|issn=0141-9870}}</ref> It also is claimed to have reduced the mental health and social development of African people.<ref>{{cite journal| last = Nunn| first = Nathan|title = The Long-Term Effects of Africa's Slave Trades | journal = [[Quarterly Journal of Economics]] | volume = 123 | issue = 1 | pages = 139–1745 |year=2008 | url = http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/nunn/files/the_long_term_effects.pdf | doi = 10.1162/qjec.2008.123.1.139 | s2cid = 324199| access-date =10 April 2008}}</ref>
In contrast to these arguments, J. D. Fage asserts that slavery did not have a wholly disastrous effect on the societies of Africa.<ref>Fage, J. D. ''A History of Africa''. Routledge, 4th edition, 2001, p. 261.</ref> Slaves were an expensive commodity, and traders received a great deal in exchange for each enslaved person.<ref>{{Cite book|date=2012-01-02|chapter=Exchange‐Traded Funds (ETFs) and Commodity Markets|title=Commodity Strategies: High‐Profit Techniques for Investors and Traders|pages=129–152|doi=10.1002/9781119198611.ch7|isbn=9780470126318}}</ref> At the peak of the slave trade hundreds of thousands of [[musket]]s, vast quantities of cloth, [[gunpowder]], and metals were being shipped to Guinea.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fromont|first=Cécile|date=2018-10-29|title=Common Threads: Cloth, Colour, and the Slave Trade in Early Modern Kongo and Angola|journal=Art History|volume=41|issue=5|pages=838–867|doi=10.1111/1467-8365.12400|issn=0141-6790}}</ref> Most of this money was spent on British-made firearms (of very poor quality) and industrial-grade alcohol.<ref>{{Cite document|date=2020-02-01|title=Application Technology – Making the Most of Money Spent on Pesticides|doi=10.1094/grow-cot-02-20-235}}</ref> Trade with Europe at the peak of the slave trade—which also included significant exports of gold and [[ivory trade|ivory]]—was some 3.5 million pounds Sterling per year.<ref>{{Cite document|title=Trade balance: exports of goods minus imports of goods|doi=10.1787/280588430317}}</ref> By contrast, the trade of the [[United Kingdom]], the economic superpower of the time, was about 14 million pounds per year over this same period of the late 18th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-06-11|title=Inflation rate: food, percentage change over same period previous year|journal=Main Economic Indicators|volume=2020|issue=6|doi=10.1787/6b269bae-en|issn=2219-5009}}</ref> As [[Patrick Manning (Professor)|Patrick Manning]] has pointed out, the vast majority of items traded for slaves were common rather than luxury goods.<ref>{{Cite document|title=Figure 1.13. Many traded goods prices have fallen by more in the United Kingdom than in the euro area|doi=10.1787/115680245438}}</ref> Textiles, [[iron ore]], currency, and salt were some of the most important commodities imported as a result of the slave trade, and these goods were spread within the entire society raising the general standard of living.<ref>{{Cite document|title=Trade 2004|doi=10.1787/568532110800}}</ref><ref name=Manning-1983 />
Although debated, it is argued that the Atlantic slave trade devastated the African economy.<ref>{{Citation|last=Beyan|first=Amos J.|title=Atlantic Ocean Slave Trade|date=2010-04-27|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.47750|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> In 19th century [[Yoruba Land]], economic activity was described to be at its lowest ever while life and property were being taken daily, and normal living was in jeopardy because of the fear of being kidnapped.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Onwumah |first1=Anthony C. |last2=Imhonopi |first2=David O. |last3=Adetunde |first3=Christiana O. |title=A SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW OF THE EFFECTS OF SLAVERY ON YORUBA NATION}}</ref> (Onwumah, Imhonopi, Adetunde,2019)
===Effects on Europe's economy===
[[Karl Marx]] in his economic history of capitalism, ''[[Das Kapital]]'', claimed that "...the turning of Africa into a warren for the commercial hunting of black-skins [that is, the slave trade], signalled the rosy dawn of the era of capitalist production.<ref>{{Citation|title=Zweite Abteilung "Das Kapital" und Vorarbeiten Band 9|date=1990-01-31|work=Karl Marx: Capital. A Critical Analysis of Capitalist Production, London 1887|pages=694–696|place=Berlin, Boston|publisher=De Gruyter Akademie Forschung|doi=10.1515/9783050063577-015|isbn=978-3-05-006357-7}}</ref> "He argued that the slave trade was part of what he termed the "primitive accumulation"<ref>{{Citation|title=He am big and 'cause he so he think everybody do what him say|work=Contesting Slave Masculinity in the American South|year=2018|pages=127–170|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781108539425.005|isbn=978-1-108-53942-5}}</ref> of European capital, the non-capitalist accumulation of wealth that preceded and created the financial conditions for Britain's industrialisation and the advent of the capitalist mode of production.<ref>Marx, K. [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch31.htm "Chapter Thirty-One: Genesis of the Industrial Capitalist"], ''Das Kapital: Volume 1'', 1867.</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Part VIII. The so-called primitive accumulation|date=1990-01-31|work=Karl Marx: Capital. A Critical Analysis of Capitalist Production, London 1887|pages=619–670|place=Berlin, Boston|publisher=De Gruyter Akademie Forschung|doi=10.1515/9783050063577-013|isbn=978-3-05-006357-7}}</ref>
[[Eric Williams]] has written about the contribution of Africans on the basis of profits from the slave trade and slavery, arguing that the employment of those profits were used to help finance Britain's industrialisation.<ref>{{Citation|title=The profits of the slave trade|date=2001-01-04|work=Slavery, Atlantic Trade and the British Economy, 1660–1800|pages=36–48|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511622120.004|isbn=978-0-521-58213-1}}</ref> He argues that the enslavement of Africans was an essential element to the Industrial Revolution, and that European wealth was, in part, a result of slavery, but that by the time of its abolition it had lost its profitability and it was in Britain's economic interest to ban it.<ref>Eric Williams, ''Capitalism & Slavery'' (University of North Carolina Press, 1944), pp. 98–107, 169–177, ''et passim''.</ref> Joseph Inikori has written that the British slave trade was more profitable than the critics of Williams believe.<ref>{{Citation|last=Inikori|first=J. E.|title=Measuring The Atlantic Slave Trade: An Assessment Of Curtin And Anstey|date=2019-06-18|work=Slave Trade and Migration|pages=149–176|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315057613-10|isbn=978-1-315-05761-3}}</ref> Other researchers and historians have strongly contested what has come to be referred to as the "Williams thesis" in academia: [[David Richardson (historian)|David Richardson]] has concluded that the profits from the slave trade amounted to less than 1% of domestic investment in Britain,<ref>David Richardson, "The British Empire and the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1660–1807," in P. J. Marshall (ed.), ''The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century'' (1998), pp. 440–464.</ref> and economic historian [[Stanley Engerman]] finds that even without subtracting the associated costs of the slave trade (e.g., shipping costs, slave mortality, mortality of whites in Africa, defense costs)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Klein|first1=Herbert S.|last2=Engerman|first2=Stanley L.|date=1975|title=Shipping Patterns and Mortality in the African Slave Trade to Rio de Janeiro, 1825-1830.|journal=Cahiers d'études africaines|volume=15|issue=59|pages=381–398|doi=10.3406/cea.1975.2577|pmid=11614308|issn=0008-0055}}</ref> or reinvestment of profits back into the slave trade, the total profits from the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than 5% of the British economy during any year of the [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref name="The Slave Trade and British Capital Formation in the Eighteenth Century">{{Cite journal|jstor=3113341|author=Stanley L. Engerman|title=The Slave Trade and British Capital Formation in the Eighteenth Century|journal=Business History Review|volume=46|issue=4|pages=430–443|doi=10.2307/3113341|year=2012}}</ref> Historian [[Richard Pares]], in an article written before Williams’ book, dismisses the influence of wealth generated from the West Indian plantations upon the financing of the Industrial Revolution, stating that whatever substantial flow of investment from West Indian profits into industry there was occurred after emancipation,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=López|first=Antonio|date=2015|title=Book Review: Afro-Cuban Costumbrismo: From Plantations to the Slums, written by Rafael Ocasio|journal=New West Indian Guide|volume=89|issue=1–2|pages=128–129|doi=10.1163/22134360-08901016|issn=1382-2373|doi-access=free}}</ref> not before.<ref name="The Economic Factors in the History of the Empire">{{Cite journal|jstor=2590147|author=Richard Pares|title=The Economic Factors in the History of the Empire|journal=The Economic History Review|volume=7|issue=2|pages=119–144|doi=10.2307/2590147|year=1937}}</ref> Findlay and O'Rourke noted that the figures presented by O'Brien (1982) to back his claim that "the periphery was peripheral" suggest the opposite, with profits from the periphery 1784–1786 being £5.66 million when there was £10.30 million total gross investment in the British economy and similar proportions for 1824–1826.<ref>{{Citation|date=2020-12-31|work=V. S. Naipaul's Journeys|pages=187–207|publisher=Columbia University Press|doi=10.7312/kris19332-011|isbn=978-0-231-55025-3|title=8. Landscapes of the Mind: India: A Million Mutinies Now}}</ref> They note that dismissing the profits of the enslavement of human beings from significance because it was a "small share of national income",<ref>{{Citation|work=Human Embryos, Human Beings|pages=46–76|publisher=Catholic University of America Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctv1ntfm7.7|isbn=978-0-8132-3024-5|title=Arguments from Ontology|year=2018}}</ref> could be used to argue that there was no industrial revolution, since modern industry provided only a small share of national income and that it is a mistake to assume that small size is the same as small significance.<ref>{{Cite book|date=2015-11-04|chapter=Brazil's industrial sector is small for a middle income country|doi=10.1787/eco_surveys-bra-2015-graph27-en|title=OECD Economic Surveys: Brazil 2015|series=OECD Economic Surveys: Brazil|isbn=9789264245273}}</ref> Findlay and O'Rourke also note that the share of American export commodities produced by enslaved human beings, rose from 54% between 1501 and 1550 to 82.5% between 1761 and 1780.<ref name="Findlay&O'Rourke">{{cite book |last1=Findlay |first1=Ronald |last2= O'Rourke |first2=Kevin H. |title= Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium |date=2009 |publisher= Princeton University Press |___location= Princeton, NJ |isbn=978-0-691143279 |pages= 334–343}}</ref>
Seymour Drescher and Robert Anstey argue the slave trade remained profitable until the end,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Martin|first1=Phyllis M.|last2=Anstey|first2=Roger|last3=Hair|first3=P. E. H.|last4=Schofield|first4=M. M.|last5=Drescher|first5=Seymour|date=1979|title=Britain, the Slave Trade and Its Abolition|journal=ASA Review of Books|volume=5|pages=4–6|doi=10.2307/532374|jstor=532374|issn=0364-1686}}</ref> because of innovations in agriculture, and that moralistic reform, not economic incentive, was primarily responsible for abolition.<ref>J.R. Ward. "The British West Indies in the Age of Abolition" in P.J. Marshall (ed.), ''The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century'' (1998), pp. 415–439.</ref>
A similar debate has taken place about other European nations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Boncardo|first=Robert|date=2018-09-20|title=Jean-Claude Milner's Mallarmé: Nothing Has Taken Place|journal=Edinburgh University Press|volume=1|doi=10.3366/edinburgh/9781474429528.003.0005}}</ref> The French slave trade, it is argued, was more profitable than alternative domestic investments, and probably encouraged [[capital accumulation]] before the Industrial Revolution and [[Napoleonic Wars]].<ref>Guillaume Daudin, "Profitability of slave and long distance trading in context: the case of eighteenth century France", ''Journal of Economic History'', vol. 64, number 1, 2004.</ref>
===Legacy of racism===
[[Maulana Karenga]] states the effects of the Atlantic slave trade in African captives:<ref>{{Citation|title=Karenga, Maulana Ndabezitha|date=2005-04-07|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.41972|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> "[T]he morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among people of today".<ref>{{Cite document|title=United States/South African Relations: Past, Present and Future|doi=10.1163/2468-1733_shafr_sim230130117}}</ref> He says that it constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility.<ref name="Ethics on Reparations">{{cite web |url= http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/ethics%20of%20the%20holocaust.html |publisher=[[Ron Karenga]] |title= Engaging the Holocaust of Enslavement}}</ref>
==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
*[[Slavery in contemporary Africa]]
*[[Cudjoe Lewis]]
*[[Atlantic slave trade]]
*[[Blockade of Africa]]
*[[Slavery in modern Africa]]
*[[Anti-Slavery operations of the United States Navy]]
*[[Barbary pirates]]
*[[Christianity and slavery]]
*[[Islamic views on slavery]]
*[[Slavery in Mauritania]]
*[[Slavery in Sudan]]
*[[Unfree labour]]
*[[Maafa]]
*[[Tippu Tip]]
*[[Abolitionism]]
*[[History of slavery]]
*[[History of slavery in the United States]]
*[[James Riley (Captain)]]
*[[Slave ship]]
*[[African Diaspora]]
*[[Slavery]]
*[[Asiento de Negros]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book|last=Church Missionary Society|author-link=London Missionary Society|title=The slave trade of east Africa|year=1869|publisher=Church Missionary Society|___location=London|title-link=s:The Slave Trade of East Africa}}
*{{cite book|last1=Faragher|first1=John Mack|last2=Buhle|first2=Mari Jo|last3=Czitrom|first3=Daniel|last4=Armitage|first4=Susan|title=Out of Many|publisher=[[Pearson Prentice Hall]]|year=2004|isbn=978-0-13-182431-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54 54]|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmanybriefvo00john/page/54}}
*{{cite book| last=Newton |first=John |year=1788 |title=Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade |publisher=J. Buckland and J. Johnson |___location=London|title-link=:s:Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade }} at [[Wikisource]]
*{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Edward|title=Stand the Storm: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade|year=1985|publisher=[[Allison and Busby]]|___location=London}}
*{{cite book|title=The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade|year=1992|___location=London|editor=Savage, Elizabeth}}
*{{cite web|last=Wright|first=Donald R.|title=History of Slavery and Africa|url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|publisher=Online Encyclopedia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402042111/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/AfricanHistory/SlaveryInAfrica.html|archive-date=2 April 2007|df=dmy-all}}
*Bas Lecocq and Eric Komlavi Hahonou (2015). Exploring Post-Slavery in Contemporary Africa, The international Journal of African History Studies. Vol 48. No. 2. Boston University African Study Center.
*Klein, Martin A. (2009). The Study of Slavery in Africa, Journal of African History . Vol. 19. No. 4. Great Britain, Cambridge University Press.
==External links==
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section9.shtml The story of Africa: Slavery]
* [http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique]
* [http://digilander.libero.it/wrnzla/SlaveryEthiopia.pdf "Ethiopia, Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade]
{{Africa in topic|Slavery in}}
{{Africa topics}}
{{Pirates}}
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