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{{Short description|Promoting openness and transparency of military forces and activities}}

The '''Treaty on Open Skies''' entered into force on [[January 1]], [[2002]], and currently has 30 States Parties. The treaty establishes a program of unarmed [[surveillance aircraft|aerial surveillance flights]] over the entire [[territory]] of its participants. The [[treaty]] is designed to enhance mutual understanding and confidence by giving all participants, regardless of size, a direct role in gathering information about military forces and activities of concern to them. Open Skies is one of the most wide-ranging international efforts to date to promote openness and transparency of military forces and activities. The concept of "mutual aerial observation" was initially proposed by [[President of the United States|President]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] in [[1955]]; the treaty that was eventually signed was an initiative of President [[George H. W. Bush]] in [[1989]]. The treaty was negotiated by the then-members of [[NATO]] and the [[Warsaw Pact]], and was signed in [[Helsinki, Finland]], on [[March 24]], [[1992]]. The United States ratified it in [[1993]]. The treaty entered into force on January 1, 2002.

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}

{{for multi|the commercial "open skies" agreements|Freedoms of the air|other uses|Open skies (disambiguation)}}

{{Infobox treaty

This treaty is not related to civil-aviation open skies agreements.

| name = Open Skies Treaty

| long_name = Treaty on Open Skies

| type =

| date_drafted =

| date_signed = 24 March 1992<ref name="state.gov">{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/avc/trty/102337.htm|title=Open Skies Treaty|publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]]|access-date=21 May 2020}}</ref> (also start of [[Provisional application (treaty)|provisional application]])

| location_signed = Helsinki

| date_sealed =

| date_effective = 1 January 2002

| condition_effective = 20 ratifications

| date_expiration =

| signatories =

| parties =

| ratifiers = 35

| depositor = Governments of Canada and Hungary

| language =

| languages = English, French, German, Italian, Russian, and Spanish

| wikisource =

}}

The '''Treaty on Open Skies''' establishes a program of unarmed [[surveillance aircraft|aerial surveillance flights]] over the entire [[Territory (country subdivision)|territory]] of its participants. The [[treaty]] is designed to enhance mutual understanding and confidence by giving all participants, regardless of size, a direct role in gathering information about military forces and activities of concern to them. It entered into force on 1 January 2002, and currently has 32 party states. The idea of allowing countries to openly surveil each other is thought to prevent misunderstandings (e.g., to assure a potential opponent that one's country is not about to go to war) and limit the escalation of tensions. It also provides mutual accountability for countries to follow through on treaty promises.

==Membership==

The 30 States Parties to the Open Skies Treaty are: [[Belarus]], [[Belgium]], [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Canada]], [[Czech]] [[Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[Italy]], [[Latvia]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[Russian Federation]], [[Slovak Republic]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Turkey]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Ukraine]], and [[United States]]. [[Kyrgyzstan]] has signed but not yet ratified. The treaty depositaries are [[Canada]] and [[Hungary]].

The concept of "mutual aerial observation" was initially proposed to [[Soviet Premier]] [[Nikolai Bulganin]] at the [[Geneva Summit (1955)|Geneva Conference]] of 1955 by [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]; however, the Soviets promptly rejected the concept and it lay dormant for several years. The treaty was eventually signed as an initiative of U.S. president (and former [[Central Intelligence Agency]] [[Director of Central Intelligence|Director]]) [[George H. W. Bush]] in 1989. Negotiated by the then-members of [[NATO]] and the [[Warsaw Pact]], the agreement was signed in [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]], on 24 March 1992.<ref name=stategov />

The treaty is of unlimited duration and open to accession by other States. States of the [[former Soviet Union]] that have not already become States Parties to the treaty may accede to it at any time. Applications from other interested States are subject to a [[consensus]] decision by the [[Open Skies Consultative Commission]] (OSCC), the [[Vienna]]-based organization charged with facilitating implementation of the treaty, to which all States Parties belong. Four states have acceded to the treaty since entry into force: Finland, Sweden, Latvia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina. The OSCC has also approved applications for accession by [[Lithuania]], [[Estonia]], [[Slovenia]], and [[Croatia]]. Croatia ratified the treaty but has not yet deposited its instrument of ratification. [[Cyprus]]’s application for accession is pending before the OSCC.

On 22 November 2020, the United States withdrew from the treaty,<ref name="Al Jazeera 2020">{{cite web | title=United States formally withdraws from Open Skies treaty – US & Canada | website=Al Jazeera | date=22 November 2020 | url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/11/22/united-states-formally-withdraws-from-open-skies-treaty | access-date=22 November 2020}}</ref> and on 15 January 2021, Russia also announced its intention to leave, citing the U.S. withdrawal and the inability of member nations to guarantee that information gathered would not be shared with the U.S.<ref>{{Cite web|date=15 January 2021|title=Russia follows US in withdrawal from Open Skies Treaty|url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-leaves-open-skies-treaty-e58019b80ae95e12007265aedfac229b|access-date=19 January 2021|website=AP NEWS}}</ref> Russia formally withdrew in December 2021.<ref>{{cite tweet|number=1472274099753914369|user=RALee85|title=Russia has officially withdrawn from the Open Skies Treaty. 314/|date=18 December 2021}}</ref>

==Basic elements of the treaty==

===Territory= Membership ==

The 32 state parties to the Open Skies Treaty are [[Belarus]], [[Belgium]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Canada]], [[Croatia]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]] (including [[Greenland]]), [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[Italy]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Luxembourg]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Turkey]], [[Ukraine]], and the [[United Kingdom]]. [[Kyrgyzstan]] signed the treaty but has not yet ratified it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Open Skies Treaty at a Glance {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/openskies |access-date=6 March 2022 |website=www.armscontrol.org}}</ref> [[Canada]] and [[Hungary]] are the [[Depositary|depositaries]] of the treaty in recognition of their special contributions to the Open Skies process. Depositary countries maintain treaty documents and provide administrative support.<ref>{{Cite web |title=View Treaty - Canada.ca |url=https://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102747 |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=www.treaty-accord.gc.ca |language=en}}</ref>

The Open Skies regime covers the territory over which the State Party exercises sovereignty, including land, islands, and internal and territorial waters. The treaty specifies that the entire territory of a State Party is open to observation. Observation flights may only be restricted for reasons of flight safety; not for reasons of national security.

The Open Skies treaty is one of unlimited duration, and is open to accession by other states. [[Post-Soviet states|Republics of the former Soviet Union]] (U.S.S.R.) that have not already become state parties to the treaty may join it at any time. Applications from other interested countries are subject to a [[Consensus decision-making|consensus]] decision by the Open Skies Consultative Commission (OSCC).<ref name=stategov /> Eight countries have joined into the treaty since it entered into force in 2002: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia, and Sweden.

===Aircraft===

Observation aircraft may be provided by either the observing Party or (the "taxi option") by the observed Party, at the latter's choice. All Open Skies aircraft and sensors must pass specific certification and pre-flight inspection procedures to ensure that they are compliant with treaty standards. The official certified U.S. Open Skies aircraft is the [[OC-135B Open Skies]] (a military version of the [[Boeing 707]]).

== Open Skies Consultative Commission ==

===Sensors===

The '''Open Skies Consultative Commission''' is the implementing body for the Treaty on Open Skies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Treaty on Open Skies|url=http://www.osce.org/oscc|publisher=Open Skies Consultative Commission|access-date=10 August 2013}}</ref> It comprises representatives from each state party to the treaty and meets monthly at the [[Vienna]] headquarters of the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]].

Open Skies aircraft may have video, optical, panoramic and framing cameras for daylight photography, infra-red line scanners for a day/night capability, and synthetic aperture radar for a day/night, all weather capability. Photographic image quality will permit recognition of major military equipment (e.g., permit a State Party to distinguish between a tank and a truck), thus allowing significant transparency of military forces and activities. Sensor categories may be added and capabilities improved by agreement among States Parties. All equipment used in Open Skies must be commercially available to all participants in the regime.

===Quotas= Summary ==

=== Territory ===

Each State Party is obligated to receive observation flights per its passive quota allocation. Each State Party may conduct as many observation flights -- its active quota -- as its passive quota. During the first 3 years after EIF, each State will be obliged to accept no more than 75% of its passive quota. Since the overall annual passive quota for the United States is 42, this means that it will be obligated to accept no more than 31 observation flights a year during this 3-year period. Only two flights were requested over the United States during 2004, by the Russian Federation and Republic of Belarus Group of States Parties (which functions as a single entity for quota allocation purposes). The United States is entitled to 8 of the 31 annual flights available over Russia/Belarus. Additionally, the United States is entitled to one flight over Ukraine, which they share with Canada.

The Open Skies regulations covers the territory over which the parties exercise sovereignty, including [[mainland]], islands, and internal and territorial waters. The treaty specifies that the entire territory of a member state is open to observation. Observation flights may only be restricted for reasons of flight safety and not for reasons of national security.<ref name=stategov />

===Data sharingAircraft and availability===

[[File:Oc-135 xxl.jpg|thumb|A [[United States Air Force|USAF]] [[Boeing OC-135B Open Skies]]]]

Imagery collected from Open Skies missions is available to any State Party upon request for the cost of reproduction. As a result, the data available to each State Party is much greater than that which it can collect itself under the treaty quota system.

[[File:An-30ukrainearmy.JPG|thumb| [[An-30]] monitoring aircraft]]

[[File:Russian Air Force Tu-214ON RA-64519 UUBW 2011-8-12.png|thumb|[[Tupolev Tu-214]]ON of the [[Russian Air Force]]]]

Observation aircraft may be provided by either the observing party or by the observed party (the "taxi option"), at the latter's choice. All Open Skies aircraft and sensors must pass specific certification and [[pre-flight inspection]] procedures to ensure that they are compliant with treaty standards.<ref name=stategov />

The official certified U.S. Open Skies aircraft is the [[OC-135B Open Skies]].{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

==History==

At a [[Geneva Conference]] meeting with [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Soviet Premier]] [[Nikolai Bulganin|Bulganin]] in [[1955]], President Eisenhower proposed that the [[United States]] and [[Soviet Union]] conduct [[surveillance]] overflights of each other's territory to reassure each country that the other was not preparing to attack. The fears and suspicions of the [[Cold War]] led Soviet General Secretary [[Nikita Khruschev]] to reject Eisenhower's proposal. Thirty-four years later, the Open Skies concept was reintroduced by President George H. W. Bush as a means to build confidence and security between all North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Warsaw Pact countries.

Canada uses a [[C-130 Hercules]] aircraft equipped with a "SAMSON" sensor pod to conduct flights over other treaty nations. The pod is a converted CC-130 fuel tank modified to carry the permitted sensors, along with associated on-board mission systems. A consortium of nations consisting of Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Canada, France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and Spain own and operate this system. The costs of maintaining the SAMSON Pod are shared, based on each nation's flight quota and actual use.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}

In September 1989, an international Open Skies conference involving all NATO and Warsaw Pact countries opened in [[Ottawa, Canada]]. Subsequent rounds of negotiations over the next three years were held in [[Budapest, Hungary]], [[Vienna, Austria]], and Helsinki, Finland.

Bulgaria, Romania, Russia, and Ukraine use the [[Antonov An-30]] for their flights. The Czech Republic also used to use the An-30 for this purpose but apparently retired all of theirs from service in 2003.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}

On [[March 24]], [[1992]], the Open Skies Treaty was signed in Helsinki by Secretary of State [[James Baker]] and foreign ministers from 23 other countries. The treaty entered into force on January 2, 2002, after [[Russia]] and [[Belarus]] completed ratification procedures.

Russia also uses a [[Tupolev Tu-154A|Tu-154M-ON]] monitoring aircraft. [[Germany]] formerly used this type as well until the aircraft was lost in [[1997_Namibia_mid-air_collision|a 1997 accident]]. Russia is phasing out both An-30 and Tu-154M-ON and replacing them with two [[Tupolev Tu-204#Tu-214ON|Tu-214ON]] with the registrations RA-64519 and RA-64525. This aircraft's new sensor suite, though, is being challenged by the US.{{Citation needed|date=September 2018}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alejandro Micco, Tomás Serebrisky|date=2006|title=Competition regimes and air transport costs: The effects of open skies agreements|journal=Journal of International Economics|volume=70}}</ref>

In [[November 1992]], President Bush assigned responsibility for overall training, management, leadership, coordination and support for U.S. Open Skies observation missions to the [[On-Site Inspection Agency]] (OSIA), now a part of the [[Defense Threat Reduction Agency]] (DTRA). Until entry into force in [[January 2002]], DTRA support for the treaty involved participating in training and joint trial flights (JTFs). The U.S. has conducted over 70 JTFs since 1993. By [[March 2003]], DTRA had successfully certified 16 camera configurations on the OC-135B aircraft. They also had contributed to the certification of the Bulgarian AN-30, Hungarian AN-26, POD Group (consisting of Belgium, Canada, France, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and Spain) C-130H, Russian AN-30, and Ukrainian AN-30. The United States successfully flew its first Open Skies mission over Russia in December 2002.

Sweden uses a [[Saab 340]] aircraft ("OS-100") that was certified in 2004.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

With entry into force of the treaty, formal observation flights began in [[August 2002]]. During the first treaty year, States Parties conducted 67 observation flights. For [[2004]], States Parties have planned 82 missions. The OSCC continues to address modalities for conducting observation missions and other implementation issues.

Until 2008, the U.K. designated aircraft was an [[Hawker Siddeley Andover|Andover C.1(PR)]] aircraft, registration XS596. Since then the U.K. has used a variety of aircraft including a Saab 340, an An-30, and an OC-135.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theyworkforyou.com/wrans/?id=2013-07-16a.165334.h&s=((section:wrans)+open+skies)+speaker:11189#g165334.q0|title=Surveillance|website=TheyWorkForYou}}</ref>

==References==

This article includes [[public ___domain]] text from the following [[United States]] Government sources:

*''[http://www.state.gov/t/ac/rls/fs/2004/33147.htm Open Skies Treaty Fact Sheet]'' published by the [[United States Department of State]] [[Bureau of Arms Control]] on [[June 4]], [[2004]]

* [http://www.dtra.mil/toolbox/directorates/osi/programs/ops/os/index.cfm On-Site Inspection Operations: Treaty on Open Skies] page at the United States [[Defense Threat Reduction Agency]]

In 2017, the [[German Air Force]] purchased an [[Airbus A319]] as its future Open Skies aircraft.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://augengeradeaus.net/2017/01/flugbereitschaft-erhaelt-zusaetzlichen-airbus/ |title=Flugbereitschaft erhält zusätzlichen Airbus |trans-title=Open Skies Adds Airbus Aircraft |date=5 January 2017 |first=T. |last=Wiegold |work=Augen geradeaus |language=de }}</ref>

==External links==

* [http://www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/33393.htm Text of the treaty] at the Bureau of Arms Control website

* [http://www.osmpf.wpafb.af.mil/Treaty_info/Treaty.htm Treaty Information] (including [http://www.osmpf.wpafb.af.mil/Treaty_info/Updated_Decisions.htm recent updates]) from the [http://www.osmpf.wpafb.af.mil/ Open Skies Media Processing Facility]

=== Sensors ===

Open Skies aircraft may have video, optical panoramic, and framing cameras for daylight photography, infrared line scanners for a day/night capability, and [[synthetic aperture radar]] for a day/night all weather capability. Photographic image quality will permit recognition of major military equipment (e.g., permit a member state to distinguish between a tank and a truck), thus allowing significant transparency of military forces and activities. Sensor categories may be added and capabilities improved by agreement among member states. All sensors used in Open Skies must be commercially available to all signatories.<ref name=stategov /> Imagery resolution is limited to 30 centimetres.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.airforcemag.com/washington-debates-role-of-satellites-in-open-skies-treaty/|title=Washington Debates Role of Satellites in Open Skies Treaty|date=9 December 2019|website=Air Force Magazine|language=en-US|access-date=10 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty on open skies |url=https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/1/5/14127.pdf |website=OSCE |access-date=24 March 2023}}</ref>

=== Quotas ===

Each state party is obligated to receive observation flights per its passive quota allocation. Each state party may conduct as many observation flights{{snd}}its active quota{{snd}}as its passive quota.<ref name=stategov /> During the first three years after entry into force, each state was obligated to accept no more than seventy-five percent of its passive quota. Since the overall annual passive quota for the United States is 42, this means that it was obligated to accept no more than 31 observation flights a year during this three-year period. Only two flights were requested over the United States during 2005, by the Russian Federation and Republic of Belarus group of states parties (which functions as a single entity for quota allocation purposes). The United States is entitled to 8 of the 31 annual flights available over Russia/Belarus. Additionally, the United States is entitled to one flight over Ukraine, which is shared with Canada.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gabriele|first=Mark David|title=The Treaty on Open Skies and its practical applications and implications for the United States}}</ref>

=== Data sharing and availability ===

Imagery collected from Open Skies missions is available to any state party upon request for the cost of reproduction. As a result, the data available to each state party is much greater than that which it can collect itself under the treaty quota system.<ref name=stategov />

== History ==

At a [[Geneva Summit (1955)|Geneva Conference]] meeting with [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Soviet Premier]] [[Nikolai Bulganin]] in 1955, [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] proposed that the [[United States]] and [[Soviet Union]] conduct [[surveillance]] overflights of each other's territory to reassure each country that the other was not preparing to attack.<ref name="eisenhower">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/eisenhower-foreign/ |title=Foreign Affairs |work=[[American Experience]] |publisher=WGBH Educational Foundation |access-date=28 July 2013 |quote=The two sides would not meet face-to-face until the Geneva summit of 1955. At the summit, Eisenhower asserted, "I came to Geneva because I believe mankind longs for freedom from war and the rumors of war. I came here because my lasting faith in the decent instincts and good sense of the people who populate this world of ours."}}</ref><ref>''Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955–1957, Austrian State Treaty; Summit and Foreign Ministers Meetings, 1955,'' edited by

William Z. Slany Washington DC 1988 [https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v05/d221] Volume V</ref> The fears and suspicions of the [[Cold War]] led [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Soviet General Secretary]] [[Nikita Khrushchev]] to reject Eisenhower's proposal, known as the Open Skies proposal.<ref name="eisenhower" /><ref name=dtra />

34 years later, the Open Skies concept was reintroduced by U.S. President [[George H. W. Bush]] as a means to build confidence and security between all [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) and [[Warsaw Pact]] countries. In February 1990, an international Open Skies conference involving all NATO and Warsaw Pact countries was held in [[Ottawa]], Canada. Subsequent rounds of negotiations were held in [[Budapest]], Hungary; [[Vienna]], Austria; and [[Helsinki]], Finland.<ref name="dtra" />

On 24 March 1992,<ref name="state.gov" /> the Open Skies Treaty was signed in Helsinki by [[United States Secretary of State|U.S. Secretary of State]] [[James Baker]] and foreign ministers from 23 other countries. The treaty entered into force on 2 January 2002, after [[Russia]] and [[Belarus]] completed ratification procedures.<ref name=dtra />

In November 1992, President George H. W. Bush assigned responsibility for overall training, management, leadership, coordination, and support for U.S. Open Skies observation missions to the [[On-Site Inspection Agency]] (OSIA), a part of the [[Defense Threat Reduction Agency]] (DTRA). Until entry into force in January 2002, DTRA support for the treaty involved participating in training and joint trial flights (JTFs). The U.S. has conducted over 70 JTFs since 1993. By March 2003, DTRA had successfully certified 16 camera configurations on the OC-135B aircraft. They also had contributed to the certification of the Bulgarian An-30, Hungarian [[Antonov An-26|An-26]], SAMSON POD Group (see above) C-130H, Romanian An-30, Russian An-30, and Ukrainian An-30. The United States successfully flew its first Open Skies mission over Russia in December 2002.<ref name=dtra>One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a United States Government publication in the [[public ___domain]]: [https://web.archive.org/web/20081017174158/http://www.dtra.mil/oe/osi/programs/ops/os/index.cfm On-Site Inspection Operations: Treaty on Open Skies] page at the United States [[Defense Threat Reduction Agency]], last accessed on 19 July 2009.</ref>

Formal observation flights began in August 2002. During the first treaty year, state parties conducted 67 observation flights. In 2004, state parties conducted 74 missions, and planned 110 missions for 2005. On 8 and 9 March 2007, Russia conducted overflights of Canada under the Treaty.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/russian-military-to-inspect-canada-from-above-1.646744?ref=rss|title=Russian military to inspect Canada from above|access-date=8 March 2007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310162645/http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2007/03/07/openskies-russians.html?ref=rss|archive-date=10 March 2007}}</ref> The OSCC continues to address modalities for conducting observation missions and other implementation issues.<ref name=stategov>One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a United States Government publication in the [[public ___domain]]: ''[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2012/03/186738.htm Open Skies Treaty Fact Sheet]'' published by the [[United States Department of State]] [[Bureau of Arms Control]] on 23 March 2012, last accessed on 11 April 2012.</ref>

Since 2002, a total of 40 missions have taken place over the U.K. There were 24 quota missions conducted by: Russia – 20; Ukraine – three; and Sweden – one. There were 16 training flights conducted by: Benelux (joint with Estonia); Estonia (joint with Benelux); Georgia – three (one joint with Sweden); Sweden – three (one joint with Georgia); U.S. – three; Latvia; Lithuania; Romania; Slovenia; and Yugoslavia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theyworkforyou.com/wrans/?id=2013-09-02d.166929.h&s=((section:wrans)+open+skies)+speaker:11189#g166929.q0|title=Military Intelligence|website=TheyWorkForYou}}</ref> Also since 2002, the U.K. has undertaken a total of 51 open skies missions – 38 were quota missions to the following countries: Ukraine (five); Georgia (seven); and Russia (26); 13 missions were training missions to the following nations: Bulgaria; Yugoslavia; Estonia; Slovenia (three); Sweden (three); US; Latvia, Lithuania, and the Benelux. The flights cost approximately £50,000 per operational mission, and approximately £25,000 for training missions with an approximate annual cost of £175,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theyworkforyou.com/wrans/?id=2013-07-16a.165340.h&s=((section:wrans)+open+skies)+speaker:11189#g165340.q0|title=Surveillance|website=TheyWorkForYou}}</ref>

A Russian Defence Ministry spokesman stated on 4 February 2016 that Turkey had refused a Russian Open Skies mission, planned to take place on 1–5 February 2016, to fly over areas adjacent to Syria, as well as over NATO air bases. According to Russia, Turkey gave no explanation regarding the limitations, and claimed that they indicated illegal military activity in Syrian territory.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://eng.syria.mil.ru/en/index/syria/news/more.htm?id=12076588@egNews |title=Briefing of the Russian Defence Ministry spokesman concerning activities of Rus aircraft in the Syrian Arab Republic |access-date=7 February 2016 |archive-date=9 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009084604/http://eng.syria.mil.ru/en/index/syria/news/more.htm?id=12076588@egNews |url-status=dead }}</ref> The OSCC has not commented on the alleged violation of the Treaty by Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.osce.org/press-releases?filters=+im_taxonomy_vid_1:(436)|title=News and press releases|website=www.osce.org}}</ref>

By 2016, Russian aircraft was using upgraded equipment for missions.<ref>{{cite news |last=Liewer |first=Steve |date=27 March 2016 |title=Russia's 'ahead of us' on technology used in Open Skies observation flights, StratCom warns |url=http://www.omaha.com/news/military/russia-s-ahead-of-us-on-technology-used-in-open/article_59bd7ae8-39f5-5c1c-a9e6-4e953eccdb25.html |work=Omaha World-Herald |___location=Omaha, Nebraska, United States |access-date=18 April 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |title=Russia wants to fly surveillance planes over US with advanced cameras, congressional staffer says |url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/russia-wants-to-fly-surveillance-planes-over-us-with-advanced-cameras-congressional-staffer-says/ |work=Fox News |___location=New York |date=22 February 2016 |access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

=== Challenges to the treaty ===

Both Russia and the United States alleged that the other was violating the provisions of the treaty.<ref>{{cite news |agency=AINOnline |title=U.S., Russia Trade Charges Over Open Skies Treaty Compliance |url=https://www.ainonline.com/aviation-news/defense/2017-09-27/us-russia-trade-charges-over-open-skies-treaty-compliance |date= 27 September 2017 |access-date=14 August 2018 }}</ref> U.S. Secretary of State [[Mike Pompeo]] cited Russia's access refusal in the Russian-controlled areas of Georgia.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Michael R. Gordon |last2=James Marson |title=U.S. Moving to Leave 'Open Skies' Treaty Designed to Reduce Conflict With Russia |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-moving-to-leaving-1992-open-skies-treaty-11590070847 |access-date=22 May 2020 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=21 May 2020 |quote=Secretary of State Mike Pompeo said years of what he called violations by Russia had undermined the treaty. Russia “weaponized the Treaty by making it into a tool of intimidation and threat,” he said. He cited Moscow’s refusal of access to breakaway regions that it controls in the former Soviet republic of Georgia}}</ref> On 20 September 2019, the U.S. and Canada were denied access to a military exercise in central Russia.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Michael R. Gordon |last2=Vivian Salama |title=Trump Moves Closer to Ending Another Post-Cold War Treaty |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-moves-closer-to-ending-another-post-cold-war-treaty-11572177600 |access-date=22 May 2020 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=27 October 2019 |quote=Russia prevented the U.S. and Canada from carrying out a flight near a military exercise in central Russia on Sept. 20}}</ref>

=== American withdrawal ===

In October 2019, documents from the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] indicated that President [[Donald Trump]] was considering withdrawing from the Open Skies Treaty.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter to Robert O'Brien |url=https://foreignaffairs.house.gov/_cache/files/4/6/46136e03-1d92-431b-aa31-7d20d2f266f9/5B01C6DD219BB03F508CB4377B03183E.ele-letter-to-o-brien-open-skies-treaty-final.pdf |access-date=17 October 2019 |archive-date=12 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191012161900/https://foreignaffairs.house.gov/_cache/files/4/6/46136e03-1d92-431b-aa31-7d20d2f266f9/5B01C6DD219BB03F508CB4377B03183E.ele-letter-to-o-brien-open-skies-treaty-final.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Ukraine]] was against the move, fearing it would enable Russia to reduce further or ban overflights, thus reducing their knowledge of Russian military movements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=Iain |date=27 October 2019 |title=Storm Clouds Gather over Open Skies Treaty |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/storm-clouds-gather-over-open-skies-treaty |access-date=25 November 2019 |website=CSIS |language=en-US}}</ref>

In April 2020, it was reported that Secretary of State Mike Pompeo and [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] [[Mark Esper]] had agreed to proceed with U.S. withdrawal from the Treaty on Open Skies.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/apr/05/trump-administration-treaty-war-russia-withdraw |title=Trump administration determined to exit treaty reducing risk of war |date=5 April 2020 |website=The Guardian |language=en-UK |access-date=10 April 2019}}</ref> On 21 May 2020, President Trump announced that the United States would be withdrawing from the treaty due to alleged Russian violations.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Riechman |first=Deb |date=21 May 2020 |title=US says it's pulling out of Open Skies surveillance treaty |publisher=[[Associated Press]] |url=https://apnews.com/773c5e6b7fb92f5e6d0e4b8fddf1665e |url-status=live|access-date=21 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521151337/https://apnews.com/773c5e6b7fb92f5e6d0e4b8fddf1665e |archive-date=21 May 2020}}</ref>

On 22 May 2020, the United States submitted notice of withdrawal from the Treaty on Open Skies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=On the Treaty on Open Skies |url=https://www.state.gov/on-the-treaty-on-open-skies/ |access-date=22 November 2020|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=21 May 2020|title=Open Skies Treaty: US to withdraw from arms control deal|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-52760420|access-date=22 November 2020}}</ref> Senate Democrats questioned the appropriateness of withdrawal so close to the [[2020 United States presidential election]].<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Leading Senate Democrats Question Legality of Trump Administration's Withdrawal from Open Skies Treaty |date=22 June 2020 |publisher=United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations |url=https://www.foreign.senate.gov/press/ranking/release/leading-senate-democrats-question-legality-of-trump-administrations-withdrawal-from-open-skies-treaty- |language=en |access-date=24 November 2020 |website=www.foreign.senate.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Mastrangelo |first1=Dominick |title=Trump administration pulls out of Open Skies Treaty with Russia |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/527056-us-withdraws-from-open-skies-treaty-with-russia |access-date=22 November 2020 |work=TheHill |date=22 November 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

On 22 November 2020, United States official sources—including U.S. Department of State websites, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, and the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]]'s official Twitter account—announced that the six-month period was over and the U.S. was no longer a party to the Treaty.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Treaty on Open Skies |url=https://www.state.gov/treaty-on-open-skies/ |access-date=22 November 2020 |website=United States Department of State |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite tweet | |last=Pompeo |first=Mike |author-link= Mike Pompeo|user=secpompeo |number=1330516375090180096 |date= 22 November 2020 |title= Today, pursuant to earlier notice provided, the United States withdrawal from the Treaty on Open Skies is now effective. America is more secure because of it, as Russia remains in non-compliance with its obligations |access-date=24 November 2020 }}</ref> The U.S. said it would share some of its intelligence and reconnaissance information with European allies to make up for any loss of critical information from the withdrawal.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Browne |first=Ryan |title=US formally withdraws from Open Skies Treaty that bolstered European security |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/11/22/politics/us-withdrawal-open-skies/ |access-date=4 December 2022 |website=CNN |date=22 November 2020 }}</ref>

=== Russian withdrawal ===

In January 2021, Russia announced that it would follow the United States in withdrawing from the Treaty on Open Skies.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Khurshudyan |first=Isabelle |title=Russia plans withdrawal from Open Skies treaty allowing surveillance flights after U.S. pullout |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/russia-open-skies-withdrawal-trump/2021/01/15/5976ddd0-5729-11eb-acc5-92d2819a1ccb_story.html |access-date=19 January 2021 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> The Biden administration informed Moscow in May 2021 that it would not re-enter the pact; on 7 June 2021 Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] signed a law that formalized Russia's exit from the Treaty on Open Skies.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Putin signs law taking Russia out of Open Skies arms control treaty |language=en-US |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/putin-signs-law-russian-withdrawal-open-skies-treaty-2021-06-07/ |access-date=7 June 2021|issn=2293-6343}}</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Freedoms of the air]]

*[[Open Skies Treaty between Hungary and Romania|Treaty on Open Skies between Hungary and Romania]]

== References ==

{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==

{{Commons category|Open Skies aircraft}}

* {{wikinews-inline|Norway and Denmark conducting observation flights over Belarus and Russia}}

* [http://www.osce.org/fsc/66205 Photogallery of flights under the Open Skies Treaty] on the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] website

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pIGJw-h0F-U YouTube historical video on Open Skies Treaty]

* [http://www.osce.org/library/14127 Text of the treaty]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141222084802/http://cns.miis.edu/inventory/pdfs/oskies.pdf Open Skies Treaty Factsheet], cns. miis.edu

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041208222304/http://www.osmpf.wpafb.af.mil/Treaty_info/Treaty.htm Treaty Information] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20041017234005/http://www.osmpf.wpafb.af.mil/Treaty_info/Updated_Decisions.htm 2004 updates] from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20081102041222/http://www.osmpf.wpafb.af.mil/ Open Skies Media Processing Facility]

* [http://williamlambers.com/2011/08/28/open-skies-for-peace-in-the-age-of-nuclear-weapons/ Open Skies for Peace in the Age of Nuclear Weapons] - Historical information about President Eisenhower's open skies proposal

* Century by Tony D. Holmes, Major, USAF {{ISBN|978-1288228799}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Open Skies Treaty}}

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