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Among the world's religions, '''views on masturbation''' vary widely. Some religions view it as a spiritually detrimental practice, some see it as not spiritually detrimental and others take a [[situational]] view. Among these latter religions, some view [[masturbation]] as allowable if used as a means towards sexual [[self-control]], or as part of healthy self-exploration, but disallow it if it is done with motives they consider to be wrong, or as an [[Behavioral addiction|addiction]]. A 2016 ''Psychology Today'' article stated that the more religious people are, the more likely they are to restrict their sexual fantasies, have fewer sex partners, use less pornography and express stronger disapproval of the use of sex toys.<ref>{{Cite web | first=David J. | last=Ley | author-link=David J. Ley |date=8 June 2016 | url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/women-who-stray/201606/porn-vs-religion | title=Porn vs. Religion | website=Psychology Today | access-date=30 April 2018 | archive-date=16 January 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116044207/https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/women-who-stray/201606/porn-vs-religion | url-status=live }}</ref>
==Abrahamic religions==
===Biblical scholarship===
Most scholars have held that there are no explicit proscriptions in the Bible about masturbation.<ref>For example:
* {{cite journal|last=Patton|first=Michael S.|date=June 1985|title=Masturbation from Judaism to Victorianism|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=24|issue=2|pages=133–146|issn=0022-4197|doi=10.1007/BF01532257|quote=Nevertheless, there is no legislation in the Bible pertaining to masturbation.|pmid=24306073|s2cid=39066052}}
* {{harvnb|Kwee|Hoover|2008}}. "The Bible presents no clear theological ethic on masturbation, leaving many young unmarried Christians with confusion and guilt around their sexuality."
* {{harvnb|Harvey|1993}}
* {{harvnb|Dobson|2000}}, {{harvnb|Dobson|2012}}</ref> The word masturbation is never specifically mentioned in the Bible or the Book of Mormon, nor are there any clear unchallenged references to masturbation.<ref name="lech">{{Bulleted list|{{Cite book |last=Jech |first=Carl L. |title=Religion as Art Form: Reclaiming Spirituality Without Supernatural Beliefs |publisher=Resource Publications, Wipf and Stock Publishers |year=2013 |isbn=9781621896708 |___location=Eugene, OR |page=97 |language=en |chapter=CHAPTER 2. Beyond Heaven and Hell |oclc=853272981 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz1JAwAAQBAJ&q=masturbation+mentioned+bible&pg=PA97|quote=(Masturbation is never mentioned in the Bible.)}}|{{cite book | last1=Atkinson | first1=Harley T. | last2=Barnett | first2=W. Lee | last3=Severe | first3=Michael | title=Ministry with Youth in Crisis, Revised Edition | publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers | date=9 November 2016 | isbn=978-1-4982-2563-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lEOcDQAAQBAJ&dq=%2522(Masturbation+is+never+mentioned+in+the+Bible.)%2522&pg=PT227 | access-date=14 May 2025 | page=unpaginated | quote=Masturbation is never mentioned in the Bible, and we should be careful not to make strong arguments from silence. God does not affirm or condemn it in Scripture.}}}}</ref><ref name="vern">{{cite journal|last1=Malan|first1=Mark Kim|last2=Bullough|first2=Vern|date=Fall 2005|title=Historical development of new masturbation attitudes in Mormon culture: secular conformity, counterrevolution, and emerging reform|url=http://www.mormonstudies.net/pdf/mormon_masturbation.pdf|journal=Sexuality & Culture|volume=9|issue=4|pages=80–127|issn=1095-5143|quote=While nowhere in the Bible is there a clear unchallenged reference to masturbation, Jewish tradition was always seriously concerned about the loss of semen. The Book of Leviticus, for example states: [Bible quote Lev 14:16–18]...Although masturbation is not mentioned in the Bible or Book of Mormon, absence of scriptural authority on the matter, Kimball said, is irrelevant: "Let no one rationalize their sins on the excuse that a particular sin of his is not mentioned nor forbidden in scripture" (p. 25).|doi=10.1007/s12119-005-1003-z|s2cid=145480822|access-date=2015-06-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812181340/http://www.mormonstudies.net/pdf/mormon_masturbation.pdf|archive-date=2011-08-12|url-status=dead}}</ref> Various passages have been held to implicitly condemn or approve of masturbation, but others disagree; there is not "a clear condemnation of masturbation".<ref name="tjwray">{{cite book|last1=Wray|first1=Tina J.|year=2011|chapter=Chapter 7. Should We or Shouldn't We? A Brief Exploration of Sexuality and Gender|title=What the Bible Really Tells Us: The Essential Guide to Biblical Literacy|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OAewArzQ624C&q=masturbation+never+mentioned+bible&pg=PA143|___location=Lanham, MD|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|pages=[https://archive.org/details/whatbiblereallyt0000wray/page/142 142–143]|isbn=9781442212930|quote=Returning to the Levitical list of sexual taboos, curiously missing from the list is any mention of masturbation. Many people assume that this, too, is forbidden, but the truth is, the word masturbation is never specifically mentioned in the Bible, though some argue that it is implied (and also condemned) in several places. The story cited most often is found in Genesis 38...For centuries this obscure passage has been used as an indictment against masturbation though it is not masturbation at all...But if Onan's story is not about masturbation, then where in the Bible is the practice forbidden? Some commentators conclude that the word porneia—a word already discussed in the first two assumptions—is a catchall term to include all forms of unchastity, including masturbation, but others vehemently disagree. In the book of Leviticus, there is explicit mention of purity regulations regarding semen that seem to emanate from either masturbation or possibly nocturnal emission: [Bible quote Lev 15:16–17] None of this, however, represent a clear condemnation of masturbation.|oclc=707329261|url=https://archive.org/details/whatbiblereallyt0000wray/page/142}}</ref>
The biblical story of [[Onan]] (Genesis 38) is traditionally linked to referring to masturbation and condemnation thereof.<ref name=vines>{{cite book|last1=Vines|first1=Matthew|year=2014|chapter=4. The Real Sin of Sodom|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bTS0AAAAQBAJ&q=traditional+christian+interpretation+onan&pg=PT72|title=God and the Gay Christian: The Biblical Case in Support of Same-Sex Relationships|___location=New York, NY|publisher=Doubleday Religious Publishing Group|page=72|isbn=9781601425171|oclc=869801284|access-date=2020-10-28|archive-date=2021-08-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815162649/https://books.google.com/books?id=bTS0AAAAQBAJ&q=traditional+christian+interpretation+onan&pg=PT72|url-status=live|quote=Most Christians today understand that masturbation was not the sin of Onan. What's more, many also recognize that masturbation is not inherently sinful.}}</ref> A number of scholars have pointed out that the sexual act described by this story is [[coitus interruptus]], not masturbation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Coogan|first=Michael|title=God and Sex. What the Bible Really Says|url=https://archive.org/details/godsexwhatbi00coog|url-access=registration|access-date=May 5, 2011|edition=1st|date=October 2010|publisher=Twelve. Hachette Book Group|___location=New York, Boston|isbn=978-0-446-54525-9|oclc=505927356|page=[https://archive.org/details/godsexwhatbi00coog/page/110 110]|quote=Although Onan gives his name to "onanism," usually a synonym for masturbation, Onan was not masturbating but practicing coitus interruptus.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic.com/tracts/birth-control |title=Birth Control | Catholic Answers |access-date=2015-01-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129130033/http://www.catholic.com/tracts/birth-control |archive-date=2016-11-29 }} (official Catholic tract [[nihil obstat|declared free from error by a book censor]] and [[imprimatur|approved by a bishop]].) Quote: "The Bible mentions at least one form of contraception specifically and condemns it. Coitus interruptus, was used by Onan to avoid fulfilling his duty according to the ancient Jewish law of fathering children for one's dead brother."</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ellens|first1=J. Harold|title=Sex in the Bible: a new consideration|access-date=2012-01-24|year=2006|publisher=Praeger Publishers|___location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=978-0-275-98767-1|oclc=65429579|page=48|chapter=6. Making Babies: Purposes of Sex|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IXVGBv2eEroC&q=onan+coitus+interruptus&pg=PA48|quote=He practiced coitus interruptus whenever he made love to Tamar.|archive-date=2021-08-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815161058/https://books.google.com/books?id=IXVGBv2eEroC&q=onan+coitus+interruptus&pg=PA48|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Confirmed by The Web Bible Encyclopedia at http://www.christiananswers.net/dictionary/onan.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131202617/http://www.christiananswers.net/dictionary/onan.html |date=2012-01-31 }} quote: "Some have mistakenly assumed that Onan's sin was masturbation. However, it seems clear that this is not the case. Onan was prematurely withdrawing from sexual intercourse with his new wife, Tamar. This is a form of birth control still practiced today (''coitus interruptus'')."</ref><ref>Church Father [[Epiphanius of Salamis]] agrees, according to {{cite book|last1=Riddle|first1=John M.|title=Contraception and abortion from the ancient world to the Renaissance|access-date=2012-01-24|year=1992|publisher=Harvard University Press|___location=Cambridge, Mass.|isbn=978-0-674-16875-6|oclc=24428750|page=4|chapter=1. Population and Sex|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1vS85LtlsnIC&q=onan+coitus+interruptus&pg=PA4|quote=Epiphanius (fourth century) construed the sin of Onan as coitus interruptus.<sup>14</sup>|archive-date=2021-08-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815161058/https://books.google.com/books?id=1vS85LtlsnIC&q=onan+coitus+interruptus&pg=PA4|url-status=live}}</ref> Some go further and argue that Onan's death was solely due to his refusal to fulfill the obligation of [[levirate marriage]], rather than any sexual sin.<ref name="Coogen">{{Cite book |title=The new Oxford annotated Bible : New Revised Standard version with the Apocrypha |date=2018 |editor-first=Michael David |editor-last=Coogan|editor-first2=Marc Zvi |editor-last2=Brettler|editor-first3=Carol A. |editor-last3=Newsom|editor-first4=Pheme |editor-last4=Perkins |isbn=978-0-19-027609-6 |edition=Fully revised fifth |___location=New York, New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|oclc=1006596851 |quote=Onan's death is attributed to his refusal to perform this duty of impregnating Er's widow, Tamar, probably by coitus interruptus (rather than "onanism," masturbation).}}</ref> Others argue that Onan's punishment was both for his refusal to fulfill his obligations and because of his perverse sexual act.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawler |first1=Ronald David |last2=Boyle |first2=Joseph M. |last3=May |first3=William E. |title=Catholic sexual ethics : a summary, explanation & defense |date=1998 |publisher=Huntington, Ind. : Our Sunday Visitor |isbn=978-0-87973-952-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/catholicsexualet00lawl/page/38/mode/2up}}</ref> For example, James Nelson argues that Onan's act was condemned due to the firm "procreative" accent of the Hebrew interpretation regarding sexuality, where survival of the tribe depends on abundant procreation. The story was written by a "prescientific mind" that considered the child to be contained in the sperm the same way a plant is contained in its seed.<ref name="Nelson2"/>{{sfn|Gold|2001|p=195}} Onan's offense was therefore the deliberate destruction of human life.<ref name="Nelson2">{{cite book|last1=Nelson|first1=James|year=2003|chapter=Homosexuality and the Church|chapter-url=https://www.religion-online.org/article/homosexuality-and-the-church/|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9RYs-Z6AdpQC&q=traditional+christian+interpretation+onan&pg=PA884|editor1-last=Laderman|editor1-first=Gary|editor2-last=León|editor2-first=Luis D.|title=Religion and American Cultures: An Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and Popular Expressions|volume=1|___location=Santa Barbara, CA|publisher=ABC-Clio|page=884|isbn=9781576072387|oclc=773527161|access-date=2020-10-28|archive-date=2021-08-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815162650/https://books.google.com/books?id=9RYs-Z6AdpQC&q=traditional+christian+interpretation+onan&pg=PA884|url-status=live}}</ref>
Leviticus 15:16–17 says that a man who has an emission of semen should wash and be ceremonially unclean until evening. Verse 18 goes on to say that if a man and woman have intercourse, the same cleanliness rules apply. Ilona N. Rashkow states that Leviticus 15:16 "refers to the emission rather than its circumstances."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nemesnyik Rashkow|first1=Ilona|year=2000|title=Taboo Or Not Taboo: Sexuality and Family in the Hebrew Bible|chapter=Sin and Sex, Sex and Sin: The Hebrew Bible and Human Sexuality|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmeBybf8-JgC&q=leviticus+masturbation&pg=PA16|___location=Minneapolis, MN|publisher=Fortress Press|page=16|isbn=9781451409871|quote=Since it is questionable whether masturbation is considered a category of "negative" sexual activity in the Hebrew Bible, I shall not discuss masturbation. (The sin of Onan [Genesis 38] is not necessarily that of masturbation; otherwise, oblique references to seminal emission, such as "a man, when an emission of semen comes out of him" [Lev 15:16], refer to the emission rather than its circumstances. Female masturbation is never mentioned in the Hebrew Bible.)|oclc=42603147|access-date=2020-10-28|archive-date=2021-08-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815162647/https://books.google.com/books?id=hmeBybf8-JgC&q=leviticus+masturbation&pg=PA16|url-status=live}}</ref> According to James R. Johnson, by bringing up intercourse separately, the passage implies that the emission of semen in verses 16 and 17 occurred for the man individually. The passage may be referring to a nocturnal emission, or wet dream, rather than masturbation, but the passage is not specific.<ref name="jonesandjones"/> In contrast, Deuteronomy 23:9–11 explicitly specifies nocturnal emission.<ref name="Dedek">{{cite book |last1=Dedek |first1=John F. |title=Contemporary sexual morality |date=1971 |publisher=New York, Sheed and Ward |isbn=978-0-8362-1159-7 |pages=49–51 |url=https://archive.org/details/contemporarysexu0000dede/page/48/mode/2up}}</ref> Johnson thus views this passage as suggesting that masturbation is a purely ceremonial cleanliness issue, and not as a matter of morality. Johnson also notes that the passage puts no more disapproval on the solitary experience than it does on intercourse.<ref name="jonesandjones">{{cite book|last1=Jones|first1=Stanton|last2=Jones|first2=Brenna|year=2014|chapter=Chapter 13: Developing Moral Discernment About Masturbation and Petting|title=How and When to Tell Your Kids About Sex: A Lifelong Approach to Shaping Your Child's Sexual Character|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=exv0AgAAQBAJ&q=Johnson+suggests+that+this+Leviticus+passage+is+significant+for+treating+a+solitary+sexual+experience,+whether+wet+dream+or+masturbation,+as+a+purely&pg=PT253|___location=Colorado Springs, CO|publisher=NavPress, Tyndale House|page=253|isbn=9781612912301|quote=1. We are aware of only one argument that attempts to draw directly from the Scripture to establish a basis for the acceptance of masturbation, found in J. Johnson, "Toward a Biblical Approach to Masturbation, Journal of Psychology and Theology 10 (1982): 137–146. Johnson suggest that Leviticus 15:16–18 should set the tone for our dealing with masturbation. Verses 16 and 17 say that a man who has an emission of semen should wash and be ceremonially unclean until evening. Verse 18 goes on to say that if a man and woman have intercourse, the same cleanliness rules apply. By bringing up intercourse separately, the passage surely does imply that the emission of semen in verses 16 and 17 occurred for the man individually. The passage may be referring to a nocturnal emission, or wet dream, rather than masturbation, but the passage is not specific. Johnson suggests that this Leviticus passage is significant for treating a solitary sexual experience, whether wet dream or masturbation, as a purely ceremonial cleanliness issue and not as a matter of morality. The passage also puts no more disapproval on the solitary experience than it does on intercourse. Since Christians today commonly view the Old Testament ceremonial law as no longer valid, this author suggests that masturbation is not in itself a moral concern from a biblical perspective and is no longer a ceremonial concern either.|oclc=104623265|access-date=2020-10-28|archive-date=2021-08-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815162645/https://books.google.com/books?id=exv0AgAAQBAJ&q=Johnson+suggests+that+this+Leviticus+passage+is+significant+for+treating+a+solitary+sexual+experience,+whether+wet+dream+or+masturbation,+as+a+purely&pg=PT253|url-status=live}}</ref>
Matthew 5:29–30, Matt. 18:6–9, and Mark 9:42–48 state that, if they cause one to sin, one should tear out one's eye and cut off one's hand or foot. Will Deming states "The sinning by eye, hand, and foot may come from a tradition of formulaic warnings against lustful gazing (by the eye), masturbation (by hand), and adultery (by 'foot', the Hebrew euphemism for genitalia)," referencing the [[Niddah (Talmud)|Niddah]], specifically ''m. Nid.'' 2.1 and ''b. Nid.'' 13b.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Deming |first1=Will |title=Mark 9. 42–10. 12, Matthew 5. 27–32, and B. Nid . 13b: A First Century Discussion of Male Sexuality |journal=New Testament Studies |date=January 1990 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=130–141 |doi=10.1017/S0028688500010900 |s2cid=170786561 |url=https://pilotscholars.up.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=the_facpubs}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Lin|first1=Yii-Jan|editor1-last=O'Brien|editor1-first=Julia M.|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Gender Studies|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0199836994|chapter=New Testament|page=465}}</ref> In addition to the eye, Deming argues that "the hand plays a major role in lust as well through masturbation".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Osborne|first1=Grant R.|editor1-last=Arnold|editor1-first=Clinton E.|title=Matthew: Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament|date=2010|publisher=Zondervan|isbn=978-0310323709|page=196}}</ref> William Loader links this to the story of [[Origen]], where perhaps Origen read "foot" and "hand" as euphemisms for penis and castrated himself. Loader views attaching special meanings to the body parts in these passages as over-interpretation, as these passages are mainly [[hyperbole]].<ref name="Loader">{{cite book|last1=Loader|first1=William|editor1-last=Thatcher|editor1-first=Adrian|chapter=Marriage and Sexual Relations in the New Testament World|title=The Oxford Handbook of Theology, Sexuality, and Gender|date=2014|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0191641091|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199664153.013.005|pages=189–205}}</ref>
1 Thessalonians 4:3–4 reads: “What God wants is for you all to be holy. He wants you to keep away from fornication [porneia], and each of you to know how to use the body that belongs to him in a way that is holy and honorable, not giving way to selfish lust like the pagans who do not know God.”<ref name="Dedek"/> The Greek word porneia (πορνεία) is used in other New Testament passages such as Galatians 5:19–23 and has a general meaning of sexual immorality or unchastity.<ref>{{cite web |title=G4202 – porneia – Strong's Greek Lexicon (kjv) |url=https://www.blueletterbible.org/lexicon/g4202/kjv/tr/0-1/ |website=Blue Letter Bible |language=en}}</ref><ref name=Harvey2>{{cite book |last1=Harvey |first1=John Francis |title=Homosexuality & the Catholic Church : clear answers to difficult questions |date=2007 |publisher=West Chester, Penn. : Ascension Press |isbn=978-1-932927-62-7 |page=37 |url=https://archive.org/details/homosexualitycat0000harv/page/36/mode/2up}}</ref> More generally, Paul refers to purity and contamination in 2 Corinthians 7:1.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1080/20508549.1993.11878200?icid=int.sj-full-text.similar-articles.7&|title=The Pastoral Problem of Masturbation|first=John F.|last=Harvey|date=May 1, 1993|journal=The Linacre Quarterly|volume=60|issue=2|pages=25–50|via=Sage Journals|doi=10.1080/20508549.1993.11878200|issn=0024-3639|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Some commentators view the word porneia as including masturbation,<ref name="tjwray"/> and see these passages as implicitly confirming the immorality of masturbation.<ref name="Dedek"/> Others disagree,<ref name="tjwray"/> holding that this passage simply condemns the pagans' then-common sexual licentiousness and promiscuity, and has no relevance to masturbation.<ref name="Dedek"/>
Romans 1:24 and 1 Corinthians 6:10 are sometimes held to refer to masturbation, but Dedek argues that they refer to sodomy and pederasty respectively.<ref name="Dedek"/>
1 Corinthians 7:3–5 has been held by some to allow masturbation in the context of marriage. Masturbation should not necessarily be a normal circumstance, but if for example sexual tension becomes unmanageable due to extended separation, Johnson states "masturbation would not counteract the divine purpose" with the consent of one's spouse.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=James R. |title=Toward a Biblical Approach to Masturbation |journal=Journal of Psychology and Theology |date=June 1982 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=137–146 |doi=10.1177/009164718201000204}}</ref>
=== Christianity ===
{{main|Christian views on masturbation}}
Christian denominations have different views on masturbation. Today, Roman Catholic (including Eastern Catholic), Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and some [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Christians consider masturbation to be a sin. Many Protestant churches in Northern and Western Europe and some Protestant churches in Northern America and in Australia/New Zealand see masturbation as not a sin.
According to Björn Krondorfer, "Auto-erotic sex became conceivable as a distinct entity among sexual sins only when the autonomous self emerged."<ref name="Krondorfer 2009">{{cite book|last=Krondorfer|first=Björn|title=Men and Masculinities in Christianity and Judaism: A Critical Reader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWyq9N8UwzEC&q=masturbation+john+knox&pg=PA365|access-date=29 April 2018|date=2009|publisher=Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd|isbn=9780334041917|archive-date=16 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116044216/https://books.google.com/books?id=GWyq9N8UwzEC&q=masturbation+john+knox&pg=PA365|url-status=live}}</ref> He goes on to cite Laqueur, "Only after the Freudian revolution...did a cultural shift occur. Masturbation was now valued as an adult, non-pathological, pleasurable activity. 'Beginning in the 1950s, picking up energy with the feminism of the 1960s and early 1970s, with the subsequent sex wars, and with the worldwide gay movement of the last quarter of the century, it would become an arena of sexual politics and for art across a wide spectrum of society...Due to this cultural change across the spectrum, even theological reassessments of masturbation as a positive sexual practice were possible – though, admittedly, rare."<ref name="Krondorfer 2009"/>
=== Islam ===
{{main|Islam and masturbation}}
In [[Islam]], [[masturbation]] ({{langx|ar|استمناء|istimnā’}}) is forbidden or [[makruh]] (discouraged) according to the majority of scholars' opinions. However, a minority viewpoint within some [[Islamic schools and branches|Islamic schools of thought]] permits masturbation as an alternative to ''[[zina]]'' (fornication), or if one is unable to [[Marriage in Islam|marry]].<ref>The Lawful And The Prohibited In Islam, Yusuf Al-Qardawi – 1997</ref><ref>The New Arab Man: Emergent Masculinities, Technologies, and Islam in the Middle East, p. 168, Marcia C. Inhorn – 2012</ref> Bathing (''[[ghusl]]'') is compulsory after any kind of seminal discharge whether through [[sexual intercourse]], [[masturbation]], or [[nocturnal emissions]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1187?_hi=0&_pos=4207|title=Janabah - Oxford Islamic Studies Online|website=oxfordislamicstudies.com|language=en|access-date=2018-07-24|archive-date=2018-07-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724033026/http://oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1187?_hi=0&_pos=4207|url-status=dead}}</ref>
===
{{main|Judaism and masturbation}}
[[Maimonides]] stated that the [[Tanakh]] does not explicitly prohibit masturbation.<ref name=myjewishlearning/> On the matter of masturbation, the biblical story of [[Onan]] is traditionally interpreted by Jews to be about the emitting sperm outside of the vagina and condemnation thereof,<ref name=jewfaq/> applying this story to masturbation,<ref name=jewfaq/> although the Tanakh does not explicitly state that Onan was masturbating.<ref name=jewfaq>[http://www.jewfaq.org/sex.htm Judaism 101: Kosher Sex] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120114220/http://www.jewfaq.org/sex.htm |date=2019-11-20 }} Jewish law clearly prohibits male masturbation. This law is derived from the story of Onan (Gen. 38:8–10), who practiced coitus interruptus as a means of birth control to avoid fathering a child for his deceased brother. God killed Onan for this sin. Although Onan's act was not truly masturbation, Jewish law takes a very broad view of the acts prohibited by this passage, and forbids any act of ha-sh'cha'tat zerah (destruction of the seed), that is, ejaculation outside of the vagina. In fact, the prohibition is so strict that one passage in the Talmud states, "in the case of a man, the hand that reaches below the navel should be chopped off." (Niddah 13a). The issue is somewhat less clear for women. Obviously, spilling the seed is not going to happen in female masturbation, and there is no explicit Torah prohibition against female masturbation. Nevertheless, Judaism generally frowns upon female masturbation as "impure thoughts."</ref> By virtue of Onan, traditional Judaism condemns [male] masturbation.<ref name=myjewishlearning>Maimonides, ''Commentary to the Mishnah, Sanhedrin'' 7:4, apud {{cite book|last1=Dorff|first1=Elliot N.|author-link1=Elliot N. Dorff|year=2003|orig-year=1998|chapter=Chapter Five. Preventing Pregnancy|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lp9zk0IGZpgC&q=maimonides+masturbation&pg=PA117|title=Matters of life and death : a Jewish approach to modern medical ethics|edition=First paperback|___location=Philadelphia, PA|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|page=[https://archive.org/details/mattersoflifedea0000dorf/page/117 117]|isbn=978-0827607682|oclc=80557192|quote=Jews historically shared the abhorrence of male masturbation that characterized other societies.<sup>2</sup> Interestingly, although the prohibition was not debated, legal writers had difficulty locating a biblical based for it, and no less an authority than Maimonides claimed that it could not be punishable by the court because there was not an explicit negative commandment forbidding it.<sup>3</sup>|url=https://archive.org/details/mattersoflifedea0000dorf/page/117}}</ref>
{{Bibleverse|Leviticus|15:16–18|HE}} states that any male who emits semen is considered [[Tumah and taharah|ritually impure]] - whether the emission came through masturbation, [[nocturnal emission]], or sex between married heterosexual partners.<ref name="jonesandjones"/><ref>{{cite book | last=Milgrom | first=Jacob | author-link=Jacob Milgrom | title=Leviticus 17:22 | publisher=Yale University Press | publication-place=New Haven London | year=2000 | orig-year=1991 | isbn=978-0300140569 | pages=1567–1568}} apud {{cite web |last=Gagnon |first=Robert A.J. |author-link=Robert A. J. Gagnon |date=2005-02-07 |title=A critique of Jacob Milgrom's views on Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13 |url=http://www.robgagnon.net/articles/homoMilgrom.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924091654/http://www.robgagnon.net/articles/homoMilgrom.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2015-06-25 |website=www.robgagnon.net |page=6 |___location=Pittsburgh|quote=the ejaculation of semen results in only a one-day impurity that requires laundering and ablutions (15:16-18), regardless of whether the act takes place during (legitimate) intercourse or by the self, deliberately (masturbation) or accidentally (nocturnal emission).}}</ref> The traditional rabbinical interpretation of Leviticus 15 was that it applies to ''all'' sperm flows, including sperm flows due to masturbation. Other than this ritual impurity, no consequences or punishments are specified.
Even among Jewish scholars and among rabbis, it is widely disputed whether the prohibition of masturbation is a biblical prohibition or a rabbinical prohibition, since it is never explicitly mentioned in the [[Torah]].<ref name="m204">{{Bulleted list|{{cite book | last1=Steinberg | first1=Avraham | author-link=Avraham Steinberg | last2=Rosner | first2=Fred | author-link2=Fred Rosner | title=Encyclopedia of Jewish Medical Ethics: A Compilation of Jewish Medical Law on All Topics of Medical Interest ... | publisher=Feldheim Publishers | year=2003 | isbn=978-1-58330-592-8 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aaklGZAID08C&pg=PA912 | access-date=2024-07-26 | page=912 | chapter=Semen | quote=Some Rabbis write that the ''improper emission of semen (hashchatat zera)'' (literally: destruction of seed) is a Biblical offense. Other Rabbis write that the prohibition is part of the tradition given to ''Moses at Sinai''. Yet other Rabbis consider it to be a ''rabbinic'' prohibition. Some Rabbis write that the question as to whether the prohibition is Biblical or rabbinic is disputed already among the early rabbinic decisors. Since the prohibition of destroying semen is not explicitly stated in the Torah, there is disagreement among the rabbinic decisors as to the ''Biblical source'' for this prohibition:}}|{{cite book | last=Gold | first=Michael | chapter=Raising sexually responsible children | title=Does God Belong in the Bedroom? | publisher=Varda Books | year=2001 | isbn=978-1-59045-127-4 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fmBcVnpXQIkC&pg=PA195 | access-date=2024-07-26 | page=195 | quote=Despite the many rabbinic passages about the evil of spilling seed in vain, it is difficult to find a single source for the prohibition in the Torah. The story of Onan (Gen. 38), often cited as the source, involves the more serious biblical sin of evading levirate marriage obligations. Rabbi David Feldman brings a number of possible sources for the law.{{sup|17}} The difficulty of pinpointing a biblical source seems to indicate that this is a rabbinic prohibition based on the rabbis' own sense of propriety.}}|{{cite book | last=Englander | first=Yakir | chapter=The Other Voice. The Body and Sexuality According to the 'Nir'eh Likh'orah' | title=The Male Body in Ultra-Orthodox Jewish Theology | publisher=Pickwick Publications | year=2021 | isbn=978-1-7252-8729-7 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1D5IEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA163 | access-date=2024-07-26 | page=163 | quote=The NL himself thinks about this question and even poses it in his blog. His answer is that his position is not, in fact, an innovation. Many other ''Musar'' rabbis read the classical Jewish texts in the same way, and have felt that the traditional reading on the subject of male masturbation was wrong, but did not share these thoughts in public, afraid of the effect this would have on the traditional Ultra-Orthodox way of life.}}|{{cite book | chapter=Chapter 8. Body and Sexuality Constructs among Youth of the Ultra-Orthodox Jewish Community | last1=Zalcberg|first1=Sara|last2=Zalcberg|first2=Sima|editor-last1=Nynäs | editor-first1=Peter | editor-last2=Yip | editor-first2=Andrew Kam-Tuck | title=Religion, Gender and Sexuality in Everyday Life | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-317-06726-9 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q-rsCwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PT161 | access-date=2024-07-26 | page=unpaginated | quote=But while the ''halakha'' permits sexual activity, it also includes many prohibitions of particular types of such activity, particularly sexual intercourse when the woman is menstruating, homosexual activity, and male masturbation.{{sup|2}} The first two prohibitions are directly stated in the Pentateuch (Leviticus 18:22; 20:3), while the third is considered by ''halakhic'' authorities to be based on a biblical verse (Deuteronomy 23:10), as discussed in the Talmud (Ketubot 46a, Avoda Zara 20b), and is considered very serious. }}}}</ref> Many Ultra-Orthodox rabbis are afraid to publicly discuss their disagreement with the traditional interpretation about it being prohibited by the Bible.{{sfn|Englander|2021|p=163}}
== Indian and Iranian religions ==
=== Hinduism ===
Seeking bodily pleasure is only considered condemned for those who dedicate themselves to chastity. There are no references in Hindu religious texts to suggest that masturbation itself desecrates sexual purity. For those who are dedicated to chastity, this sin is absolutely minor, and can be absolved either by taking a bath, or by worshipping the Sun, or by saying three prayers.<ref name="Graham Hall 2012 p. 177">{{cite book | first1=Vijayasarathi | last1=Ramanathan | first2=Patricia | last2=Weerakoon |author-link2=Patricia Weerakoon | editor-last=Graham | editor-first=Cynthia A. | editor-last2=Hall | editor-first2=Kathryn | title=The Cultural Context of Sexual Pleasure and Problems: Psychotherapy with Diverse Clients | publisher=Routledge | series=Online access with subscription: Proquest Ebook Central | year=2012 | isbn=978-0-415-99845-1 | chapter=Sexuality in India: Ancient Beliefs, Present Day Problems, and Future Approaches to Management | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RY4ZGz0LTl4C&pg=PA177 | access-date=21 January 2022 | page=177}}</ref><ref name="Bullough pp. 17–33">{{cite journal |last=Bullough |first=Vern L. |date=23 January 2003 |title=Masturbation |journal=Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality |publisher=Informa UK Limited |volume=14 |issue=2–3 |pages=17–33 |doi=10.1300/j056v14n02_03 |issn=0890-7064 |s2cid=216147700}} {{Subscription required}}</ref><ref name="Cornog 2003 p.">{{cite book |last=Cornog |first=Martha |title=The Big Book of Masturbation: From Angst to Zeal |title-link=The Big Book of Masturbation: From Angst to Zeal |publisher=Down There Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-940208-29-2 |pages=167, 181–183 |quote=I could not locate any Vedic texts or commentary referring to masturbation}}</ref>
=== Buddhism ===
{{see also|Buddhist ethics|karma|Taṇhā|Vinaya}}
The most used formulation of Buddhist ethics are the [[Five Precepts]]. These precepts take the form of voluntary personal undertakings,<ref name=HIGG/> not divine mandate or instruction. The third precept is "to refrain from committing sexual misconduct".<ref name=HIGG>{{cite web | last=Higgins | first=Winton | title=BuddhaNet Magazine Article: Buddhist Sexual Ethics | website=buddhanet.net | date=6 December 2006 | url=http://www.buddhanet.net/winton_s.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070121042026/http://www.buddhanet.net/winton_s.htm | archive-date=21 January 2007 | url-status=dead | access-date=15 April 2025}}</ref> However, different [[schools of Buddhism]] have differing interpretations of what constitutes sexual misconduct.
Buddhism was advanced by [[Gautama Buddha]] as a method by which human beings could end [[dukkha]] (suffering) and escape [[samsara]] (cyclic existence). Normally this entails practicing [[Buddhist meditation|meditation]] and following the [[Four Noble Truths]] and the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] as a way to subdue the passions which, along with the [[skandha]]s, cause suffering and rebirth. Masturbation ([[Pali]]: ''sukkavissaṭṭhi'') is accordingly seen as problematic for a person who wishes to attain liberation. According to a lecture by Lama Thubten Zopa Rinpoche, it is important to abstain from "sexual intercourse, including masturbation, any action that brings an orgasm and so forth, because this results in a rebirth."<ref name=thubten>{{cite web|title=Kopan Course No. 03 & No. 04 (1972–73): Appendix One: The Eight Mahayana Precepts|author=Lama Thubten Zopa Rinpoche|date=3 May 2015|url=http://www.lamayeshe.com/index.php?sect=article&id=236&chid=381|access-date=January 9, 2017|archive-date=June 1, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601073541/http://lamayeshe.com/index.php?sect=article&id=236&chid=381|url-status=live}}</ref> He clarifies: "Generally, the action that is the opposite of the precept brings the opposite negative result, takes us further from enlightenment, and keeps us longer in samsara."<ref name=thubten />
Shravasti Dhammika, a [[bhikkhu|Theravadin monk]], cites the ''[[Vinaya Pitaka]]'' in his online "Guide to Buddhism A to Z", and states the following:
{{blockquote|Masturbation (''sukkavissaṭṭhi'') is the act of stimulating one's own sexual organs (''sambādha'') to the stage of orgasm (''adhikavega''). In the ''[[Kama Sutra|Kāma Sūtra]]'' male masturbation is called "seizing the lion" (''siṃhākāranta''). Some people during the Buddha's time believed that masturbation could have a therapeutic effect on the mind and the body (Vin. III, 109), although the Buddha disagreed with this. According to the Vinaya, it is an offence of some seriousness for monks or nuns to masturbate (Vin. III, 111) although the Buddha gave no guidance on this matter to lay people. However, Buddhism could agree with contemporary medical opinion that masturbation is a normal expression of the sexual drive and is physically and psychologically harmless, as long as it does not become a preoccupation or a substitute for ordinary sexual relations. Guilt and self-disgust about masturbating is certainly more harmful than masturbation itself.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Shravasti Dhammika|author-link1=Shravasti Dhammika|title=Masturbation|url=http://www.buddhisma2z.com/content.php?id=249|website=Guide to Buddhism A-Z|publisher=Bhante Dhammika|access-date=25 June 2015|archive-date=26 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626140559/http://www.buddhisma2z.com/content.php?id=249|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
His opinions regarding non-Buddhists notwithstanding, the Buddha did encourage his serious disciples to limit their sexual behaviour or to embrace celibacy.<ref>{{cite web|author1=M. O' C Walsh|title=Buddhism and Sex|url=http://www.buddhisma2z.com/content.php?id=249|website=Guide to Buddhism A–Z|publisher=Bhante Dhammika|date=1986|access-date=9 January 2017|archive-date=28 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228215821/http://buddhisma2z.com/content.php?id=249|url-status=live}}</ref> Indeed, emphasis on [[chastity]] in Buddhism is strong for [[bhikkhu]]s and [[bhikkhuni]]s (renunciates), who vow to follow the rules of the [[Vinaya]]. Not only are monastics [[celibacy|celibate]], but they also take more and stricter vows in order to conquer their desires. In the Theravadin tradition, masturbation is also stressed as being harmful for [[Upāsaka and Upāsikā|upāsakas and upāsikās]] (lay devotees) who practice the Eight Precepts on [[Uposatha]] days, leading a more ascetic lifestyle that does not allow for masturbation. Indeed, public masturbation is explicitly characterised as sexual misconduct in the [[mahāyāna]] ''Upāsakaśīla sūtra'':<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sutra of the Upasaka Precepts, fascicle 6, 優婆塞戒經 |url=https://www.sutrasmantras.info/sutra33f.html |access-date=2024-10-11 |website=www.sutrasmantras.info}}</ref>
{{blockquote|"If one has sex with oneself or someone by the road, beside a pagoda or temple, or in an assembly, one is guilty of the sin of sexual misconduct."<ref>Sūtra of the Upāsaka Precepts, fascicle 6, Chapter 24a</ref>}}
Nevertheless, some contemporary writers on Buddhism suggest that masturbation is essentially harmless for a layperson.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Sensitive Topic|website=Daily Buddhism|author1=Brian Schell|date=January 8, 2009|access-date=January 9, 2017|url=http://www.dailybuddhism.com/archives/1081|archive-date=January 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112115503/http://www.dailybuddhism.com/archives/1081|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|website=Beliefnet.com|title=Masturbation: Does Your Religion Give It a Thumbs Up or Thumbs Down?|url=http://www.beliefnet.com/Love-Family/2001/07/Masturbation-Does-Your-Religion-Give-It-A-Thumbs-Up-Or-Thumbs-Down.aspx|access-date=January 9, 2017|archive-date=December 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209163223/http://www.beliefnet.com/love-family/2001/07/masturbation-does-your-religion-give-it-a-thumbs-up-or-thumbs-down.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>
However, many Buddhist practitioners disagree on whether masturbation constitutes sexual misconduct or not, where [[Gampopa]] (1079-1153) believed that anal or oral sexes with any genders as improper sexual behavior, and [[Longchenpa]] (1308–1363) included masturbation along with it as sexual misconduct. [[Je Tsongkhapa]] (1357–1419) however, accepts masturbation. On the other hand, Dalai Lama [[Tenzin Gyatso]] reportedly believes that masturbation does constitute sexual misconduct.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chaibuntan |first=Prakob |title=Sexual Misconduct: The Poisonous Social |url=https://so18.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/gjwrc_2521/issue/download/8/3#page=47 |journal=Global Interactive Journal of World Religions and Cultures |volume=2 |pages=40–53}}</ref>
===
The act of masturbation is known as '''Shoeythra Gunaah''', or '''Shoithra-gunah''', which can also be used to refer to [[onanism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://zoroastriansnet.files.wordpress.com/2013/02/therationaleofpatet.pdf|title=The Rationale of PATET|author=Hutokhsh|access-date=2019-12-18|archive-date=2019-12-18|date=2009-12-01|orig-date=2008-02-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218212220/https://zoroastriansnet.files.wordpress.com/2013/02/therationaleofpatet.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Zoroastrian holy book ''[[Avesta]]'', with its stress on physical cleanliness, lists voluntary masturbation among the unpardonable sins that one can commit. This view was supported by [[James R. Russell]].<ref name="Russell1987">{{cite book|author=James R. Russell|title=Zoroastrianism in Armenia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xhJIAAAAMAAJ|year=1987|publisher=Harvard University, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations|isbn=978-0-674-96850-9|access-date=2019-12-18|archive-date=2021-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416043200/https://books.google.com/books?id=xhJIAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The Verses 26-28 of Fargard VIII, Section V of the ''[[Vendidad]]'' state
{{blockquote|O Maker of the material world, thou Holy One! If a man involuntarily emits his seed, what is the penalty that he shall pay?
Ahura Mazda answered: 'Eight hundred stripes with the ''Aspahê-astra'', eight hundred stripes with the ''Sraoshô-karana''.'
O Maker of the material world, thou Holy One! If a man voluntarily emits his seed, what is the penalty for it? What is the atonement for it? What is the cleansing from it?
Ahura Mazda answered: 'For that deed there is nothing that can pay, nothing that can atone, nothing that can cleanse from it; it is a trespass for which there is no atonement, for ever and ever.'
When is it so?
'It is so, if the sinner be a professor of the law of Mazda, or one who has been taught in it. But if he be not a professor of the law of Mazda, nor one who has been taught in it, then this law of Mazda takes his sin from him, if he confesses it and resolves never to commit again such forbidden deeds.}}
The scholar Sorabji Edalji Dubash has also written:
{{quote|If a man resorts to the evil practice of masturbation to overcome his passion, his tissues, both muscular and nervous, become relaxed in tone. By the waste of muscular tissue he is hardly able to undergo the exertion required for the discharge of his daily duties. But it is the nervous tissue that suffers most, inasmuch as his memory fails, his intellect becomes dull, he becomes morose and peevish, and shuns the agreeable society of his friends and relatives, and consequently he becomes subject to melancholia. His mind soon becomes exhausted after slight application and its power of retaining impressions is lost. If he becomes subject to melancholia, he sometimes attempts to commit suicide. When we consider these evil effects following masturbation, we do not wonder why it is considered an inexpiable crime.<ref name="Dubash1906">{{cite book|last=Dubash|first=Sorabji Edalji|title=The Zoroastrian Sanitary Code, with Critical and Explanatory Notes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DZAcvgAACAAJ|series=K.R. Cama's prize essay|year=2016|orig-year=1906|publisher=Sanj Vartaman Printing Press|isbn=978-1-371-07827-0|access-date=2019-12-18|archive-date=2022-01-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116044238/https://books.google.com/books?id=DZAcvgAACAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
Masturbation is also considered a Drujih-i-Buji (evil associated with menstrual flow) which is caused by the menstrual discharge of a woman if proper precautions are not followed. Drujih (evil) is more smarter and stronger than human intelligence.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Zarathustri Soul & His Divine Plan |url=https://zoroastrianism.com/Tenets/soul33.html |access-date=12 October 2024}}</ref> Thus also enumerated in the Expiatory prayer of Dasturan Dastur Adarbad Mahrespand fall under Drujih-i-Buji. A right knowledge of Drujih-i-Buji and of the ill-effects is said to save young boys of the age of puberty from the fangs of masturbation.<ref name="Masani1917">{{cite book|last=Masani|first=Phiroze Shapurji|title=Zoroastrianism Ancient and Modern: Comprising a Review of Dr. Dhalla's Book of Zoroastrian Theology|url=https://archive.org/details/zoroastrianisman00masauoft|year=1917|publisher=Masani}}</ref>
In the story of Jamshid and Taxmoruw (Tahmuras) preserved in a Parsi [[rivayat]], [[Ahriman]] is shown to be a masturbator.<ref>''Les types du premier homme et du premier roi dans l'histoire légendaire des Iraniens'' Part I (1917) by Christensen, Arthur pps. 184–189.</ref>
Zoroastrian hell is also said to have sinners forced to defecate and masturbate continually.<ref name="Guiley2009">{{cite book|author=Rosemary Guiley|title=The Encyclopedia of Demons and Demonology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NHosWhaeWDQC&pg=PA112|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-3191-7|pages=112–|access-date=2019-12-18|archive-date=2022-01-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116044234/https://books.google.com/books?id=NHosWhaeWDQC&pg=PA112|url-status=live}}</ref>
== East Asian religions ==
===
Some teachers and practitioners of [[Traditional Chinese medicine]], Taoist [[Meditation#East Asian religions - Taoism|meditative]] and [[Chinese martial arts|martial arts]] say that masturbation can cause a lowered energy level in men. They say that ejaculation in this way reduces "origin [[qi]]" from [[dantian]], the energy center located in the lower abdomen. Some maintain that sex with a partner does not do this because the partners replenish each other's qi. Some practitioners therefore say that males should not practice martial arts for at least 48 hours after masturbation while others prescribe up to six months, because the loss of Origin Qi does not allow new qi to be [[Qigong|created]] for this kind of time.{{Citation needed|date=October 2016}}
Some Taoists strongly discouraged female masturbation. Women were encouraged to practice massaging techniques upon themselves, but were also instructed to avoid thinking sexual thoughts if experiencing a feeling of pleasure. Otherwise, the woman's "labia will open wide and the sexual secretions will flow." If this happened, the woman would lose part of her life force, and this could bring illness and shortened life.{{sfn|Wile|1992|p=59}}
=== Confucianism ===
Since the [[Song dynasty]], the framing of sexual [[asceticism]] as a moral imperative began to spread among intellectual elites due to the emergence of [[neo-Confucianism]]. The elite masculinity of ''[[junzi]]'' (the cultured man) emphasised intellectuals’ capability to assist the emperor to govern the country. Strict self-cultivation (''xiushen'') through obedience to the patriarchal family institution was then seen as a necessary means for budding intellectuals to transform themselves into eligible political elites. Excessive or deviant sexual desire, viewed as men's overindulgence in private affairs and disobedience to their masculine family/public obligations, was thus disparaged by dynastic rulers. This norm was also imposed on the emperors themselves. Masturbation raises an ethical crisis because it means that men waste their bodily essence for pleasure, harm their spirit and productivity, and thus disobey their obligation to carry on the family lineage and fail to practice filial piety.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Liang |first=Chenglin |date=2024-05-03 |title=Abstinence for the sake of modest success: a Chinese anti-masturbation group's path to individualisation |journal=Inter-Asia Cultural Studies |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=369–370 |doi=10.1080/14649373.2024.2336727|doi-access=free }}</ref>
==
[[Wicca]], like other religions, has adherents with a spectrum of views ranging from conservative to liberal. Wicca is generally undogmatic, and nothing in Wiccan philosophy prohibits masturbation. On the contrary, Wiccan ethics, summed up in the [[Wiccan Rede]] "An<!--NOT 'AND'--> it harm none, do as thou wilt", are interpreted by many as endorsing responsible sexual activity of all varieties. This is reinforced in the ''[[Charge of the Goddess]]'', a key piece of Wiccan literature, in which the Goddess says, "all acts of love and pleasure are my rituals".<ref>{{cite web | title =Alternative Sexuality | publisher =Tangled Moon Coven | date =2006-08-08 | url =http://www.tangledmoon.org/sexuality.htm | access-date =2006-12-30 | archive-date =2007-03-22 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070322031301/http://www.tangledmoon.org/sexuality.htm | url-status =live }}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Religion|Human sexuality}}
*[[Chastity]]
*[[Fornication]]
*[[Religion and sexuality]]
*[[Religious views on pornography]]
==References==
{{Reflist|35em}}
==Bibliography==
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* {{cite book | last=Numbers | first=Ronald L. | title=Sex, Science, and Salvation: The Sexual Advice of Ellen G. White and John Harvey Kellogg | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | year=2003 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AMCstgAACAAJ | access-date=29 July 2024 | page=}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Kwee|first1=Alex W.|first2=David C.|last2=Hoover|year=2008|title=Theologically-Informed Education about Masturbation: A Male Sexual Health Perspective|journal=Journal of Psychology and Theology|volume=36|issue=4|pages=258–269|issn=0091-6471|access-date=12 November 2011|url=http://www.alexkwee.com/uploads/kwee_hoover08.pdf|quote=The Bible presents no clear theological ethic on masturbation, leaving many young unmarried Christians with confusion and guilt around their sexuality.|doi=10.1177/009164710803600402|s2cid=142040707|archive-date=6 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206125456/http://www.alexkwee.com/uploads/kwee_hoover08.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|last1=Harvey|first1=John F.|title=The Pastoral Problem of Masturbation|url=https://couragerc.org/wp-content/uploads/Masturbation1.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222004708/https://couragerc.org/wp-content/uploads/Masturbation1.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2014-12-22|publisher=couragerc.org}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dobson |first1=James |author-link1=James Dobson |year=2012 |orig-year=1978 |title=Preparing for Adolescence: How to Survive the Coming Years of Change |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3LAlBQAAQBAJ&q=masturbation+mentioned+bible&pg=PT50 |edition=Ebook |___location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |publisher=Revell |page=50 |isbn=978-1-4412-2483-5 |quote=Still, the subject of masturbation is a very controversial one. Christian people have different opinions about how God views this act. Unfortunately, I can't speak directly for God on this subject, since His Holy Word, the Bible, is silent on this point. I will tell you what I believe although I certainly do not want to contradict what your parents or your pastor believe. It is my opinion that masturbation is not much of an issue with God. It's a normal part of adolescence, which involves no one else. It does not cause diseases, it does not produce babies, and Jesus did not mention it in the Bible. I'm not telling you to masturbate, and I hope you won't feel the need for it. But if you do, it is my opinion that you should not struggle with guilt over it. |access-date=2020-10-28 |archive-date=2021-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815162647/https://books.google.com/books?id=3LAlBQAAQBAJ&q=masturbation+mentioned+bible&pg=PT50 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dobson |first1=James C. |author-link1=James Dobson |year=2000 |title=Preparing for Adolescence: Growth Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BMJbmpHGNO4C&q=bible+%22nothing+about+masturbation%22 |___location=Delight, AR |publisher=Gospel Light |isbn=978-0-8307-2502-1 |quote=The Bible says nothing about masturbation, so we don't really know what God thinks about it. My opinion is that He doesn't make a big issue of it. It won't cause you to become crazy, as some people say. So I would encourage you not to struggle with guilt... |access-date=2016-09-25 |archive-date=2021-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815162648/https://books.google.com/books?id=BMJbmpHGNO4C&q=bible+%22nothing+about+masturbation%22 |url-status=live }}
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[[Category:Religious views on masturbation| ]]
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