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{{Short description|Oil extracted from seeds or from other parts of plants}}
{{Vegetable oils}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Redirect|Vegetable oil}}
{{Vegetable oils|image=Olive oil from Oneglia.jpg|caption=[[Olive oil]]}}
[[File:Peanut oil bottle.jpg|thumb|upright|A bottle of [[peanut oil]]]]
'''Vegetable oils''', or '''vegetable fats''', are [[oil]]s extracted from seeds or from other parts of [[edible plant]]s. Like [[animal fat]]s, vegetable fats are ''mixtures'' of [[triglyceride]]s.<ref name=Ullmann>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Alfred Thomas |title=Fats and Fatty Oils|encyclopedia=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|publisher=Wiley-VCH|place=Weinheim|year=2002|doi=10.1002/14356007.a10_173|isbn=3527306730}}</ref> [[Soybean oil]], [[grape seed oil]], and [[cocoa butter]] are examples of [[seed oil]]s, or fats from seeds. [[Olive oil]], [[palm oil]], and [[rice bran oil]] are examples of fats from other parts of plants. In common usage, vegetable ''oil'' may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Pearson Guide to the B.Sc. (Nursing) Entrance Examination|author=Parwez Saroj|date=September 2007|publisher=Pearson Education India|page=109|isbn=978-81-317-1338-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The International Cocoa Trade|author=Robin Dand|publisher=Woodhead Publishing|year=1999|page=169|isbn=1-85573-434-6}}</ref> Vegetable oils are usually edible.
 
==History ==
'''Vegetable fats and oils''' are substances derived from plants that are composed of [[triglycerides]]. Nominally, oils are liquid at [[room temperature]], and fats are solid; a dense brittle fat is called a [[wax]]. Although many different parts of plants may yield oil, <ref>Compare, for example, the [[Essential oil#Raw Materials|list of raw materials]] from which [[essential oil]]s are extracted.</ref> in actual commercial practice oil is extracted primarily from the [[seed]]s of oilseed plants.
 
=== In antiquity ===
The temperature-based distinction between oils and fats is imprecise, since the temperatures of rooms vary, and typically any one substance has a ''melting range'' instead of a single ''[[melting point]]''.
Olive oil has been a part of human culture for millennia.<ref name="haaretz">Ruth Schuster (December 17, 2014). "8,000-year old olive oil found in Galilee, earliest known in world", ''Haaretz''. Retrieved December 17, 2014.</ref> Archaeological evidence shows that olives were turned into olive oil by 6000 BC<ref name="haaretz" /> and 4500 BC in present-day [[Israel]].<ref>Ehud Galili ''et al.'', "Evidence for Earliest Olive-Oil Production in Submerged Settlements off the Carmel Coast, Israel", ''Journal of Archaeological Science'' '''24''':1141–1150 (1997)</ref> Pagnol, p. 19, says the 6th millennium in [[Tell es-Sultan|Jericho]], but cites no source.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} In ancient Egypt, plant oils including cedar oil, cypress oil, and olive oil were used during the [[mummification]] process.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dunham |first=Will |date=2023-02-01 |title=Ancient Egypt's mummification ingredients came from far-flung locales |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/science/ancient-egypts-mummification-ingredients-came-far-flung-locales-2023-02-01/ |access-date=2023-07-18}}</ref>
 
Vegetable oils have been used as lighting fuel for lamps, cooking, medicine and lubrication.{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}} [[Palm oil]] has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, and European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe. It became highly sought-after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain's [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |year=2000 |title=British Colonial Policies and the Oil Palm Industry in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria, 1900–1960. |url=http://www.africa.kyoto-u.ac.jp/kiroku/asm_normal/abstracts/pdf/21-1/19-33.pdf |url-status=live |journal=African Study Monographs |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=19–33 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116234451/http://www.africa.kyoto-u.ac.jp/kiroku/asm_normal/abstracts/pdf/21-1/19-33.pdf |archive-date=16 January 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
[[Triglyceride]] vegetable fats and oils include not only edible, but also inedible vegetable fats and oils such as [[linseed oil]], [[tung oil]], and [[castor oil]], used in lubricants, paints, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and other industrial purposes. Although thought of as [[ester]]s of [[glycerin]] and a varying blend of [[fatty acid]]s, in fact these oils contain free fatty acids and [[diglyceride]]s as well.
 
=== Modern history ===
== Uses of triglyceride vegetable oil ==
Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers' (now [[Unilever]]) "Sunlight", and
Oils extracted from plants have been used in many cultures, since ancient time. As an example, in a 4,000 year old "kitchen" unearthed in [[Indiana]]'s [[Charlestown State Park]], archaeologist Bob McCullough of [[Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne|IPFW]] found evidence that natives used large slabs of rock to crush [[hickory nut]]s, then boiled them in water to extract the oil. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/001708.html|title=4,000-year-old 'kitchen' unearthed in Indiana|accessdate=2006-07-31}}</ref>
B. J. Johnson Company's (now [[Colgate-Palmolive]]) "Palmolive,"<ref name=":1">{{cite web |last=Bellis |first=Mary |title=The History of Soaps and Detergents |url=http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blsoap.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714204434/http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blsoap.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 14, 2012 |website=[[About.com]] |quote=In 1864, Caleb Johnson founded a soap company called B.J. Johnson Soap Co., in Milwaukee. In 1898, this company introduced a soap made of palm and olive oils called Palmolive.}}</ref> and by around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries.<ref name=":2">''Commercial Agriculture, the Slave Trade and Slavery in Atlantic Africa'' {{ISBN|978-1-847-01075-9}} p. 22</ref>
 
In 1780, [[Carl Wilhelm Scheele]] demonstrated that fats were derived from glycerol. Thirty years later, [[Michel Eugène Chevreul]] deduced that these fats were [[esters]] of fatty acids and glycerol. [[Wilhelm Normann]], a German chemist, introduced the [[hydrogenation]] of liquid fats in 1901, creating what later became known as [[trans fat]]s, leading to the development of the global production of [[margarine]] and [[vegetable shortening]].{{cn|date=October 2024}}
[[Triglycerides]] or [[Fatty acids]] play an important role in the life and death of cardiac cells because they are essential fuels for mechanical and electrical activities of the heart. <ref>{{cite web | title=External blockade...by polyunsaturated fatty acids | url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=43279&pageindex=1#page | format= | publisher=pubmed | accessdate=2007-01-18}} - see page 1 of this link</ref> <ref>{{cite web | title=Antiarrythmic effects of omega-3 fatty acids | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16919517&query_hl=87&itool=pubmed_DocSum | format= | publisher=pubmed | accessdate=2007-01-18}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web | title=Alpha-linolenic acid, cardiovascular disease and sudden death | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=17086218&query_hl=3&itool=pubmed_DocSum | format= | publisher=pubmed | accessdate=2007-01-18}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web | title=Omega-3 and health | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=17091903&query_hl=3&itool=pubmed_DocSum | format= | publisher=pubmed | accessdate=2007-01-18}}</ref>
 
In the United States, [[cottonseed oil]] was developed and marketed by [[Procter & Gamble]] as a creamed shortening – [[Crisco]] – as early as 1911.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Graham |first=Drew Ramsey, Tyler |date=2012-04-26 |title=How Vegetable Oils Replaced Animal Fats in the American Diet |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/04/how-vegetable-oils-replaced-animal-fats-in-the-american-diet/256155/ |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}</ref> [[Ginning mill]]s were happy to have someone haul away the cotton seeds. The extracted oil was refined and partially [[Hydrogenation|hydrogenated]] to give a solid at room temperature and thus mimic natural lard, and canned under nitrogen gas. Compared to the rendered lard Procter & Gamble was already selling to consumers, Crisco was cheaper, easier to stir into a recipe, and could be stored at room temperature for two years without turning rancid.{{cn|date=October 2024}}
=== Culinary uses ===
{{See also|Cooking oil}}
 
Soybeans are protein-rich, and the medium-viscosity oil rendered from them was high in polyunsaturates. [[Henry Ford]] established a soybean research laboratory, developed soybean plastics and a soy-based synthetic wool, and built a car "almost entirely" out of soybeans.<ref name=":3">{{cite web |title=Soybean Car |url=http://www.thehenryford.org/research/soybeancar.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120919062130/http://www.thehenryford.org/research/soybeancar.aspx |archive-date=2012-09-19 |access-date=2006-10-23 |work=Popular Research Topics |publisher=Benson Ford Research Center}}</ref> Roger Drackett had a successful new product with [[Windex]]. He invested heavily in soybean research, seeing it as a smart investment.<ref name=":4">{{cite news |last=Horstman |first=Barry M. |date=1999-05-21 |title=Philip W. Drackett: Earned profits, plaudits |work=[[The Cincinnati Post]] |publisher=[[E. W. Scripps Company]] |url=http://www.cincypost.com/living/1999/drack052199.html |access-date=2006-10-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051205202014/http://www.cincypost.com/living/1999/drack052199.html |archive-date=2005-12-05}}</ref> By the 1950s and 1960s, soybean oil had become the most popular vegetable oil in the US; today it is second only to [[palm oil]]. In 2018–2019, world production was at 57.4 MT with the leading producers including [[China]] (16.6 MT), [[US]] (10.9 MT), [[Argentina]] (8.4 MT), [[Brazil]] (8.2 MT), and [[EU]] (3.2 MT).<ref name=":5">{{cite web |title=World Soy Oil Production |url=http://www.sopa.org/world-soy-oil-production/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104081829/http://www.sopa.org/world-soy-oil-production/ |archive-date=2019-01-04 |access-date=2019-01-04 |publisher=The Soybean Processors Association of India}}</ref>
Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or used directly as ingredients in food - a role that they share with some [[fat|animal fats]], including [[butter]] and [[ghee]]. The oils serve a number of purposes in this role:
 
The early 20th century also saw the start of the use of [[Vegetable oil fuel|vegetable oil as a fuel]] in [[diesel engines]] and in heating oil burners. [[Rudolf Diesel]] designed his engine to run on vegetable oil. The idea, he hoped, would make his engines more attractive to farmers who had a source of fuel readily available. Diesel's first engine ran on its own power for the first time in [[Augsburg]], Germany, on 10 August 1893 on nothing but [[peanut oil]]. In remembrance of this event, 10 August has been declared "International Biodiesel Day".<ref name=":6">{{cite web |title=Biodiesel Day |url=http://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/biodiesel-day/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225214325/https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/biodiesel-day/ |archive-date=25 February 2021 |access-date=30 May 2015 |work=Days Of The Year}}</ref> The first patent on Biodiesel was granted in 1937.<ref name="knothe">{{cite web |last=Knothe |first=G. |title=Historical Perspectives on Vegetable Oil-Based Diesel Fuels |url=http://www.biodiesel.org/resources/reportsdatabase/reports/gen/20011101_gen-346.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004134307/http://biodiesel.org/resources/reportsdatabase/reports/gen/20011101_gen-346.pdf |archive-date=2018-10-04 |access-date=2007-07-11 |publisher=Inform, Vol. 12(11), pp. 1103–1107 (2001)}}</ref> Periodic petroleum shortages spurred research into vegetable oil as a diesel substitute during the 1930s and 1940s, and again in the 1970s and early 1980s when straight vegetable oil enjoyed its highest level of scientific interest. The 1970s also saw the formation of the first commercial enterprise to allow consumers to run straight vegetable oil in their vehicles. However, [[biodiesel]], produced from oils or fats using [[transesterification]] is more widely used. Led by Brazil, many countries built [[biodiesel production|biodiesel plants]] during the 1990s, and it is now widely available for use in motor vehicles, and is the most common [[biofuel]] in Europe today. In France, biodiesel is incorporated at a rate of 8% in the fuel used by all French diesel vehicles.<ref name="RA29">{{Harvsp|Avril Group : Activity Report|2014|p=58}}{{full citation needed|date=December 2022}}</ref>
* '''Texture''' - oils can serve to make other ingredients stick together less.
* '''Flavor''' - while less-flavorful oils command premium prices, oils such as olive oil or almond oil may be chosen specifically for the flavor they impart.
* '''Flavor base''' - oils can also "carry" the flavors of other ingredients, since many flavors are present in chemicals that are soluble in oil.
 
In the mid-1970s, Canadian researchers developed a low-erucic-acid rapeseed cultivar. Because the word "rape" was not considered optimal for marketing, they coined the name "canola" (from "Canada Oil low acid"). The U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] approved use of the canola name in January 1985,<ref name=":7">{{cite web |title=Canola oil |url=https://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/ANS00198.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060617234030/https://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/ANS00198.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date=2006-06-17 |access-date=2006-07-31 |website=[[Food and Drug Administration]]}}</ref> and U.S. farmers started planting large areas that spring. Canola oil is lower in saturated fats and higher in monounsaturates. Canola is very thin (unlike corn oil) and flavorless (unlike olive oil), so it largely succeeds by displacing soy oil, just as soy oil largely succeeded by displacing cottonseed oil.{{cn|date=October 2024}}
Secondly, oils can be heated, and used to cook other foods. Oils that are suitable for this purpose must have a high [[flash point]]. Such oils include the major cooking oils - [[canola]], [[sunflower|sunflower oil]], [[safflower|safflower oil]], [[peanut oil]], [[linseed oil]] etc. Some oils, including [[rice bran|rice bran oil]], are particularly valued in [[Asia|Asian]] cultures for high temperature cooking, because of their unusually high flash point.
 
The production of vegetable oils went up 125% between 2000 and 2020, driven by a sharp increase in [[palm oil]].<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023 {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=FAODocuments | date=2023 |language=en |doi=10.4060/cc8166en| isbn=978-92-5-138262-2 }}</ref>
=== Hydrogenated oils ===
[[Triglyceride]]-based vegetable fats and oils can be transformed through partial or complete '''[[hydrogenation]]''' into fats and oils of higher melting point. The [[hydrogenation]] process involves ''"[[sparging]]"'' the oil at high temperature and pressure with [[hydrogen]] in the presence of a [[catalyst]], typically a powdered [[nickel]] compound. As each double-bond in the [[triglyceride]] is broken, two hydrogen atoms form single bonds. The elimination of double-bonds by adding hydrogen atoms is called ''[[saturated fat|saturation]]''; as the degree of [[saturated fat|saturation]] increases, the oil progresses towards being fully hydrogenated. An oil may be hydrogenated to increase resistance to rancidity ([[oxidation]]) or to change its physical characteristics. As the degree of saturation increases, the oil's viscosity and melting point increase.
 
==Uses==
The use of [[saturated fat|hydrogenated oils]] in foods has never been completely satisfactory. Because the center arm of the [[triglyceride]] is shielded somewhat by the end [[triglyceride]]s, most of the [[hydrogenation]] occurs on the end [[triglyceride]]s. This makes the [[saturated fat|resulting fat]] more brittle. A margarine made from naturally more saturated tropical oils will be more plastic (more "spreadable") than a margarine made from hydrogenated soy oil. In addition, partial hydrogenation results in the formation of [[trans fats]], which have increasingly been viewed as unhealthy since the 1970s.
===Culinary===
 
{{See also|Cooking oil}}
''(In the U.S., the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] ''[[Standard of Identity]]'' for a product labeled as ''vegetable oil margarine'' specifies that only canola, safflower, sunflower, corn, soybean, or peanut oil may be used.<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www.ams.usda.gov/dairy/vegoil.pdf#search=%22%22standard%20of%20identity%22%20margarine%22
| title=USDA Standard of Identity
}} </ref> Products not labeled ''vegetable oil margarine'' do not have that restriction.)''
=== Industrial uses ===
Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured products.
 
Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some [[fat|animal fats]], including [[butter]], [[ghee]], [[lard]], and [[schmaltz]]. The oils serve several purposes in this role:
* Many vegetable oils are used to make [[soap]]s, skin products, [[perfume]]s and other personal care and [[cosmetics|cosmetic products]].
* [[Shortening]] – as in giving pastries a crumbly texture.
* Enriching – adding calories and satisfaction in consumption
* Texture – altering how ingredients combine, especially fats and starches
* Flavoring – examples include [[olive oil|olive]], [[sesame oil|sesame]], or [[almond oil|almond]] oil
* Flavor base – oils can also "carry" flavors of other ingredients, such as peppers,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cooksillustrated.com/how_tos/6581-blooming-in-oil-for-flavor |title="Blooming in Oil for Flavor" ''Cooks Illustrated'' |access-date=2021-07-16 |archive-date=2021-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716104712/https://www.cooksillustrated.com/how_tos/6581-blooming-in-oil-for-flavor |url-status=live }}</ref> since many flavors are due to chemicals that are soluble in oil.
 
Oils can be heated to temperatures significantly higher than the boiling point of water, {{Convert|100|C}}, and used to [[frying|fry foods]]. Oils for this purpose must have a high [[flash point]]. Such oils include both the major cooking oils – [[soybean oil|soybean]], [[rapeseed oil|rapeseed]], [[canola oil|canola]], [[sunflower oil|sunflower]], [[safflower oil|safflower]], [[peanut oil|peanut]], [[cottonseed oil|cottonseed]], etc. – and tropical oils, such as [[Coconut oil|coconut]], [[Palm oil|palm]], and [[Rice bran oil|rice bran]]. The latter are particularly valued in Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking, because of their unusually high flash points.
* Some oils are particularly suitable as [[drying agent]]s, and are used in making [[paint]]s and other wood treatment products. [[Dammar oil]], for example, is used almost exclusively in treating the hulls of wooden boats.
 
===Industrial===
* Vegetable oils are increasingly being used in the electrical industry as [[Electrical insulation|insulator]]s as vegetable oils are non-toxic to the environment, [[biodegradable]] if spilled and have high [[flash point|flash]] and fire points. However, vegetable oils have issues with chemical stability (there has to be a tradeoff with biodegradability), so they are generally used in systems where they are not exposed to [[oxygen]] and are more expensive than [[crude oil]] [[distillate]]. Three examples are [http://www.midel.com/ Midel 7131] by M & I materials, [http://www.cooperpower.com/Products/Dielectric/EnvirotempFR3 FR3] by Cooper Power and [http://library.abb.com/GLOBAL/SCOT/scot252.nsf/VerityDisplay/C1256B3C00492DA685256C85006D74DC/$File/1LUS471050-LTE_BIO.PDF Biotemp] by ABB. Midel 7131 is a [[synthetic oil]], manufactured by an alcohol plus acid reaction.
Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured products.{{cn|date=October 2024}}
 
Many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products, candles, perfumes, and other personal care and cosmetic products. Some oils are particularly suitable as [[drying oil]]s, and are used in making paints and other wood treatment products. They are used in [[alkyd]] resin production. Dammar oil (a mixture of linseed oil and [[dammar]] resin), for example, is used almost exclusively in treating the hulls of wooden boats. Vegetable oils are increasingly being used in the electrical industry as [[Electrical insulation|insulator]]s as vegetable oils are not toxic to the environment, [[biodegradable]] if spilled and have high [[flash point|flash]] and fire points. However, vegetable oils are less stable chemically, so they are generally used in systems where they are not exposed to [[oxygen]], and they are more expensive than crude oil distillate. Synthetic tetraesters, which are similar to vegetable oils but with four fatty acid chains compared to the normal three found in a natural ester, are manufactured by [[Fischer–Speier esterification|Fischer esterification]]. Tetraesters generally have high stability to oxidation and have found use as engine lubricants. Vegetable oil is being used to produce biodegradable [[hydraulic fluid]]<ref>{{cite web
* Vegetable oil is being used to produce bio-degradable [[hydraulic fluid]].<ref>{{cite web
| url=httphttps://www.ars.usda.gov/isnews-events/prnews/research-news/2000/000419.htmbiodegradable-hydraulic-fluid-nears-market/
| author=Linda McGraw
| title=Biodegradable Hydraulic Fluid Nears Market
| publisher=USDA
| date=April 19, 2000
| accessdateaccess-date=2006-09-29
| archive-date=2006-09-25
}}</ref>
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925072550/http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2000/000419.htm
| url-status=live
}}</ref> and [[lubricant]].<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www.gwrranci.org/gallery/20060824/
| title=Cass Scenic Railroad, West Virginia
| publisher=GWWCA
| access-date=2011-11-01
| archive-date=2011-10-06
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006190958/http://www.gwrranci.org/gallery/20060824/
| url-status=live
}}</ref>
 
One limiting factor in industrial uses of vegetable oils is that all such oils are susceptible to becoming [[Rancidification|rancid]]. Oils that are more stable, such as [[ben oil]] or [[mineral oil]], are thus preferred for industrial uses. [[Castor oil]] has numerous industrial uses, owing to the presence of a [[hydroxyl]] group on the fatty acid. Castor oil is a precursor to [[Nylon 11]]. Castor oil may also be reacted with [[epichlorohydrin]] to make a glycidyl ether, which is used as a diluent and flexibilizer with [[epoxy]] resins.{{cn|date=October 2024}}
* Common vegetable oil has also been used experimentally as a cooling agent in PCs.
 
===Pet food additive===
One limiting factor in industrial uses of vegetable oils is that all such oils eventually chemically decompose turning [[rancid]]. Oils that are more stable, such as [[Ben oil]] or [[mineral oil]], are preferred for some industrial uses.
Vegetable oil is used in the production of some pet foods. AAFCO<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aafco.org/|title=The Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO)|access-date=2018-07-30|archive-date=1999-10-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991012141245/http://aafco.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> defines vegetable oil in this context as the product of vegetable origin obtained by extracting the oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible purposes.{{cn|date=October 2024}}
 
===Fuel===
Vegetable-based oils, like [[Castor oil]], have been used as medicine and as lubricants for a long time prior to the discovery of crude oil and its petroleum-based derviatives (mineral oils, etc.). Castor oil has over 1000 patented industrial applications [http://www.kristinasoil.com/reference.html#industrial] and Castor oil is non-toxic <ref>[http://www.icoa.org/toxic.htm Castor oil is non-toxic] | ICOA Technical Bulletin | Retrieved on 2007-01-02</ref> and quickly biodegrades; whereas, petroleum-based oils are potential health hazards, and take a very long time to biodegrade, thus can damage the environment when concentrated.<ref> [http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/non-renewable/oil.html#Environment Petroleum Oil and the Environment] | Department of Energy | Retrieved on 2007-01-02</ref>
{{Main article|Vegetable oil fuel}}
 
Vegetable oils are also used to make [[biodiesel]], which can be used like conventional diesel.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Knothe |first1=Gerhard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8MxcCgAAQBAJ |title=The Biodiesel Handbook |last2=Krahl |first2=Jürgen |last3=Gerpen |first3=Jon Van |date=2015-08-13 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-9835072-6-0 |language=en}}</ref> Some [[vegetable oil blends]] are used in unmodified vehicles but [[straight vegetable oil]], also known as pure plant oil, needs specially prepared vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its [[viscosity]]. The use of [[vegetable oils as alternative energy]] is growing{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} and the availability of [[Biodiesel by region|biodiesel around the world]] is increasing.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}
=== Fuel ===
{{main|Vegetable oil used as fuel}}
 
The [[NNFCC]] estimates that the total net greenhouse gas savings when using vegetable oils in place of fossil fuel-based alternatives for fuel production, range from 18 to 100%.<ref>[[National Non-Food Crops Centre]]. [http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/ghg-benefits-from-use-of-vegetable-oils-for-electricity-heat-transport-and-industrial-purposes-nnfcc-10-016 GHG Benefits from Use of Vegetable Oils for Electricity, Heat, Transport, and Industrial Purposes, NNFCC 10-016] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305071127/http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/ghg-benefits-from-use-of-vegetable-oils-for-electricity-heat-transport-and-industrial-purposes-nnfcc-10-016 |date=2016-03-05 }}</ref>
Vegetable oils are also the basis of [[biodiesel]], which can be used like conventional [[diesel]], and [[SVO]] (straight vegetable oil), which can be used in specially prepared vehicle engines.
 
==ExtractionProduction==
{{Main|Edible oil refining}}
 
The production process of vegetable oil involves the removal of oil from plant components, typically seeds. This can be done via mechanical extraction using an [[oil mill]] or chemical extraction using a solvent. The extracted oil can then be purified and, if required, refined or chemically altered.{{cn|date=October 2024}}
The "modern" way of processing vegetable oil is by chemical extraction, using solvent extracts, which produces higher yields and is quicker and less expensive. The most common solvent is petroleum-derived [[hexane]]. This technique is used for most of the "newer" industrial oils such as soybean and corn oils.
 
===Mechanical extraction===
Another way is physical extraction, which does not use solvent extracts. It is made the "traditional" way using several different types of mechanical extraction.<ref>{{cite web
Oils can be removed via mechanical extraction, termed "crushing" or "pressing". This method is typically used to produce the more traditional oils (e.g., olive, coconut, etc.), and it is preferred by most [[health-food]] customers in the United States and in Europe.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} There are several different types of mechanical extraction.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hossain |first=Amjad |year=2012 |chapter=Kalu |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Kalu |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |access-date=2016-05-08 |archive-date=2016-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509052654/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Kalu |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Expeller pressing]] extraction is common, though the [[screw press]], [[ram press (food)|ram press]], and ghani (powered [[mortar and pestle]]) are also used. Oilseed presses are commonly used in developing countries, among people for whom other extraction methods would be prohibitively expensive; the ghani is primarily used in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.attra.org/attra-pub/oilseed.html|title=Oilseed Processing for Small-Scale Producers|author=Janet Bachmann|access-date=2006-07-31|archive-date=2006-08-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060824055106/http://www.attra.org/attra-pub/oilseed.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The amount of oil extracted using these methods varies widely, as shown in the following table for extracting [[Madhuca longifolia|mowrah butter]] in India:<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/K_0050.htm
| title=Kalu (oil presser)
| publisher=Banglapedia
| accessdate=2006-11-12
}}</ref> This method is typically used to produce the more traditional oils (e.g., olive), and it is preferred by most "health-food" customers in the [[United States|USA]] and in [[Europe]]. [[Expeller]]-pressed extraction is one type, and there are two other types that are both oil presses: the [[screw press]] and the [[ram press]]. Oil seed presses are commonly used in developing countries, among people for whom other extraction methods would be prohibitively expensive. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.attra.org/attra-pub/oilseed.html|title=Oilseed Processing for Small-Scale Producers|author=Janet Bachmann|accessdate=2006-07-31}}</ref> The amount of oil extracted using these methods varies widely, as shown in the following table for extracting [[mowrah butter]] in [[India]]:<ref>{{cite web
| work=Minor oil crops
| publisher=FAO
| title=Illipe
| author=B.L. Axtell from research by R.M. Fairman
| dateyear=1992
| url=http://www.fao.org/es/faodef/fdef14e.htm
| accessdateaccess-date=2006-11-12
| archive-date=2016-07-02
}}</ref>
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160702102734/http://www.fao.org/es/faodef/fdef14e.htm
| url-status=dead
}}</ref>
 
{| class="wikitable"
! Method !! Percentage extracted
|-
| Ghani<ref>{{cite book |last=Aziz |first=KMA |year=2012 |chapter=Ghani |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Ghani |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |access-date=2016-05-08 |archive-date=2016-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509061500/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Ghani |url-status=live }} A ghani is a traditional Indian oil press, driven by a horse or ox.</ref> || 20–30%
| Ghani<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/G_0089.htm
| title=Ghani
| publisher=Banglapedia
| accessdate=2006-11-12
}} A ghani is a traditional [[India]]n oil press, driven by a horse or ox.</ref> || 20-30%
|-
| Expellers || 34-3734–37%
|-
| Solvent || 40-4340–43%
|}
 
===Solvent extraction===
[[Supercritical carbon dioxide]] can also be used for the extraction purpose and is non toxic.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.aocs.org/archives/am2005/session.asp?session=PRO+1%2FSOA+1%3A++Nutraceuticals%2FSpecialty+Oil+Processing|title=Pilot Scale Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction and Characterization of Wheat Germ Oil|author=M. Eisenmenger, N. Dunford, F. Eller and S. Taylor|volume=96|date=2005|journal=AOCS Proceedings}}</ref>
The processing of vegetable oil in commercial applications is commonly done by chemical extraction, using solvent extracts, which produces higher yields and is quicker and less expensive. The most common solvent is petroleum-derived [[hexane]]. This technique is used for most of the "newer" industrial oils such as soybean and corn oils.{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}} After extraction, the solvent is evaporated out by heating the mixture to about {{convert|300|F|C|order=flip}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Polyunsaturated Fats |url=https://clarksnutrition.com/index.php/resources/healthnotes?resource=%2Fus%2Fassets%2Ffood-guide%2Fpolyunsaturated-fats%2F~default |website=Clark's Nutrition |access-date=March 13, 2019 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119073520/https://clarksnutrition.com/index.php/resources/healthnotes?resource=%2Fus%2Fassets%2Ffood-guide%2Fpolyunsaturated-fats%2F~default |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
[[Supercritical carbon dioxide]] can be used as a non-toxic alternative to other solvents.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11746-006-5038-6 |title=Pilot-scale supercritical carbon dioxide extraction and fractionation of wheat germ oil |year=2006 |last1=Eisenmenger |first1=Michael |last2=Dunford |first2=Nurhan T. |last3=Eller |first3=Fred |last4=Taylor |first4=Scott |last5=Martinez |first5=Jose |journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society |volume=83 |issue=10 |pages=863–868|s2cid=59940212 }}</ref>
==Production==
 
===Hydrogenation===
Crude oil, straight from the crushing operation, is not considered edible in the case of most oilseeds. The same is true for the remaining meal. For instance, animals fed raw soy meal will waste away, even though soy meal is high in protein. Researchers at Central Soya discovered that a [[Trypsin inhibitor|trypsin inhibitor]] in soybeans could be deactivated by toasting the meal, and both licensed their invention, and sold soy meal augmented with vitamins and minerals as MasterMix, a product for farmers to mix with their own grain to produce a high quality feed.
{{main|Fat hydrogenation}}
 
Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete [[fat hydrogenation|hydrogenation]] into oils of higher melting point, some of which, such as [[vegetable shortening]], will remain solid at room temperature.
The processing of soy oil is typical of that used with most vegetable oils. Crude soy oil is first mixed with caustic soda. [[Saponification]] turns free fatty acids into soap. The soap is removed with a [[centrifuge]]. Neutralized dry soap stock (NDSS) is typically used in animal feed, more to get rid of it than because it is particularly nourishing. The remaining oil is deodorized by heating under a near-perfect [[vacuum]] and [[Sparging|sparged]] with water. The condensate is further processed to become vitamin E food supplement, while the oil can be sold to manufacturers and consumers at this point.
 
Hydrogenating vegetable oil is done by raising a blend of vegetable oil and a metal catalyst, typically nickel, in a near-vacuum to very high temperatures, and introducing hydrogen. This causes the carbon atoms of the oil to break double bonds with other carbons. Each carbon atom becomes single-bonded to an individual hydrogen atom, and the double bond between carbons can no longer exist. A fully hydrogenated oil, also called a [[saturated fat]], has had all of its double bonds converted into single bonds. If a [[Polyunsaturated fatty acid|polyunsaturated]] oil is left incompletely hydrogenated (not all of the double bonds are reduced to single bonds), then it is a "partially hydrogenated oil" (PHO). An oil may be hydrogenated to increase resistance to [[Rancidification|rancidity]] ([[oxidation]]) or to change its physical characteristics. As the degree of saturation is raised by full or partial hydrogenation, the oil's viscosity and melting point increase.
Some of the oil is further processed. By carefully filtering the oil at near-freezing temperatures, "winter oil" is produced. This oil is sold to manufacturers of salad dressings, so that the dressings do not turn cloudy when refrigerated.
 
While full hydrogenation produces largely saturated fatty acids, partial hydrogenation results in the transformation of unsaturated cis fatty acids to [[trans fats|unsaturated trans fatty acids]] in the oil mixture due to the heat used in hydrogenation. Partially hydrogenated oils and their trans fats have been linked to an increased risk of mortality from [[coronary heart disease]],<ref name="TRANSformingApx9">{{cite web|author=Trans Fat Task Force |title=TRANSforming the Food Supply (Appendix 9iii) |date=June 2006 |url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/gras-trans-fats/tf-ge/tf-gt_app9iii_e.html |access-date=2007-01-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070225021532/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/gras-trans-fats/tf-ge/tf-gt_app9iii_e.html |archive-date=February 25, 2007 }} (Consultation on the health implications of alternatives to trans fatty acids: Summary of Responses from Experts)</ref> among other increased health risks. These concerns have led to regulations mandating the removal of partially hydrogenated oils from food.<ref>{{cite web |title=Final Determination Regarding Partially Hydrogenated Oils (Removing Trans Fat) |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/final-determination-regarding-partially-hydrogenated-oils-removing-trans-fat |website=www.fda.gov |date=20 February 2020 |publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration |access-date=14 April 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414213923/https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/final-determination-regarding-partially-hydrogenated-oils-removing-trans-fat |url-status=live }}</ref>
The oil may be partially [[hydrogenation|hydrogenated]] to produce various ingredient oils. Lightly hydrogenated oils have very similar physical characteristics to regular soy oil, but are more resistant to becoming rancid.
 
===Deodorization===
[[Margarine]] oils need to be mostly solid at 32 °C (90 °F) so that the margarine does not melt in warm rooms, yet it needs to be completely liquid at 37°C (98°F), so that it doesn't leave a "lardy" taste in the mouth.
In the processing of edible oils, the oil is heated under vacuum to near the smoke point or to about {{convert|450|F|C|order=flip}},<ref>{{cite web |last1=Feuge |first1=R. O. |title=Vegetable Oils and Fats for Edible Use |url=https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/IND43894115/PDF |website=usda.gov |access-date=March 13, 2019 |quote=Certain crude oils that contain minor amounts of impurities other than free fatty acids can be refined by a process known as steam refining. It is merely a high-temperature steam distillation under reduced pressure. The crude vegetable oil is heated to about 450°F. and maintained under a pressure of 0.25 inch of mercury or less while steam is passed through it. The steam strips the free fatty acids out of the oil. The process is used somewhat in Europe but not often in the United States. |archive-date=June 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220619073528/https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/IND43894115/PDF |url-status=dead }}</ref> and water is introduced at the bottom of the oil. The water is immediately converted to steam, which bubbles through the oil, carrying with it any chemicals that are water-soluble. The steam sparging removes impurities that can impart unwanted flavors and odors to the oil. Deodorization is key to the manufacture of vegetable oils. Nearly all soybean, corn, and canola oils found on supermarket shelves go through a deodorization stage that removes trace amounts of odors and flavors, and lightens the color of the oil. However, the process commonly results in higher levels of trans fatty acids and distillation of the oil's natural compounds.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gupta|first=Monoj K.|title=Practical guide to vegetable oil processing|date=2017|isbn=978-1-63067-051-1|edition=Second|___location=Amsterdam|oclc=974497799}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Soybeans : chemistry, production, processing, and utilization|date=2008|publisher=AOCS Press|author1=Lawrence Alan Johnson|author2-link=|author2=Pamela J. White|author3=Richard Galloway|isbn=978-0-12-804352-3|___location=Urbana, IL|oclc=491265615}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Chapter 5 : Processing and refining edible oils|url=http://www.fao.org/3/v4700e/V4700E0a.htm#Potential%20side%20reactions%20during%20high-temperature%20processing|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-04|website=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|archive-date=2022-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709105807/https://www.fao.org/3/v4700e/v4700e0a.htm#Potential%20side%20reactions%20during%20high-temperature%20processing}}</ref>
 
=== Occupational exposure ===
Another major use of soy oil is for fry oils. These oils require substantial hydrogenation to keep the polyunsaturates of soy oil from becoming rancid.
People can breathe in vegetable oil mist in the workplace. The U.S. [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) has set the legal limit ([[permissible exposure limit]]) for vegetable oil mist exposure in the workplace as 15&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> total exposure and 5&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> respiratory exposure over an eight-hour workday. The U.S. [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH) has set a [[recommended exposure limit]] (REL) of 10&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> total exposure and 5&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> respiratory exposure over an eight-hour workday.<ref>{{Cite web|title = CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Vegetable oil mist|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0655.html|website = cdc.gov|access-date = 2015-11-27|archive-date = 2015-12-08|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208133929/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0655.html|url-status = live}}</ref>
 
Hardening vegetable oil is done by raising a blend of vegetable oil and a catalyst in near-vacuum to very high temperatures, and introducing hydrogen. This causes the carbon atoms of the oil to break double-bonds with other carbons, each carbon forming a new single-bond with a hydrogen atom. Adding these hydrogen atoms to the oil makes it more solid, raises the [[smoke point]], and makes the oil more stable.
 
Hydrogenated vegetable oils differ in two major ways from other oils which are equally saturated. During hydrogenation, it is easier for hydrogen to come into contact with the fatty acids on the end of the triglyceride, and less easy for them to come into contact with the center fatty acid. This makes the resulting fat more brittle than a tropical oil; soy margarines are less "spreadable". The other difference is that trans fatty acids (often called [[trans fat]]) are formed in the hydrogenation reactor, and may amount to as much as 40 percent by weight of a partially hydrogenated oil. Trans acids are increasingly thought to be unhealthy.
 
=== Particular oils ===
{{mainlist|List of vegetable oils}}
 
The following triglyceride vegetable oils account for almost all world-wide production, by volume. All are used as both cooking oils and as [[SVO]] or to make [[biodiesel]]. According to the USDA, the total world consumption of major vegetable oils in [[2000]] was:
 
===Yield===
[[File:World Production Of Main Vegetable Oils By Main Producers (2020).svg|thumb|World production of main vegetable oils by main producers ]]
Typical productivity of some oil crops, measured in [[metric ton|ton]]s (t) of oil produced per [[hectare]] (ha) of land per year (yr). [[Oil palm]] is by far the highest yielding crop, capable of producing about 4 tons of palm oil per hectare per year.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Crop
! Yield<br> (t/ha/yr)
|-
|'''Palm oil'''<ref>[http://www.palmoilworld.org/about_malaysian-industry.html Malaysian Palm Oil Industry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020194530/http://www.palmoilworld.org/about_malaysian-industry.html |date=2018-10-20 }}, ''palmoilworld.org''</ref>
| align="right" | 4.0
|-
|'''Coconut oil'''<ref name="gardeningplaces">[http://www.gardeningplaces.com/articles/oil-crops-compared1.htm Oil Staple Crops Compared] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118111906/http://www.gardeningplaces.com/articles/oil-crops-compared1.htm |date=2018-11-18 }}, ''gardeningplaces.com''</ref>
| align="right" | 1.4
|-
|'''Canola oil'''<ref name="aocs_yields">[http://www.aocs.org/Membership/informArticleDetail.cfm?ItemNumber=1102 Global oil yields: Have we got it seriously wrong?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131075003/http://www.aocs.org/Membership/informArticleDetail.cfm?ItemNumber=1102 |date=2016-01-31 }}, Denis J. Murphy, August 2009, ''aocs.org''</ref>
| align="right" | 0.75
|-
|'''Soybean oil'''<ref name="aocs_yields" />
| align="right" | 0.45
|-
|'''Sunflower oil'''<ref name="gardeningplaces" />
| align="right" | 0.6
|}
 
==Particular oils==
{{mainlist|List of vegetable oils
}}
The following triglyceride vegetable oils account for almost all worldwide production, by volume. All are used as both cooking oils and as [[Straight vegetable oil|SVO]] or to make biodiesel. According to the USDA, the total world consumption of major vegetable oils in 2007/08 was:<ref name="USDAOilSeeds2009-01">{{Cite book
| series=Oilseeds: World Market and Trade
| title=January 2009
| url=http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2009/January/Oilseedsfull0109.pdf
| volume=FOP 1-09
| date=2009-01-12
| publisher=[[USDA]]
| access-date=2009-01-29
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309135414/http://@fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2009/January/Oilseedsfull0109.pdf
| archive-date=2013-03-09
| url-status=dead
}}, Table 03: Major Vegetable Oils: World Supply and Distribution at [http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/Current.asp Oilseeds: World Markets and Trade Monthly Circular] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101018161150/http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/Current.asp |date=2010-10-18 }}</ref>
{| class="sortable wikitable"
! Oil source
! World consumption<br />(million [[metric tons]])
! Notes
|-
| Soybeans[[Palm oil|Palm]] || align="rightcenter" | 2641.031 || AccountsThe formost aboutwidely halfproduced oftropical worldwideoil, ediblealso oilused production.to make [[biofuel]]
|-
| Palm[[Soybean oil|Soybean]] || align="rightcenter" | 2341.328 || TheOne of the most widely producedconsumed [[tropical]]cooking oil. Also used to make [[biofuel]].oils
|-
| [[Rapeseed oil|Rapeseed]] || align="center" | 18.24 || One of the most widely used cooking oils, also used as fuel.
[[Canola]] is a variety ([[cultivar]]) of rapeseed.
|-
| Rapeseed[[Sunflower oil|Sunflower seed]] || align="rightcenter" | 139.191 || OneA of the most widely usedcommon cooking oilsoil, [[Canola]]also isused ato (trademarked)make variety ([[cultivar]]) of [[rapeseed]].biodiesel
|-
| Sunflowerseed[[Cottonseed oil|Cottonseed]] || align="rightcenter" | 84.699 || A commonmajor cookingfood oil, alsooften used toin makeindustrial [[biodiesel]].food processing
|-
| Peanut[[Palm kernel oil|Palm kernel]] || align="rightcenter" | 4.285 || Mild-flavoredFrom cookingthe oil.seed of the African palm tree
|-
| Cottonseed[[Peanut oil|Peanut]] || align="rightcenter" | 34.682 || AMild-flavored major foodcooking oil, often used in industrial food processing.
|-
|[[Coconut Palm Kerneloil|Coconut]] || align="rightcenter" | 23.748 || From the [[seed]]Used ofin thecooking, Africancosmetics palmand treesoaps
|-
| [[Olive oil|Olive]] || align="rightcenter" | 2.584 || Used in [[cooking]], [[cosmetics]], [[soaps]] and as a [[fuel]] for traditional [[oil lamps]]
|}
 
Note that theseThese figures include industrial and animal feed use. The majority of European rapeseed oil production is used to produce [[biodiesel]], or used directly as fuel in [[diesel]] cars, which may require modification to heat the oil to reduce its higher [[viscosity]].{{cn|date=October The suitability of the fuel should come as little surprise, as [[Rudolph Diesel]] originally designed his engine to run on [[peanut oil]].2024}}
 
Other significant triglyceride oils include:
 
* [[Corn oil]], one of the most common cooking oils, andis inexpensiveused for cooking oilsoil, salad dressing, margarine, mayonnaise, prepared goods like spaghetti sauce and baking mixes, and to fry prepared foods like potato chips and French fries.
* [[HazelnutGrape seed oil|Hazelnut]], andused otherin nutcooking and oilscosmetics
* [[Hazelnut oil]] and other nut oils
* [[Linseed oil]], from [[flax]] seeds
* [[Rice bran oil]], from [[rice]] grains
* [[Safflower oil]], a flavorless and colorless cooking oil.
* [[Sesame oil]], used as a cooking oil, and as a massage oil, particularly in [[India]].
* [[Açaí palm]] oil, used in culinary and cosmetics
* [[Jambú oil]], is extracted from the flowers, leaves and stem from jambu (''[[Acmella oleracea]]''), contains [[spilanthol]]
* [[Graviola oil]], derived from ''[[Annona muricata]]''
* [[Tucumã oil]], from ''[[Astrocaryum aculeatum]]'' is used to manufacture soap.
* [[Brazil_nut#Oil|Brazil nut oil]], culinary and cosmetics use
* [[Carapa]] oil, pharmaceutical use and anti-mosquito candle
* [[Buriti oil]], from ''[[Mauritia flexuosa]]'', used in cosmetics (skin and hair care)
* [[Passion fruit oil]], derived from ''[[Passiflora edulis]]'', has varied applications in cosmetics manufacturing and for uses as a human or animal food.
* [[Pracaxi oil]], obtained from ''[[Pentaclethra macroloba]]'', cosmetics use
* [[Solanium oil]], derived from chloroplasts, various applications in cooking
 
===Composition of fats===
==History of edible vegetable oils in the United States==
{{Vegetable oils, composition}}
 
==Seed oil==
While olive oil and other pressed oils have been around for millennia, [[Procter & Gamble]] researchers were innovators when they started selling cottonseed oil as a creamed shortening, in 1911. [[Ginning mill]]s were happy to have someone haul away the cotton seeds. Procter & Gamble researchers learned how to extract the oil, refine it, partially hydrogenate it (causing it to be solid at room temperature and thus mimic natural lard), and can it under nitrogen gas. Compared to the rendered lard Procter & Gamble was already selling to consumers, [[Crisco]] was cheaper, easier to stir into a recipe, and could be stored at room temperature for two years without turning rancid. (Procter & Gamble sold their fats and oils brands - ''Jif'' and ''Crisco'' - to [[Smuckers|The J.M. Smucker Co.]] in 2002.)
{{See also|Seed oil misinformation}}
Seed oils are vegetable oils obtained from the [[seed]] ([[endosperm]]) rather than other parts of plants. Most vegetable oils are seed oils. Examples are sunflower, corn, and sesame oils.
 
[[Seed oil misinformation|Claims that seed oils are unhealthy]] are not supported by scientific evidence.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |last2= |last3= |date=2022-06-22 |title=Scientists debunk claims of seed oil health risks |url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/hsph-in-the-news/scientists-debunk-seed-oil-health-risks/ |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=Harvard School of Public Health |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=There's no reason to avoid seed oils and plenty of reasons to eat them |url=https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/08/20/theres-no-reason-to-avoid-seed-oils-and-plenty-of-reasons-to-eat-them |access-date=2024-10-02 |website=www.heart.org |language=en}}</ref>
Soybeans were an exciting new crop from [[China]] in the 1930s. Soy was protein-rich, and the light tasteless oil was extremely high in polyunsaturates. [[Henry Ford]] established a soybean research laboratory, developed soybean plastics and a soy-based synthetic wool, and built a car ''almost entirely'' out of soybeans.<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www.thehenryford.org/research/services/populartopics/SoybeanCar/default.asp
| title=Soybean Car
| work=Popular Research Topics
| publisher=Benson Ford Research Center
| accessdate=2006-10-23
}}</ref> Roger Drackett had a successful new product with [[Windex]], but he invested heavily in soybean research, seeing it as a smart investment.<ref>{{cite news
| url=http://www.cincypost.com/living/1999/drack052199.html
| title=Philip W. Drackett: Earned profits, plaudits
| publisher=Cincinnati Post
| author=Barry M. Horstman
| date=May 21, 1999
| accessdate=2006-10-22
}}</ref> By the 1950s and 1960s, soybean oil had became the most popular vegetable oil in the US.
 
===Pre-pressing===
In the mid-1970s, Canadian researchers developed a low-ecruic rapeseed cultivar. Because the word "rape" was not considered optimal for marketing, they coined the name "canola" (from "Canada Oil"). The [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] approved use of the canola name in January 1985,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/ANS00198.html|title=Canola oil|accessdate=2006-07-31}}</ref> and U.S. farmers started planting large acreages that spring. Canola oil is lower in saturated fats, and higher in mono-unsaturates and is a better source of [[omega-3]] fats than other popular oils. Canola is very thin (unlike corn oil) and flavorless (unlike olive oil) so it largely succeeds by displacing soy oil, just as soy oil largely succeeded by displacing cottonseed oil.
Oils are extracted first by expeller or cold pressing methods, then solvent extraction removes the rest of the oils from the leftover matter. This is a method used by larger capacity oil mills. As the energy consumption of the mechanical press increases as more oil is released, it is more efficient to extract the rest of the oil (past around 60%) by solvent extraction.
 
==WasteUsed oil==
{{Main article|Yellow grease}}
As of [[2000]], the [[United States]] were producing in excess of [[1 E7 m³|11 billion liters]] of waste vegetable oil annually, mainly from industrial [[deep fryer]]s in [[potato]] processing plants, [[snack food]] factories and [[fast food restaurant]]s.
A large quantity of used vegetable oil is produced and recycled, mainly from industrial [[deep fryer]]s in potato processing plants, [[snack food]] factories and [[fast food restaurant]]s.
 
Recycled oil has numerous uses, including use as a [[Vegetable oil fuel|direct fuel]], as well as in the production of [[biodiesel]], [[compound feed|livestock feed]], pet food, soap, detergent, cosmetics, and industrial chemicals.
Waste vegetable oil, sold as the commodity [[yellow grease]] has a [[market value]] of approximately [[USD|$]]1.09 per US [[gallon]] ($0.29/l or $335 per [[tonne|metric tonne]]), expected to rise to $1.21 by 2013, enough to make collection economically viable.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/environment/biodiesel.pdf|format=PDF|title=Biodiesel Performance, Costs, and Use|author=Anthony Radich|accessdate=2006-07-31}}</ref>
 
Currently, the largest uses of waste vegetable oil in the U.S. are for [[animal feed]], [[pet food]], and [[cosmetics]]. Since [[2002]], an increasing number of [[European Union]] countries have prohibited the inclusion of [[waste]]recycled vegetable oil from [[catering]] in animal feed. WasteUsed cooking oils from food manufacturing, however, as well as fresh or unused cooking oil, continuescontinue to be used in their animal feed. <ref>{{cite web |date = 22 May 2018 |url =http https://www.food.gov.uk/foodindustry/guidancenotes/foodguidbusiness-guidance/wastecookingoilfood-and-cooking-oil-waste |title =Waste Food and cooking oil fromwaste |access-date = catering premises|accessdatewebsite =2006 Food Standards Agency |publisher = GOV.UK |archive-07date = 22 December 2022 |archive-31url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221222200632/https://www.food.gov.uk/business-guidance/food-and-cooking-oil-waste |url-status = live }}</ref>
 
==Shelf life==
Due to their susceptibility to oxidation from exposure to oxygen, heat and light, resulting in the formation of [[redox|oxidation]] products, such as [[peroxide]]s and [[hydroperoxide]]s, plant oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids have a limited shelf-life.<ref>{{cite journal
| title=Lipid peroxidation in culinary oils subjected to thermal stress
| author=H. Ramachandra Prabhu
| journal=Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry
| year=2000
| volume=15
| issue=1
| pages=1–5
| doi=10.1007/BF02873539
| pmid=23105229
| pmc=3453543
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=26782307|year=2016|last1=Tańska|first1=M|title=Commercial Cold Pressed Flaxseed Oils Quality and Oxidative Stability at the Beginning and the End of Their Shelf Life|journal=Journal of Oleo Science|volume=65|issue=2|pages=111–21|last2=Roszkowska|first2=B|last3=Skrajda|first3=M|last4=Dąbrowski|first4=G|doi=10.5650/jos.ess15243|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jos/65/2/65_ess15243/_pdf/-char/en|doi-access=free|access-date=2018-03-19|archive-date=2018-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319214507/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jos/65/2/65_ess15243/_pdf/-char/en|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
==Product labeling==
In Canada, palm oil is one of five vegetable oils, along with palm kernel oil, coconut oil, peanut oil, and cocoa butter, which must be specifically named in the list of ingredients for a food product.<ref name="CFIA1">{{citation
| title=Guide to Food Labelling and Advertising
| chapter=Basic Labelling Requirements
| date=18 February 2014
| publisher=Canadian Food Inspection Agency
| chapter-url=http://www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/fats-and-oils/eng/1392751693435/1392751782638?chap=2
| access-date=2015-04-08
| archive-date=2015-04-06
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406033242/http://www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/fats-and-oils/eng/1392751693435/1392751782638?chap=2
| url-status=dead
}}</ref> Also, oils in Canadian food products that have been modified or hydrogenated must contain the word "modified" or "hydrogenated" when listed as an ingredient.<ref name="CFIA2">{{citation
| title=Labelling Requirements for Fats and Oils
| chapter=Common Name - Fats and Oils
| publisher=Canadian Food Inspection Agency
| chapter-url=http://www.alimentheque.com/divers/GuideFoodLabellingAdvertising_CFIA_dec2011.pdf
| access-date=2015-04-08
| archive-date=2014-12-22
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222005439/http://www.alimentheque.com/divers/GuideFoodLabellingAdvertising_CFIA_dec2011.pdf
| url-status=live
}}</ref> A mix of oils other than the aforementioned exceptions may simply be listed as "vegetable oil" in Canada; however, if the food product is a cooking oil, salad oil or table oil, the type of oil must be specified and listing "vegetable oil" as an ingredient is not acceptable.<ref name="CFIA1" />
 
From December 2014, all food products produced in the [[European Union]] were legally required to indicate the specific vegetable oil used in their manufacture, following the introduction of the Food Information to Consumers Regulation.<ref>{{citation
| url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:304:0018:0063:EN:PDF
| journal=Official Journal of the European Union
| date=2011-11-21
| title=Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council
| access-date=2013-11-26
| archive-date=2017-07-26
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170726215901/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ%3AL%3A2011%3A304%3A0018%3A0063%3AEN%3APDF
| url-status=live
}}</ref>
 
==See also==
{{colbegin|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Fragrance oil]]
* [[Essential oilsAlgaculture]]
* [[List of vegetable oilsCholesterol]]
* [[List of macerated oils]]
* [[Algae culture]]
* [[Biodiesel]]
* [[Non food crops]]
* [[Straight vegetable oil|Straight vegetable oil (SVO)]]
* [[Cooking oil]]
* [[Decorticator]]
* [[ExpellerDeodorizer]]
* [[ExtruderEssential oils]]
* [[Fatty acid]]
* [[Fatty acid methyl ester]]
* [[Food extrusion]]
* [[Fragrance oil]]
* [[Lipid]]
* [[MillList (factory)|Millof macerated oils]]
* [[DeodoriserList of vegetable oils]]
* [[Fatty AcidNeem]]
* [[Non-food crop]]s
* [[Oleochemistry]]
* [[Seed oil misinformation]]
* [[Soap]]
* [[Vernonia oil]]
* [[Vegetable oil recycling]]
{{colend}}
 
==References==
== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
<references/>
 
==Other referencesSources ==
{{Free-content attribution
* Beare-Rogers, J.L. 1983. "Trans and positional isomers of common fatty acids." In H.H. Draper (ed.) ''Advances in Nutritional Research''. Vol. 5 Plenum Press, New York, pp. 171-200.
| title = World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023
* Berry, E.M. and Hirsch, J. 1986. "Does dietary linolenic acid influence blood pressure?" ''American Journal of Clinical Nutrition''. 44: 336-340.
| author = FAO
* Beyers, E.C. and Emken, E.A. 1991. "Metabolites of cis, trans, and trans, cis isomers of linoleic acid in mice and incorporation into tissue lipids." ''Biochimica et Biophysica Acta''. 1082: 275-284.
| publisher = FAO
* Birch, D.G., Birch, E.E., Hoffman, D.R., and Uauy, R.D. 1992. "Retinal development in very-low-birth-weight infants fed diets differing in omega-3 fatty acids." ''Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science'' 33(8): 2365-2376.
| documentURL = https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en
* Birch, E.E., Birch, D.G., Hoffman, D.R., and Uauy, R. 1992. "Dietary essential fatty acid supply and visual acuity development." ''Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science''. 33(11): 3242-3253.
| license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/whttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_Food_and_Agriculture_-_Statistical_Yearbook_2023.pdf
* Brenner, R.R. 1989. ''Factors influencing fatty acid chain elongation and desaturation, in the role of fats in human nutrition.'' 2nd edn. (eds A.J. Vergroesen and M. Crawford), Academic Press, London pp. 45-79.
| license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0
* British Nutrition Foundation. 1987. ''Report of the task force on trans fatty acids.'' London: British Nutrition Foundation.
}}
* ''Central Soya annual report'', 1979.
* Emken, E. A. 1984. "Nutrition and biochemistry of trans and positional fatty acid isomers in hydrogenated oils." ''Annual Reviews of Nutrition''. 4: 339-376.
* Enig, M.G., Atal, S., Keeney, M and Sampugna, J. 1990. "Isomeric trans fatty acids in the U.S. diet." ''Journal of the American College of Nutrition''. 9: 471-486.
* Ascherio, A., Hennekens, C.H., Baring, J.E., Master, C., Stampfer, M.J. and Willett, W.C. 1994. "Trans fatty acids intake and risk of myocardial infarction." ''Circulation''. 89: 94-101.
* Gurr, M.I. 1983. "Trans fatty acids: Metabolic and nutritional significance." ''Bulletin of the International Dairy Federation''. Document 166: 5-18.
* Hui Y. H., editor, "Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products," ''Edible Oil and Fat Products''
* Koletzko, B. 1992. "Trans fatty acids may impair biosynthesis of long-chain polyunsaturates and growth in man." ''Acta Paediatrica''. 81: 302-306.
* Lief, Alfred, ''It floats: The story of Procter & Gamble'', published 1958 by Rinehart.
* MacMillen, Harold W., ''Mr. Mac and Central Soya: the foodpower story,'' published 1967 by Newcomen Society
* Marchand, C.M. 1982. "Positional isomers of trans-octadecenoic acids in margarine." ''Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology Journal''. 15: 196-199.
* Mensink, R.P., Zock, P.L., Katan, M.B. and Hornstra, G. 1992. "Effect of dietary cis-and trans-fatty acids on serum lipoprotein[a] levels in humans." ''Journal of Lipid Research''. 33: 1493-1501.
* Siguel, E.N. and Lerman, R.H. 1993. "Trans fatty acid patterns in patients with angiographically documented coronary artery disease." ''American Journal of Cardiology''. 71: 916-920.
* Troisi, R., Willett, W.C. and Weiss, S.T. 1992. "Trans-fatty acid intake in relation to serum lipid concentrations in adult men." ''American Journal of Clinical Nutrition''. 56: 1019-1024.
* Willett, W.C., Stampfer, M.J., Manson, J.E., Colditz, G.A., Speizer, F.E., Rosner, B.A., Sampson, L.A. and Hennekens, C.H. 1993. "Intake of trans fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among women." ''The Lancet''. 341: 581-585.
 
== External links==
 
==Further reading==
* {{cite web
{{Commons category|Vegetable oils}}
| url=http://www.hyfoma.com/en/content/food-branches-processing-manufacturing/oil-margarines-sauces/oil-fats/process_description.html
* {{cite book
| title=Edible Oils
| author=Gupta, Monoj K.
| publisher=Hyfoma
| year=2007
| accessdate=2006-11-05
| title=Practical guide for vegetable oil processing
| publisher=AOCS Press, Urbana, Illinois
| isbn=978-1-893997-90-5
}}
* {{cite webbook
| editor=Jee, Michael
| url=http://journeytoforever.org/biodiesel_yield.html
| year=2002
| title=Oil yields and characteristics
| title=Oils and Fats Authentication
| publisher=Journey to forever
| publisher=Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, England
| accessdate=2006-11-05
| isbn=1-84127-330-9
}}
* {{cite webbook
| author=Salunkhe, D.K., Chavan, J.K., Adsule, R.N. and Kadam, S.S.
| url=http://www.vegetableoildiesel.co.uk/forum/index.php
| year=1992
| title=Vegetable oils as fuel forum
| title=World Oilseeds – Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization
| publisher=UK Goat Industries
| publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York
| accessdate=2006-11-05
| isbn=0-442-00112-6
}}
| url-access=registration
* {{cite web
| url=httphttps://wwwarchive.nnfcc.co.ukorg/productsdetails/oil/oindex.cfmisbn_9780442001124
}}
| publisher=National Non Food Crops Centre
{{Fats and oils}}
| title=Oil Crops
{{Palm oil}}
| accessdate=2006-11-05
{{Non-timber forest products}}
}} Information on the use of vegetable oils in fuel, lubricants, polymers, solvents and surfactants.
{{Industries}}
{{Authority control}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Vegetable oil}}
[[Category:Vegetable oils| ]]
[[Category:CookingPlant fatsproducts]]
[[Category:Viscosity]]
[[Category:Oils]]
 
[[af:Plantaardige olie]]
[[da:Vegetabilsk olie]]
[[de:Pflanzenöl]]
[[es:Aceite vegetal]]
[[fi:Kasviöljy]]
[[fr:Huile alimentaire]]
[[it:Olio vegetale]]
[[lt:Augalinis aliejus]]
[[nl:Plantaardige olie]]
[[pl:Olej roślinny]]
[[cs:Rostlinný olej]]
[[ru:Растительное масло]]
[[simple:Vegetable oil]]
[[sv:Matolja]]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable_oil"