History of rail transport in France and Uranus: Difference between pages

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{{Planet Infobox/Uranus}}

The '''history of rail transport in France''' dates from the first French railway in [[1832]] to present-day enterprises such as the [[TGV]].

{{otheruses}}

'''Uranus''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/jəˈreɪnəs/}} or {{IPA|/ˈjurənəs/}}) is the seventh [[planet]] from the [[Sun]]. It is a [[gas giant]], the third largest by [[diameter]] and fourth largest by [[mass]]. It is named after [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]], the Greek god of the sky and progenitor of the other gods. Its symbol is either [[Image:Uranus's astrological symbol.svg|20px|]] ([[astrology|astrological]]) or [[Image:Uranus symbol.svg|20px|Astronomical symbol for Uranus]] ([[astronomy|astronomical]]). The first symbol derives from the name of its discoverer, [[William Herschel]]. The second symbol is a combination of the devices for the Sun and Mars, as Uranus was the personification of heaven in Greek mythology, dominated by the light of the Sun and the power of Mars. It is also the [[alchemy|alchemical]] symbol of [[platinum]].

[[NASA]]'s ''[[Voyager 2]]'' is the only spacecraft to have visited the planet and no other visits are currently planned. Launched in 1977, ''Voyager 2'' made its closest approach to Uranus on [[January 24]], [[1986]], before continuing its journey to [[Neptune]].

==Beginnings==

During the [[19th century]], [[railway]] construction began in [[France]] with short [[mineral]] lines. The building of the main French railway system did not begin until after [[1842]], when a law legalised railways.

Uranus is the first planet discovered in modern times. Sir [[William Herschel]] formally discovered the planet on [[March 13]], [[1781]]; the other planets (from [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] out to [[Saturn]]) have been known since ancient times, and Uranus' discovery expanded the boundaries of the [[solar system]] for the first time in modern human history. It was also the first planet discovered using [[technology]] (a [[telescope]]) rather than the [[naked eye]].

French railways started later and developed more slowly than those in certain other countries. While the first railway built in France started operation in 1832, not long after the first line had opened in [[Britain]], French progress failed to keep pace over the next decade. Thus [[France]] quickly fell behind [[Germany]], [[Belgium]] and [[Switzerland]] in terms of trackage per person. The rapid growth in the [[United States]] and in the [[United Kingdom]] also seriously outdistanced that in France. Circumstances did not favour a start as early and as successful as Britain's, because Britain generally had a higher level of industrialisation. Other more comparable nations, such as [[Belgium]], embarked on large railway-building projects soon after the technology appeared. France also suffered the handicap of the destruction and turbulence of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] and the subsequent process of rebuilding, which also hindered the development of railways. It took a full decade to begin railway construction on a national scale.

== Discovery and naming ==

France's history and level of development almost certainly account for this delay. France's economy in [[1832]] had not developed sufficiently to support a national railway network. The limited [[iron]] industry for many years forced French railways to import many of their rails from [[England]] at great cost. French [[coal]] supplies also remained under-developed compared to those of England and Belgium. Until these complementary industries developed, French railways were at an economic disadvantage compared to those of other states.

Uranus is the first planet to be discovered that was not known in ancient times; although it had been observed on many previous occasions, it was often mistakenly identified as a star. The earliest recorded sighting was in 1690 when [[jesse and Aaron Flamsteed]] catalogued Uranus as 34 [[Taurus (constellation)|Tauri]]. Flamsteed observed Uranus at least six more times. The record belongs to a French astronomer, [[Pierre Lemonnier]], who observed Uranus at least twelve times between 1750 and 1771, including on four consecutive nights. (Lemonnier is often{{fact}} called careless or even "sloppy" for this, but it is important to know that he realized 9 of these within a short time of Herschel's discovery and most of his observations occurred at the [[stationary point]] in Uranus' orbit.)

Sir [[William Herschel]] discovered the planet on [[March 13]], [[1781]], but reported it on [[April 26]], [[1781]], as a "[[comet]]."<ref>''Account of a Comet, By Mr. Herschel, F. R. S.; Communicated by Dr. Watson, Jun. of Bath, F. R. S.'', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Volume 71, pp. 492-501.</ref>

Another obstacle to French railway development was the powerful opposition to the changes that railways would bring. For example, in [[1832]], the [[Rouen]] [[Chamber of Commerce]] opposed a rail link between Rouen and [[Paris]], arguing it would be detrimental to agriculture, hurt the traditional way of [[personal life|life]], and impinge upon the [[business]] of the [[canal]]s and [[river]]s. This last argument emerged commonly throughout France. Unlike [[Russia]] or Germany, which did not have well-developed canal systems, France had a great deal of capital invested in water-borne transport. These interests saw the railways as dangerous competition. The origins of this opposition stem from France's geography. France was naturally endowed with many navigable [[waterway]]s, and also with much terrain suitable for the construction of canals. Much of France also lies not far from the coast, and coastal shipping successfully and cheaply carried much trade. Thus, the interests which profited from canals, river, and coastal shipping all used their sway in government to limit the construction of railways. While other countries, such as Britain, already utilised canals and coastal shipping well, these nations did not have government-controlled railways, and thus the vested interests of water-borne trade were less able to oppose new competition.

''On the 13th of March, 1781, between ten and eleven o'clock at night, while Herschel was examining the small stars near H Geminorum with a seven-foot telescope, bearing a magnifying power of two hundred and twenty-seven times, one of these stars seemed to have an unusual diameter; and it was, therefore, thought to be a comet. It was under this denomination that it was discussed at the [[Royal Society]] of [[London]]. But the researches of Herschel and of Laplace showed later that the orbit of the new body was nearly circular, and Uranus was consequently elevated to the rank of a planet.'' <ref name=Arago>M. Arago (1871), ''Herschel'', Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, pp. 198-223</ref>

In France, existing interests combined with popular worries about the introduction of railways, especially concerning their safety. While those in opposition to railway development certainly remained a minority, their presence was larger in France than in most other industrialising nations. Since French rail development depended on government initiatives, French opponents had a clearer target to oppose than in countries where completely private companies constructed new railways.

Herschel originally named it ''Georgium Sidus'' (George's Star) in honour of King [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] of [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] (c.f. American poet Elizabeth Graeme Fergusson's "Upon the Discovery of the Planet..." about the event). When it was pointed out that ''sidus'' means star and not planet, Herschel rebaptised it the ''Georgian Planet''. This name was not acceptable outside of Britain. [[Joseph Jérôme Lefrançais de Lalande|Lalande]] proposed in 1784 to name it ''Herschel'', at the same time that he created the planet's (astrological) symbol ("a globe surmounted by your initial"); his proposal was readily adopted by French astronomers. [[Erik Prosperin|Prosperin]], of [[Uppsala]], proposed the names ''[[Astraea]]'', ''[[Cybele]]'', and [[Poseidon|''Neptune'']] (now borne by two [[asteroid]]s and another planet). [[Anders Johan Lexell|Lexell]], of [[St. Petersburg]], compromised with ''George III's Neptune'' and ''Great-Britain's Neptune''. [[Daniel Bernoulli|Bernoulli]], from [[Berlin]], suggested ''Hypercronius'' and ''Transaturnis''. [[Georg Christoph Lichtenberg|Lichtenberg]], from [[Göttingen]], chimed in with ''Austräa'', a goddess mentioned by [[Ovid]] (but who is traditionally associated with [[Astraea|Virgo]]). The name [[Minerva]] was also proposed.<ref>{{cite journal

The central involvement of government in French railways also slowed their construction, as it took time to forge a national railway policy. Under the [[July Monarchy]], France became a far more [[democratic]] state than most others in Europe. While most of the numerous individual German states had strong central authorities, decisions in France needed to survive lengthy debates in parliament. France also exhibited considerable internal divisions within the state. Belgium, with its extremely unified [[political class]] just after independence (1830), could quickly embark on elaborate railway projects. France, however, remained long divided between [[liberal]]s, [[Conservatism|conservatives]], [[monarchist|royalist]]s and [[democracy|democrat]]s, with ''laissez-faire'' liberals consistently holding a great deal of parliamentary [[power (sociology)|power]]. All of the parties supported some form of governmental rail initiative, but they all had differing visions of the shape of that initiative. The parliament thus rejected all major rail projects before [[1842]], and during this period France steadily fell behind the nations that had reached quick consensus on railway policy.

|url=http://vesuvius.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/hersc.html

|title= Voyager at Uranus

|year=1986

|journal=NASA JPL

|pages=400-268

|volume=7

|issue=85}}</ref> Finally, [[Johann Elert Bode|Bode]], as editor of the ''Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch'', opted for ''Uranus'',<ref name="planetsbeyond">{{Cite book | title=Planets Beyond: Discovering the Outer Solar System | id=ISBN 0-486-43602-0 | last=Littmann| first=Mark | publisher=Courier Dover Publications | year=2004 | pages=pp. 10-11}}</ref>

after Latinized version of the [[Greek mythology|Greek god]] of the sky, [[Uranus (mythology)|Ouranos]]; [[Maximilian Hell]] followed suit by using it in the first [[ephemeris]], published in [[Vienna]] and computed by the Benedictine priest [[Placido Fixlmillner]]. The earliest publication to include Uranus in its title, according to NASA's [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-abs_connect?db_key=AST&qform=AST&sim_query=YES&ned_query=YES&aut_logic=OR&obj_logic=OR&author=&object=&start_mon=00&start_year=1787&end_mon=12&end_year=1900&ttl_req=YES&ttl_logic=OR&title=uranus&txt_logic=OR&text=&nr_to_return=100&start_nr=1&jou_pick=ALL&ref_stems=&data_and=ALL&group_and=ALL&start_entry_day=&start_entry_mon=&start_entry_year=&end_entry_day=&end_entry_mon=&end_entry_year=&min_score=&sort=SCORE&data_type=SHORT&aut_syn=YES&ttl_syn=YES&txt_syn=YES&aut_wt=1.0&obj_wt=1.0&ttl_wt=0.3&txt_wt=3.0&aut_wgt=YES&obj_wgt=YES&ttl_wgt=YES&txt_wgt=YES&ttl_sco=YES&txt_sco=YES&version=1&start_nr=101&start_cnt=101&start_nr=201&start_cnt=201 ADS], was in 1823 ([[Friedrich Magnus Schwerd|Schwerd]]<!--- (1792-1871) --->, '' Opposition des Uranus 1821'', Astronomische Nachrichten, Vol. 1, pp. 18-21). The name was in use in Germany at least as far back as 1791, however ([[Placido Fixlmillner|Fixlmillner]], [http://www.polybiblio.com/watbooks/2487.html ''Acta Astronomica Cremifanensia''], Steyr, AT: Franz Josef Medter, 1791). Examination of earliest issues of ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'' from 1827 shows that the name ''Uranus'' was already the most common name used even by British astronomers by then, and probably earlier. The name ''Georgium Sidus'' or "the Georgian" was still used infrequently (by the British alone) thereafter. The final holdout was [[HM Nautical Almanac Office]], which did not switch to ''Uranus'' until 1850.<ref name="planetsbeyond"/>

The stressed syllable in the name is properly the first, antepenultimate syllable, since in Latin the penultimate vowel ''a'' is short ''(ūr'''ă'''nŭs)'' and in an open syllable, and such syllables are never stressed in Latin. The historically correct pronunciation of the name by English-speakers is therefore ''[ˈjurənəs]'' or ''[ˈjurənʌs]''. The historically incorrect pronunciations ''[juˈreɪnəs]'' or ''[jəˈreɪnəs]'', with stress on the second syllable and a "long a" ''(ūr'''ā'''nŭs)'' have become very common, however, perhaps through the influence of the related adjective "Uranian" (always pronounced ''[juˈreɪniən]'' or ''[jəˈreɪniən]'') or the similarly-pronounced name of the element [[uranium]].

The French rail system could not develop successfully without the involvement of the [[state]]. Unlike Great Britain or the United States, France did not have a substantial industrial base willing to pay for railways to bring its products to new markets. French investment capital also lagged considerably behind the amounts available in Great Britain. Early troubles, such as the failed Paris to Rouen line, only reinforced the deep conservatism of the French [[banking|bank]]s. French private industry did not have the strength to construct a railway [[industry]] unassisted by government. Thus, during the period of inaction by the government before 1842, the French built only small and scattered railway lines.

In the [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] languages, the planet's name is literally translated as the ''sky king star'' (天王星)<ref>{{cite web

The eventual relationship created between the French rail system and the government formed a compromise between two competing options:

|url=http://www.eternalsailormoon.org/help.html#myth

# the completely ''laissez-faire'' free-market system that had created Britain's elaborate rail network

|title=Sailormoon Terms and Information

# a government-built and government-controlled railway, such as had grown up in Belgium.

|publisher=The Sailor Senshi Page

|accessdate=2006-03-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal

|url=http://amateurastronomy.org/EH/Oct97.txt

|title=Asian Astronomy 101

|journal=Hamilton Amateur Astronomers

|month=October

|year=1997

|volume=4

|issue=11}}</ref>, while in India it is named Aruna ([[Devanāgarī]] अरुण), the charioteer of the sun god [[Surya]] in Hindu mythology.

== Physical characteristics ==

France employed a mixture of these two models to construct its railways, but eventually turned definitively to the side of government control. The relationships between the government and private rail companies became complicated, with many conflicts and disagreements between the two groups.

=== Composition ===

Uranus is composed primarily of gas and various ices. The atmosphere is about 83 percent [[hydrogen]], 15 percent [[helium]], 2 percent [[methane]] and traces of [[acetylene]]. The interior is richer in heavier elements, most likely compounds of oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen, as well as rocky materials. This is in contrast to [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]] which are mostly hydrogen and helium. Uranus (like [[Neptune]]) is very much similar to the cores of Jupiter and Saturn without the massive fluid [[metallic hydrogen]] envelope. Uranus' [[cyan]] color is due to the absorption of [[red]] light by atmospheric [[methane]]. Surface temperature on Uranus' cloud cover is approximately 55&nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]] (−218&nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]] or −360&nbsp;[[Fahrenheit|°F]]).<ref>{{cite journal|journal = Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume = 31|pages= 217-263|year= 1993|doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.001245|title=The Atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune|author= Lunine J. I.}}</ref>

===Axial tilt===

==Government intervention==

One of the most distinctive features of Uranus is its axial tilt of ninety-eight degrees. Consequently, for part of its orbit one pole faces the [[Sun]] continually while the other pole faces away. At the other side of Uranus orbit the orientation of the poles towards the Sun is reversed. This gives each pole 42-years of continuous sunlight, followed by 42 years of darkness. Between these two extremes of its orbit, the Sun rises and sets around the equator normally.

The 1842 agreement proved the most important piece of railway legislation. It aided the companies by having the department of the [[Ponts et Chaussées]] do most of the [[plan]]ning and [[engineering]] work for new lines. The government would assist in securing the land, often by expropriation. The government also agreed to pay [[infrastructure]] costs, building bridges, tunnels and track bed. The private companies would then furnish the tracks, stations and [[rolling stock]], as well as pay the operating costs.

At the time of ''[[Voyager 2]]'''s passage in 1986, Uranus' south pole was pointed almost directly at the Sun. The labelling of this pole as "south" uses the coordinate definitions currently endorsed by the [[International Astronomical Union]], namely that the north pole of a planet or satellite shall be the pole which points above the invariable plane of the solar system (regardless of the direction the planet is spinning) [http://www.hnsky.org/iau-iag.htm] [http://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/documents/sr/stdref_021015/Chapter02.pdf]. A different system is sometimes used, defining a body's north and south poles according to the right-hand rule in relation to the direction of rotation [http://roger.ecn.purdue.edu/~masl/documents/masl/coords.html]. In terms of this latter coordinate system it was Uranus' ''north'' pole which was in sunlight in 1986. On page 47 of the September 2006 issue of the Sky at Night magazine, [[Patrick Moore]], commenting on the issue, sums it up with "take your pick!"

Under state guidance, France's railways followed a national construction plan, which stipulated that every town with a population of around 1,500 inhabitants should have a [[standard gauge]] rail link, with a network of [[narrow gauge|narrow (metre) gauge]] lines filling in the gaps.

One result of this orientation is that the polar regions of Uranus receive a greater energy input from the Sun than its equatorial regions. Uranus is nevertheless hotter at its equator than at its poles, although the underlying mechanism which causes this is unknown. The reason for Uranus' extreme axial tilt is also not known. It is speculated{{fact}} that during the formation of the Solar System, an Earth sized [[protoplanet]] collided with Uranus, causing the skewed orientation.

This general policy, masked many exceptions and additions. The most successful companies, especially the [[Compagnie du Nord]], would often build their own lines themselves in order to avoid the complications of going through government. For instance, during the economic boom period of the [[1850s]], the national government had to pay only 19 percent of the costs of railway construction. Other less successful lines, such as the Midi, would often need more assistance from the government to remain in operation. The same proved true during recessions, such as in [[1859]], when the railway lines gained a new agreement to save them from [[bankruptcy]]. In exchange for funding part of the construction of rail lines, the French government set maximum rates that the companies could charge. It also insisted that all government traffic must travel at a third of standard costs.

It appears that Uranus' extreme axial tilt also results in extreme seasonal variations in its weather. During the Voyager 2 flyby, Uranus' banded cloud patterns were extremely bland and faint. Recent [[Hubble Space Telescope]] observations, however, show a more strongly banded appearance now that the Sun is approaching Uranus' equator. By 2007 the Sun will be directly over Uranus' equator.

The expectation that the government would eventually nationalise the rail system formed another important element in French railway legislation. The original agreement of 1842 leased the railway lines to the companies for only 36 years. [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]] extended these leases to 99 years soon after he came to power. That the rail companies only operated on leases paved the way for the nationalisation of the French rail lines under the [[socialist]] government of the 1930s.

===Magnetic field===

The French rail policy, once put in place, had its deficiencies, but one certainly cannot consider it a failure, and other powers attempting to encourage rail developments adopted many aspects of the French railway laws. The bureaucratisation and influence of special interests associated with all governments, even those of corporations, also negatively affected the French railways. However, the French rail system had failed to grow on its own and required government intervention to expand successfully. While the alleged intrusion of government into the railway sector caused problems, it also proved necessary and inevitable.

Uranus' [[magnetic field]] is peculiar since it is not originating from the geometric center of the planet and is tilted almost 60° from the axis of rotation. It is probably generated by motion at relatively shallow depths within Uranus. Neptune has a similarly displaced magnetic field, which suggests the magnetic field is not necessarily a consequence of Uranus' axial tilt. The [[magnetosphere|magnetotail]] is twisted by the planet's rotation into a long corkscrew shape behind the planet. The magnetic field's source is unknown.

===Explanation for bland atmosphere===

Unlike in countries where the construction of railways became a field for [[private enterprise]], the state constructed the bulk of the French railway system, and magnanimously invited private companies to operate the lines under [[lease]]s (of up to 99 years). France's railways form a somewhat unusual case in that they have never been privately owned. The state guaranteed the [[dividend]]s of the railway operating companies, and in exchange took two-thirds of any greater [[profit]]s.

The internal heat of Uranus is lower than that of [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]]. Both Jupiter and Saturn radiate more energy than they receive from the Sun.

The close relationship between the rail companies and government has much to do with French history. France had long had a large and elaborate [[bureaucracy]] and governmental structure that regulated many areas of French life. This bureaucracy survived the revolutionary period intact and played an important role in every government that ruled France in the nineteenth century. Thus, when railways arose, there already existed well-established governmental structures and procedures that could easily expand to encompass railway regulations as well. This regulatory [[régime]], through the [[profession]]al and powerful department of the ''[[Ponts et Chaussées]]'', had very close control over the construction of roads, bridges and canals in France; therefore, it was inevitable that the new railways would also fall under the government's close scrutiny.

This causes many powerful convection currents to form in the atmosphere. On Uranus that heat source is much lower due to its lower mass, with the temperature of its core roughly 7000 K compared to 30 000 K at Jupiter's core and 18 000 K at Saturn. The convection currents formed in the Uranian atmosphere are not as strong and hence it lacks the atmosphere banding of the larger gas giants. However, as stated above, the weather patterns of Uranus do vary with season, being more pronounced at the [[equinoxes]] than at the [[solstices]].

===Cloud Features===

Other reasons also led the French government to control its railways closely. Unlike the United Kingdom or the United States, France as a European continental power had pressing military/[[strategy|strategic]] needs from its railways, needs which a private sector might not provide. The French government constructed long stretches of railway lines in eastern France along the German border that served strategically crucial ends, but lacked economic viability. "Pure" private economic interests would not have constructed these routes on their own, so France used government rewards and pressure to encourage the rail companies to build the needed lines. (The German and Russian Empires also had widespread strategic railway systems that private companies would not have built appropriately.)

For a short period in Autumn 2004, a number of large clouds appeared in the Uranian atmosphere, giving it a [[Neptune]]-like appearance{{citation needed}}.

The first completed lines radiated out of [[Paris]], connecting France's major cities to the capital. These lines still form the backbone of the French railway system. By the [[1860s]], workers had completed the basic structure of the network, but they continued to build many minor lines during the late 19th century to fill in the gaps .

==Planetary rings==

Government involvement in the railroads did mean that the French rail system became based on a very inefficient design. By [[1855]], the many original small firms had coalesced into six large companies, each having a regional monopoly in one area of France. The [[Chemin de Fer du Nord|Nord]], [[Chemin de Fer de l'Est|Est]], [[Chemins de Fer de l'Ouest|Ouest]], [[Chemin de Fer Paris-Orléans|Paris-Orléans]], [[Chemin de Fer Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee|Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée]] (PLM), and the [[Chemin de Fer du Midi|Midi]] lines divided the nation into strict corridors of control. Difficulties arose in that the six large monopolies, with the exception of the Midi Company, all connected to Paris, but did not link together anywhere else in the country. The French railway map comprised a series of unconnected branches running out of Paris. While this meant that trains served Paris well, other parts of the country were not served as well. For instance, one branch of the Paris-Orléans Line ended in [[Clermont-Ferrand]], while [[Lyon]] stood on the PLM Line. Thus any goods or passengers requiring transportation from Lyon to Clermont-Ferrand in [[1860]] needed to take a circuitous route via Paris of over seven hundred kilometers, even though a mere hundred and twenty kilometers separated the two cities.

{{main|Rings of Uranus}}

[[Image:Uranus with rings PIA01280.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Uranus with its rings in false color]]

Uranus has a faint [[planetary ring]] system, composed of dark particulate matter up to ten meters in diameter. This ring system was discovered in March 1977 by [[James L. Elliot]], [[Edward W. Dunham]], and [[Douglas J. Mink]] using the [[Kuiper Airborne Observatory]]. The discovery was [[Serendipity|serendipitous]]; they planned to use the [[occultation]] of a star by Uranus to study the planet's [[Celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]]. However, when their observations were analyzed, they found that the star had disappeared briefly from view five times both before and after it disappeared behind the planet. They concluded that there must be a ring system around the planet; it was directly detected when ''[[Voyager 2]]'' passed Uranus in 1986. [[As of 2005]], 13 rings had been identified. In December 2005, the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] photographed a pair of previously unknown rings. The largest is twice the diameter of the planet's previously known rings. The new rings are so far from the planet that they are being called Uranus' "second ring system." Hubble also spotted two small satellites. One shares its orbit with one of the newly discovered rings. The new data reveals that the orbits of Uranus' family of inner moons have changed significantly in the last decade.

In April 2006, information about the color of the outer rings was published, one of them appearing spectrally blue and the other red.<ref>{{Cite press release | title=Blue ring discovered around Uranus | publisher=UC Berkeley News | url=http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2006/04/06_bluering.shtml | date=[[2006-04-06]] | accessdate=2006-10-03}}</ref>

This grave inefficiency lead to great problems in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] (1870 - 1871). The German railway lines, inter-connected in a grid-like fashion, proved far more efficient at advancing troops and supplies to the front than the French one. ''"Combien nous a été funeste l'absence de lignes transversales [...] unissant nos grandes artères"'' reported a military officer to the parliamentary inquiry on France's defeat.

The rest of the planet's rings appear grey. The blue ring is thought to get its color from being swept by a moon, which may draw away all large debris, leaving only fine dust which refracts light in much the same way the Earth's atmosphere does.

==Natural satellites==

The arrangement of the lines also hurt France's economy. Shipping costs between regional centres became greatly inflated. Thus many cities specialised in exporting their goods to Paris, as trans-shipment to a second city would double the price.

{{main|Uranus' natural satellites}}

[[Image:Uranian moon montage.jpg|400px|right|thumb|Uranian moon montage]]

Uranus has 27 known [[natural satellites]]. The names for these satellites are chosen from characters from the works of [[Shakespeare]] and [[Alexander Pope]]. The five main satellites are [[Miranda (moon)|Miranda]], [[Ariel (moon)|Ariel]], [[Umbriel (moon)|Umbriel]], [[Titania (moon)|Titania]] and [[Oberon (moon)|Oberon]].

{| class="wikitable"

France ended up with this regressive arrangement for a number of reasons. Paris formed the undisputed capital of France, and many viewed it as the capital of [[Europe]]. To French railway planners, it seemed only natural that all the lines should involve the metropolis. By contrast Germany ended up with a far superior system because it had little unity and many centers vying for preeminence. Thus a variety of rail centres arose. [[Berlin]], [[Munich]], [[Dresden]], [[Hamburg]], and the [[Rhine]] areas all had links to each other.

|- style="background:#efefef;"

! colspan="6" | The main Uranian moons<br />(compared to Earth's [[Moon]])

|-

|- style="background:#efefef;"

! colspan="2" | Name<br />

([[Help:Pronunciation respelling key|Pronunciation key]])

! Diameter<br />(km)

! Mass<br />(kg)

! Orbital radius<br />(km)

! Orbital period<br />(d)

|- style="background:#eeeeff" align="center"

| '''[[Miranda (moon)|Miranda]]''' || ''mə-ran'-də''<br />{{IPA|/mɪˈrændə/}} || 470<br />(14%) || 7.0{{e|19}}<br />(0.1%) || 129,000<br />(35%) || 1.4<br />(5%)

|- style="background:#eeeeff" align="center"

| '''[[Ariel (moon)|Ariel]]''' || ''arr'-ee-əl''<br />{{IPA|/ˈɛəriəl/}} || 1160<br />(33%) || 14{{e|20}}<br />(1.8%) || 191,000<br />(50%) || 2.5<br />(10%)

|- style="background:#eeeeff" align="center"

| '''[[Umbriel (moon)|Umbriel]]''' || ''um'-bree-əl''<br />{{IPA|/ˈʌmbriəl/}} || 1170<br />(34%) || 12{{e|20}}<br />(1.6%) || 266,000<br />(70%) || 4.1<br />(15%)

|- style="background:#eeeeff" align="center"

| '''[[Titania (moon)|Titania]]''' || ''tə-taan'-yə''<br />{{IPA|/tɪˈtɑ:njə/}} or {{IPA|/tɪˈteɪnjə/}}|| 1580<br />(45%) || 35{{e|20}}<br />(4.8%) || 436,000<br />(115%) || 8.7<br />(30%)

|- style="background:#eeeeff" align="center"

| '''[[Oberon (moon)|Oberon]]''' || ''oe'-bər-on''<br />{{IPA|/ˈoʊbərɒn/}} || 1520<br />(44%) || 30{{e|20}}<br />(4.1%) || 584,000<br />(150%) || 13.5<br />(50%)

|}

:''For a timeline of discovery dates, see [[Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their natural satellites]]''

The French railway lines also exhibited a high degree of centralisation because [[plan]]s dictated this. Unlike Britain and America, France had a central government which greatly influenced the layout and the planning of the railways. This Paris-centric government had minimal local representation, especially in the bureaucracy. The ''Ponts et Chaussées'' department that supervised the railways remained thoroughly Parisian. Because of strong governmental and administrative influence, all six of the French railway companies had their headquarters in Paris. This occurred not only because of the unquestioned centrality of Paris, but also because the rail companies always remained in close contact with the French government, and needed bases in Paris to ensure positive relations.

==Visibility==

Nineteenth-century Britain largely lacked intensive government interference in the railways. Railway companies thus experienced less pressure to centre their lines on London, and also less necessity for each company to cultivate such close links to the centre of political power. In England, for instance, local businesses financed and promoted the [[Stockton & Darlington]] and [[Liverpool & Manchester]] lines. In France, cities like [[Lyon]] and [[Bordeaux]] did not have many wealthy investors - capital emanated almost exclusively from Paris. This concentration of capital in Paris also contributed to the concentration of the railway system in the metropolis.

[[Image:Uranus, Earth size comparison.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Size comparison of Earth and Uranus]]

The brightness of Uranus is between magnitude +5.5 and +6.0, so it can be seen with the naked eye as a faint star under dark sky conditions. It can be easily found with binoculars. From Earth, it has a diameter of four arc-seconds. In larger amateur telescopes with an objective diameter greater than 12" (30cm) the planet appears as a pale blue disc with distinct [[limb shading]], and two of the larger satellites, [[Titania]] and [[Oberon]], may be visible. Even in large professional instruments no details can be seen on its disc. However, [[infrared]] studies of its atmosphere using [[adaptive optics]] have yielded interesting data in the years since the Voyager flyby.<ref>{{cite web

|url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/uranus_images_041110.html

|title=New Images Reveal Clouds on Planet Uranus

|year=2004

|publisher=Space.com

|accessdate=2006-03-05}}</ref>

:''For more details, see [[Aspects of Uranus]]''

The most important of the railway operating companies during this period included:

*[[Chemin de Fer de l'Est]]

*[[Chemin de Fer du Nord]]

*[[Chemins de fer de Paris à Lyon et à la Méditerranée]]

*[[Chemin de Fer Paris-Orléans]]

*[[Chemin de Fer du Midi]]

==See also==

By [[1914]] the French railway system had become one of the densest and most highly-developed in the world, and had reached its maximum extent of around 60,000 km (35,000 miles). About one third of this mileage comprised [[narrow gauge]] lines.

*[[Colonization of the outer solar system#Uranus|Colonization of Uranus]]

*[[Uranus in fiction]]

*[[Solar system in astrology#Uranus|Uranus in astrology]]

==NationalisationReferences==

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By the [[1930s]], [[road transport|road]] competition began to take its toll on the railways, and the rail network needed pruning. The narrow-gauge lines suffered most severely from road competition; many thousands of miles of narrow-gauge lines closed during the 1930s. By the [[1950s]] the once extensive narrow-gauge system had practically become extinct. Many minor standard-gauge lines also closed. The French railway system today has around 40,000 km (25,000 miles) of track.

See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for a

discussion of different citation methods and how to generate

footnotes using the <ref>, </ref> and <reference /> tags

----------------------------------------------------------- -->

<div class="references-small">

<references />

</div>

==External links==

Many of the private railway operating companies began to face financial difficulties. In [[1938]] the [[socialist]] government fully [[nationalisation|nationalised]] the railway system and formed the ''[[SNCF|Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer]]'' (SNCF). Regional authorities have begun to specify schedules more recently.

{{sisterlinks|Uranus}}

* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/uranusfact.html NASA's Uranus fact sheet]

* [http://www2.keck.hawaii.edu/news/science/uranus/ Keck pictures of Uranus show best view from the ground] - Press release with some photographs showing rings, satellites and clouds

* News reports of [[22 December]] [[2005]] rings and moons discovery

** ''[http://space.com/scienceastronomy/051222_uranus.html New Moons and Rings found at Uranus]'', [[SPACE.com]]

** ''[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10574903/ Two more rings discovered around Uranus]'', [[MSNBC]]

* [http://www.projectshum.org/Planets/uranus.html Planets - Uranus] A kid's guide to Uranus.

* [http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/targetFamily/Uranus Uranus] at [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]]'s planetary photojournal.

* [http://skytonight.com/news/4435217.html Spring Has Sprung on Uranus]

{{Uranus_Footer}}

From the late [[1970s]] onwards, a newly-constructed set of [[high-speed rail|high-speed]] [[LGV]] (''Ligne à Grande Vitesse'') lines linked France's major cities. In [[1994]], the [[Channel Tunnel]] opened, connecting France and Great Britain by rail under the [[English Channel]].

{{Footer_SolarSystem}}

{{Featured topic}}

==See also==

* [[History of rail transport]]

* [[Transportation in France]]

==References==

*Caron, François. ''Histoire des Chemins de Fer en France.'' Paris: Fayard, 1997.

*Clapham, J. H. ''The Economic Development of France and Germany, 1815-1914.'' Cambridge: University Press, 1961.

*Doukas, Kimon A. ''The French Railroads and the State.'' New York: Columbia University Press, 1945.

*Dunham, Arthur. “How the First French Railways Were Planned.” Journal of Economic History. Vol. 1, No. 1. (1941), pp. 12-25

*Mitchell, Allan. ''The Great Train Race: Railways and the Franco-German Rivalry, 1815-1914.'' New York: Berghahn Books, 2000.

*Sterne, Simon. “Some Curious Phases of the Railway Question in Europe.” ''The Quarterly Journal of Economics,'' Vol. 1, No. 4. (1887), pp. 453-468.

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