Drug Abuse Resistance Education: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 18:12, 28 January 2007

Latest revision as of 12:19, 13 August 2025

Line 1:

{{Short description|US anti-drug educational program}}

[[Image:Darelogo.gif|frame|right|Logo of D.A.R.E]]

'''Drug Abuse Resistance Education''', better known as '''DARE''' or '''D.A.R.E.''', is an international education program, for students in kindergarten through 12th grade, which seeks to discourage interest in [[illegal drugs]], [[gangs]], and [[violence]]. DARE, which has expanded globally since its founding in [[1983]], is the major demand-side drug control strategy of the [[United States|U.S.]] [[War on Drugs]]. [[Student]]s who enter the latest of over a dozen versions of the program sign a pledge to never use drugs or join gangs and are taught by local [[police|law enforcement]] about the dangers of [[drug use]] in a high-tech, interactive, ten week in-school curriculum. According to the DARE website, 36 million children around the world — 26 million in the U.S. — are part of the program. The program is implemented in 80% of the nation's [[school district]]s, and 54 countries around the world.<ref name="DARE.com">[http://www.dare.com DARE.com], the official website of the DARE program.</ref>

[[File:Logo of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE).png|thumb|right|D.A.R.E. logo]]

== Overview ==

'''Drug Abuse Resistance Education''', or '''D.A.R.E.''', is an education program aimed to prevent [[Drug abuse|the misuse]] of [[controlled drugs]], membership in [[gang]]s, and violent behavior. It was founded in [[Los Angeles]] in 1983 as a joint initiative of then-[[LAPD]] chief [[Daryl Gates]] and the [[Los Angeles Unified School District]].<ref name="DARE.com">http://www.dare.com/home/about_dare.asp {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100724232501/http://www.dare.com/home/about_dare.asp |date=2010-07-24 }}, the official website of the D.A.R.E. program.</ref><ref name = "LA Times">{{cite news |last=Newton |first=Jim |date=1993-09-09|title=DARE Marks a Decade of Growth and Controversy : Youth: Despite critics, anti-drug program expands nationally. But some see declining support in LAPD.|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-09-09-mn-33226-story.html |work= |___location= |access-date=2021-04-15 }}

DARE America is the main resource center that provides officer training, supports the development and evaluation of the DARE [[curriculum]], provides student educational materials, monitors instruction standards and program results, and creates national awareness for both community and national chapters of the program. The DARE program has since been used throughout the U.S. and in several other countries. It has received numerous accolades and awards for delivering the message to keep "kids off drugs."<ref name="DARE.com"/>

</ref> Its goal was to reduce the [[demand]] for illicit drugs as part of the broader American [[War on Drugs]].

The program was most prominent in the 1980s and 1990s. At the height of its popularity, D.A.R.E. was found in 75% of American school districts and was funded by [[Federal government of the United States|the US government]]. The program consists of police officers who make visits to [[elementary school]] classrooms, warning children that drugs are harmful and should be refused. D.A.R.E. sought to educate children on how to resist peer pressure to take drugs. It also denounced alcohol, tobacco, graffiti, and tattoos as the results of peer pressure.

Several spin-off or inspired programs, such as [[DECIDE]], have also been introduced for use in [[elementary school]] (and, to a lesser extent, [[junior high school]]) classrooms.

A series of scientific studies in the 1990s and 2000s cast doubt on the effectiveness of D.A.R.E., with some studies concluding the program was harmful or counterproductive. Years after its effectiveness was cast into doubt, the program remained popular among politicians and many members of the public, in part because of a common intuition that the program ought to work. Eventually, in the early 2000s, funding for the program was greatly reduced.

=== DARE curriculum ===

The instructors of the DARE curriculum are local police officers who must undergo 80 hours of special training in areas such as [[child development]], [[classroom management]], [[teaching]] techniques, and [[communication]] skills. For [[high school]] instructors, 40 hours of additional training are prescribed. <ref name="DARE.com"/> Police officers are invited by the local school districts to speak and work with students. There are programs for different age levels. Working with the classroom teachers, students work over a number of sessions on workbooks and interactive discussions.

The program distributed T-shirts and other items branded with the D.A.R.E. logo and with anti-drug messages. These items were repurposed by [[drug culture]] as ironic statements starting in the 1990s.

The course is complemented by a variety of activities aimed at children, such as DARE [[song]]s which the students sing together, role-playing, as well as picture storybooks. Older children are presented with examples of the grimmer aspects of drug abuse, such as health and crime problems.

Its American headquarters is in [[Inglewood, California]]. D.A.R.E. expanded to [[United Kingdom|the United Kingdom]] in 1995. The program's mascot is Daren the Lion.

== History and purpose==

DARE America, a national [[non-profit]] organization, was founded in 1983 by [[Los Angeles Police Department|Los Angeles Police]] chief [[Daryl Gates]].<ref name="Los Angeles Police Department - History of the LAPD - Chief Gates">[http://www.lapdonline.org/history_of_the_lapd/content_basic_view/1114] Los Angeles Police Department - History of the LAPD - Chief Gates </ref> Narcotics - related crimes were the main problems that the LAPD faced. D.A.R.E. was based on his contention that the present generation had already surrendered to drug dependency and that the country’s future lies with the readiness of our children to resist involvement. <ref name="Los Angeles Police Department - History of the LAPD - Chief Gates" /> Gates believed that uniformed police officers were the best equipped to deliver the message that drugs are bad.

D.A.R.E. program materials from 1991 describe it as "a drug abuse prevention education program designed to equip [[elementary school]] children with skills for resisting [[peer pressure]] to experiment with tobacco, drugs, and alcohol."<ref name="Introduction1991" /> It was created as a part of the [[war on drugs]] in the United States, with the intention of reducing the demand for drugs through education that would make drug use unappealing. The program was conducted by uniformed police officers who visited classrooms.

The Safe and drug-free schools act ([[Improving America's Schools Act of 1994]]) provided funding for use in D.A.R.E. programs in the United States. In the 1996 [[State of the Union address]], [[President Clinton]] even singled out D.A.R.E. for praise: "People like these DARE officers are making a real impression on grade-school children that will give them strength to say no when the time comes."<ref name="1996 State of the Union Address">[http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/New/other/sotu.html] President William Jefferson Clinton, 1996 State of the Union Address, January 23, 1996</ref>

The program was developed in 1983 on the initiative of [[Daryl Gates]], chief of the [[Los Angeles Police Department]], in collaboration with Harry Handler, superintendent of the [[Los Angeles Unified School District]].<ref name="Introduction1991">{{cite report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IvlJSBYnXiMC |title=An Introduction to DARE: Drug Abuse Resistance Education |year=1991 |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |pages=i–2, 8–12 }}</ref> A local program at first, D.A.R.E. spread rapidly in the 1980s. In 1988, [[Ronald Reagan]] proclaimed the first National D.A.R.E. Day. At the program's height, it was in 75% of American school districts. It was funded by the federal government in the ''Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act of 1986'', which mentions D.A.R.E. by name.<ref name="Cima2016" /> In 2002, D.A.R.E. had an annual budget of over $10 million.<ref name="Ingraham2017">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/07/12/a-brief-history-of-d-a-r-e-the-anti-drug-program-jeff-sessions-wants-to-revive/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |title=A brief history of DARE, the anti-drug program Jeff Sessions wants to revive |first=Christopher |last=Ingraham |date=July 12, 2017}}</ref>

== Funding ==

One political issue with D.A.R.E. in the United States is the funding. D.A.R.E. draws its funding as a crime prevention initiative that serves the educational community. School districts do not always have to pay to have D.A.R.E officers participate in programs. They are funded through the law enforcement agencies. This makes it popular at a local level for teachers and parent groups. Replacement programs, like ALERT in the [[Los Angeles Unified School District]] required district funding and substitute teachers. Cities that have cut DARE programs have been able to re-allocate funding for other purposes. At higher political levels, the DARE program is one among many competing for funding. The State and Federal politics makes a high-visibility program like D.A.R.E. a target for criticism, primarily as its viability as an educational tool.

[[File:EveshamDARE.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Pontiac Firebird]] in D.A.R.E. livery in [[Evesham Township, New Jersey]].]]

== Criticism ==

The curriculum consisted of the D.A.R.E. stunt car, and 'B-rad' lectures on the harmful consequences of drug and alcohol use, how to refuse drugs, building [[self-esteem]] and support networks, and alternatives to drugs.<ref name="Introduction1991" /> Curriculum also condemned graffiti and tattoos because they were considered to be the result of peer pressure.<ref>{{cite news |work=[[The Village Voice]] |title=Truth or D.A.R.E.: The Dubious Drug-Education Program Takes New York |first=Jennifer |last=Gonnerman |date=April 7, 1999 |url=https://www.druglibrary.org/think/~jnr/truthord.htm}}</ref> These lessons were derived from SMART, an anti-drug program under development at the [[University of Southern California]], but they were adapted to be delivered by police officers instead of educators.<ref name="Cima2016" /> Officers were also encouraged to spend time with students informally, such as playing basketball or chatting with students over lunch.<ref name="Introduction1991" /> Officers would sometimes arrive in sports cars that police had seized from drug dealers, which was intended to demonstrate that drugs lead to losing coveted possessions.

DARE has fallen under heavy criticism from various sources. The most common complaint is that it is ineffective, and that there is no proof that students who go through the DARE program are any less likely to use drugs.<ref>[http://www.alcoholfacts.org/DARE.html Drug Abuse Resistance Education: the Effectiveness of DARE] by [[David J. Hanson]]</ref> Other evidence suggests that, by exposing young impressionable children to drugs, the program is in fact encouraging and nurturing drug use.

Scientific studies cast doubt on the effectiveness of D.A.R.E. starting in the early 1990s, with many concluding that D.A.R.E. did nothing to reduce illicit drug use. One study found that D.A.R.E. students were actually more likely to use drugs.<ref name="Ingraham2017" /> Yet the program remained popular among politicians and many members of the public for decades, in part because of a common intuitive judgment that the program should work.<ref name="Cima2016">{{cite web |url=https://priceonomics.com/dare-the-anti-drug-program-that-never-actually/ |website=Priceonomics |first=Rosie |last=Cima |title=DARE: The Anti-Drug Program That Never Actually Worked |date=December 19, 2016}}</ref> Funding for D.A.R.E. was greatly reduced in the 2000s because of its poor performance at reducing drug use, particularly following a [[General Accounting Office]] report in 2003 which found "no significant differences in illicit drug use" caused by D.A.R.E.<ref name="Ingraham2017" />

=== Civil rights concerns ===

The DARE program encourages [[anonymous]] reporting of drug use by other students, or even [[parent]]s and [[teacher]]s. Some criticism stems from a [[Libertarian]] point of view in which drug use should not be regarded as a crime. Also that police should not be involved in asking students to report on peers or authority figures as it is a step towards [[Authoritarianism]].

After decades of antagonism toward D.A.R.E. because of its ineffectiveness, the curriculum was changed starting in 2009. The new program is called "Keepin' it REAL" and focuses less on lectures and more on interactive activities, such as practicing refusal and saying no to pressure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Nordrum|first=Amy|title=The New D.A.R.E. Program—This One Works |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-new-d-a-r-e-program-this-one-works/|access-date=2020-10-07|website=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref> It is now less explicitly focused on opposition to drugs, with the broader aim of teaching good decision-making.<ref name="Ingraham2017" />

=== D.A.R.E. is ineffective ===

The U.S. Department of Education concluded in 2003 that the DARE program is ineffective and now prohibits its funds from being used to support it.<ref name="Zernike"> Zernike, K. [http://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/15/national/15DARE.html Anti-drug program says it will adopt a new strategy]. ''New York Times'', February 15, 2001.</ref> The U.S. Surgeon General's office, the National Academy of Sciences,<ref name="Zernike"> and the U.S. General Accountability Office (GAO) have also concluded that the program is ineffective.<ref name="Kanof">Kanof, M. E. ''Youth Illicit Drug Use Prevention: DARE Long-Term Evaluations and Federal Efforts to Identify Effective Programs''. Washington, DC: General Accounting Office, January 15, 2003. [http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03172r.pdf pdf format]</ref> and the Government Accounting Office also concluded that the program is sometimes counterproductive in some populations, with those who graduate from DARE later having higher rates of drug use. Studies by Dr. Dennis Rosenbaum <ref name="Rosenbaum">Rosenbaum, D. P., and Gordon S. Hanson. Assessing the effects of school-based drug education: A six-year multilevel analysis of project D.A.R.E. ''Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency'', 1998, ''35(4)'', 381-412. [http://jrc.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/35/4/381 abstract], [http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/uic.htm Full text at Schaffer Library of Drug Policy]</ref>, and by the California Legislative Analyst's office <ref name="Bovard">Bovard, J. DARE's dying gasp. The Future of Freedom Foundation, September, 2000. [http://www.fff.org/comment/ed0900g.asp]</ref> found that DARE graduates were more likely than others to drink [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], [[tobacco smoking|smoke tobacco]] and use [[illegal drug]]s.

===Use of children as informants===

=== Unfavorable research suppressed ===

Circa 2004, "[c]hildren [were] asked to submit to D.A.R.E. police officers sensitive written questionnaires that can easily refer to the kids' homes" and that "a D.A.R.E. lesson [was] called 'The Three R's: Recognize, Resist, Report'", encouraging children to "tell friends, teachers or police if they find drugs at home."<ref>Miller, Joel. ''Bad Trip: How the War Against Drugs is Destroying America''. NY: Nelson Thomas, 2004</ref>

Administrators of the DARE program have tried to suppress unfavorable research by the U.S. [[Bureau of Justice Assistance]] and the [[Research Triangle Institute]] (RTI) that found that "DARE simply didn't work". A Federal judge ruled that DARE had sought to "suppress scientific research" critical of its program and had "attempted to silence researchers at the Research Triangle Institute," according to editors at the ''[[American Journal of Public Health]]'' and producers at ''[[Dateline NBC]].'' <ref>[http://www.wesleyan.edu/hermes/prev/feb99/7A.htm D.A.R.E. Sucks]</ref><ref>[http://www.fff.org/comment/ed0900g.asp DARE’s Dying Gasp]</ref> Some reporters, like those at ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine, who have written negative stories on DARE have claimed that they were the victims of [[harassment]] and [[intimidation]] as a result. <ref>[http://www.albionmonitor.com/12-3-95/dare.html The Politics of D.A.R.E]</ref> Critics such as [[Students for Sensible Drug Policy]], [[DRCNet]], and [[Drugsense]], have exposed the DARE program for teaching [[junk science|misleading and inaccurate information]] about drugs and drug use.

In addition, "D.A.R.E. officers are encouraged to put a 'D.A.R.E. Box' in every classroom, into which students may drop 'drug information' or questions under the pretense of anonymity. Officers are instructed that if a student 'makes a disclosure related to drug use,' the officer should report the information to further authorities, both school and police. This apparently applies whether the 'drug use' was legal or illegal, harmless or harmful. In a number of communities around the country, students have been enlisted by the D.A.R.E. officer as informants against their parents."<ref name=":0">{{cite web |year= |title=section six: a different look at d.a.r.e. (DRCNet) |url=https://www.drcnet.org/DARE/section6.html |website=www.drcnet.org}}</ref>

=== Misleading information ===

Some argue that DARE's "[[Just Say No]]" messages mislead students by lumping all drugs (from [[America]]n [[beer]] to [[Colombia]]n [[cocaine]]) in the same category.<ref name=chip>[http://www.chiprowe.com/articles/just-say-no-dare.html Just Say No -- Why DARE Doesn't Work]</ref>

=== Other programs more effective ===

It is also argued that DARE should be replaced by programs of proven effectiveness <ref name="Ennett>Ennett, S.T., Tobler, N.S., Ringwalt, C.L., & Flewelling, R.L. How effective is Drug Abuse Resistance Education? A meta-analysis of project DARE outcome evaluations. ''American Journal of Public Health'', 1994, ''84(9)'', 1394-1401.</ref>. Many schools have decided to incorporate drug awareness into a larger health program.

Circa 1995, parents compared D.A.R.E. to the [[Weimar Republic#End of the Weimar Republic|late Weimar Republic]], in its installation of "uniformed, sometimes armed, agents of the state in classrooms to tell children what their attitudes ought to be, and to obtain information about family home life which may be of interest to the state".<ref name=":0" />

==Positive effects of D.A.R.E.==

===Interaction with police officers===

The DARE program enables students to interact with police officers in a controlled, safe, classroom environment. This helps students and officers meet and understand each other in a friendly manner, instead of having to meet when a student commits a crime, or when officers must intervene in domestic disputes and severe family problems.

In 1997, ''The Future of Freedom Foundation'' asserted that, "In the official D.A.R.E. Implementation Guide, police officers are advised to be alert for signs of children who have relatives who use drugs. D.A.R.E. officers are first and foremost police officers and thus are duty-bound to follow up leads that might come to their attention through inadvertent or indiscreet comments by young children."<ref>{{cite web|date=8 February 2002|title=The Future of Freedom Foundation: Freedom Daily|url=http://www.fff.org/freedom/0297d.asp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020208233155/http://www.fff.org/freedom/0297d.asp|archive-date=8 February 2002}}</ref> As a result, children sometimes confide the names of people they suspect are illegally using drugs.

===Drug awareness===

Although one of the criticisms of the program is that it makes students aware of drugs they might not otherwise know, and reportedly intrigues them. It also makes students aware of the prevalence so that they are not caught off guard when they are made available to them. Many students and parents are unaware of the level of crime, drug dealing and drug use at school. The D.A.R.E. officers bluntly address the students about the ramifications of illegal drug use and the forms that it can take. The officers also make students able to see through the techniques drug dealers use to increase their customer base by [[Peer pressure|peer pressure]] and [[Drug addiction|drug addiction]]. D.A.R.E. officers work to educate students about [[Presumed knowledge of the law|presumed knowledge of the law]].

==Studies on effectiveness==

== D.A.R.E. Promotional items ==

To help market the program, the organization produces and distributes a significant number of promotional items. They are available through the DARE web store. As part of the program, municipalities and schools may budget for some of the items to be given to students as part of the program. Playing off the [[acronym]], many of these collectibles bear the sentence "D.A.R.E. to keep kids off drugs" and "D.A.R.E. to SAY NO". <ref name="DARE.com"/>

===1992 The– D.A.R.E. T-ShirtIndiana University===

Researchers at [[Indiana University]], commissioned by Indiana school officials in 1992, found that those who completed the D.A.R.E. program subsequently had significantly higher rates of [[hallucinogen|hallucinogenic drug]] use than those not exposed to the program.<ref>Evans, Alice and Kris Bosworth – [https://web.archive.org/web/19980629095917/http://www.pdkintl.org/edres/resbul19.htm = Building effective drug education programs.] [[Phi Delta Kappa]] International ''Research Bulletin'' No 19, December, 1997.</ref>{{why|date=January 2024}}{{dubious|date=January 2024}}

[[Image:Dare_tshirt.png|thumb|200px|right|One variation of the D.A.R.E T-shirt design]]

The '''D.A.R.E T-shirt''' was a [[T-shirt]] given to thousands of [[Education in the United States|public school]] students in the U.S during the 90's, and 00's. It has since become a [[meme|pop culture icon]] among youth and young adults in the U.S.

===1994 – RTI International===

The standard (and most recognized) shirt design was a black tee with the [[Drug Abuse Resistance Education]] (D.A.R.E.) logo in red and accompanying text underneath in white printed on the front of the shirt. 'To Keep Kids Off Drugs' or 'To Resist Drugs and Violence' are common phrases printed on the shirt.

In 1994, three [[RTI International]] scientists evaluated eight previous quantitative analyses on D.A.R.E.'s efficacy that were found to meet their requirements for rigor.<ref name="journal26"/><ref name="journal24"/> The researchers found that D.A.R.E.'s long-term effect could not be determined, because the corresponding studies were "compromised by severe control group attrition or contamination".<ref name="journal24">{{cite journal|date=September 1994|doi=10.2105/ajph.84.9.1394|first1=Susan|first2=Nancy|first3=Christopher|first4=Robert|issue=9|journal=American Journal of Public Health|last1=Ennett|last2=Tobler|last3=Ringwalt|last4=Flewelling|pages=1394–401|pmc=1615171|pmid=8092361|title=How effective is drug abuse resistance education? A meta-analysis of Project DARE outcome evaluations|volume=84}}</ref> However, the study concluded that in the short-term "DARE imparts a large amount of information, but has little or no impact on students' drug use", and that much smaller, interactive programs were more effective.<ref name="journal26">{{cite news|title=Study: DARE teaches kids about drugs but doesn't prevent use|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1876&dat=19941106&id=EbQeAAAAIBAJ&pg=6923,1403055|newspaper=Chicago Tribune|first1=Kristina|last1=Marlow|first2=Steve|last2=Rhodes |date=November 6, 1994 |access-date=March 6, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=How DARE they?|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1980&dat=19961003&id=-FAlAAAAIBAJ&pg=3175,396149|publisher=Associated Press|first=Jim|last=Brunner|date=October 3, 1996 |access-date=March 6, 2014}}</ref>

After the 1994 Research Triangle Institute study,<ref name="ncjrs1994">Jeremy Travis, director of the National Institute of Justice – [http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/dare.pdf The D.A.R.E. Program: A Review of Prevalence, User Satisfaction, and Effectiveness]. October 1994 (PDF document) Quote:''"While not conclusive, the findings suggest that D.A.R.E. may benefit from using more interactive strategies and emphasizing social and general competencies. A revised D.A.R.E. curriculum that includes more participatory learning was piloted in 1993 and is being launched nationwide this fall."''</ref><ref name="RTI1994">Christopher L. Ringwalt, Jody M. Greene, Susan T. Ennett, Ronaldo Iachan, Richard R. Clayton, Carl G. Leukefeld. [http://www.ncjrs.gov/txtfiles/darerev.txt Past and Future Directions of the D.A.R.E. Program: An Evaluation Review.] [[Research Triangle Institute]]. September 1994. Supported under Award # 91-DD-CX-K053 from the [[National Institute of Justice]], Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice.</ref> an article in the [[New Times LA]] stated that the "organization spent $41,000 to try to prevent widespread distribution of the RTI report and started legal action aimed at squelching the study".<ref name="Hamilton"/> The director of publication of the ''[[American Journal of Public Health]]'' told ''[[USA Today]]'' that "DARE has tried to interfere with the publication of this. They tried to intimidate us."<ref name=" jeff Elliot">[https://reason.com/1995/03/01/drug-prevention-placebo/ Drug prevention placebo: How D.A.R.E. wastes time, money and police.] Elliott, Jeff. ''[[Reason Magazine]]'', March, 1995.</ref>

The T-shirt was traditionally awarded as a prize to students who completed the D.A.R.E program and pledged to stay drug-free although the D.A.R.E. program now authorizes screen-printers to license their graphics.

===1995 – California Department of Education===

Originally designed as a declaration of the wearer's drug-free stance, it has since become popular with [[recreational drug use]]rs as a display of pride and defiance. Additionally, it has inspired parody T-shirts featuring [[backronym]]s such as "Drugs Are Really Excellent".

In 1995, a report to the [[California Department of Education]] by Joel Brown, stated that none of California's [[drug education]] programs worked, including D.A.R.E.: "California's drug education programs, D.A.R.E. being the largest of them, simply don't work. More than 40 percent of the students told researchers they were 'not at all' influenced by drug educators or programs. Nearly 70 percent reported neutral to negative feelings about those delivering the anti-drug message. While only 10 percent of elementary students responded to drug education negatively or indifferently, this figure grew to 33 percent of middle school students and topped 90 percent at the high school level." In some circles, educators and administrators have admitted that D.A.R.E., in fact, potentially increased students' exposure and knowledge of unknown drugs and controlled substances, resulting in experimentation and consumption of narcotics at a much younger age. Criticism focused on failure and misuse of taxpayer dollars, with either ineffective or negative results state-wide.

<ref name="Hamilton">Denise Hamilton – [http://www.csun.edu/CommunicationStudies/ben/news/cia/970320.dare.html Hamilton, Denise. The Truth About D.A.R.E.; The big-bucks antidrug program for kids doesn't work] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208102524/http://www.csun.edu/CommunicationStudies/ben/news/cia/970320.dare.html |date=December 8, 2007 }} – Los Angeles New Times, March 20, 1997</ref>

===1998 – National Institute of Justice===

A hemp enthusiast, Mark Hornaday, faced a 4-year prison term and a $20,000 fine from charges filed by the Los Angeles DA's office in 1995. Hornaday created and sold a satirical DARE t-shirt, with the inscription, [http://www.druglibrary.org/think/~jnr/DAREHAND.HTM "I turned in my parents and all I got was this lousy t-shirt".] NORMAL defended the suit on free-speech grounds. Charges were eventually dropped.

In 1998, a grant from the National Institute of Justice to the [[University of Maryland, College Park|University of Maryland]] resulted in a report to the NIJ, which among other statements, concluded that "D.A.R.E. does not work to reduce substance use."<ref name="NIJWHATWORKS">Lawrence W. Sherman, [[Denise Gottfredson]], Doris MacKenzie, John Eck, Peter Reuter, and Shawn Bushway – [http://www.ncjrs.gov/works Preventing Crime: What Works, What Doesn’t, What’s Promising.] Report for the National Institute of Justice. Chapter 5. School-based Crime Prevention 1998. Quote: ''In summary, using the criteria adopted for this report, D.A.R.E. does not work to reduce substance use. The programs (sic) content, [[teaching method]]s and use of uniformed police officers rather than teachers might each explain its weak evaluations. No scientific evidence suggests that the D.A.R.E. core curriculum, as originally designed or revised in 1993, will reduce substance use in the absence of continued instruction more focused on social competency development. Any consideration of the D.A.R.E.'s potential as a drug prevention strategy should place D.A.R.E. in the context of instructional strategies in general. No instructional program is likely to have a dramatic effect on substance use. Estimates of the effect sizes of even the strongest of these programs are typically in the mid-to high-teens. D.A.R.E.'s meager effects place it at the bottom of the distribution of effect sizes, but none of the effects are large enough to justify their use as the centerpiece of a drug prevention strategy. Rather, such programs should be embedded within more comprehensive programs using the additional strategies identified elsewhere in this chapter.''</ref> D.A.R.E. expanded and modified the social competency development area of its curriculum in response to the report. Research by Dr. Dennis Rosenbaum in 1998<ref name="Rosenbaum">{{cite journal|last1=Rosenbaum |first1=Dennis P |first2=Gordon S |last2=Hanson |title=Assessing the effects of school-based drug education: A six-year multilevel analysis of project D.A.R.E. |journal=Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency |year=1998 |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=381–412 |url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/uic.htm |doi=10.1177/0022427898035004002|s2cid=145583986 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> found that D.A.R.E. graduates were more likely than others to drink [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], [[tobacco smoking|smoke tobacco]] and use [[illegal drug]]s. Psychologist Dr. William Colson asserted in 1998 that D.A.R.E. increased drug awareness so that "as they get a little older, they (students) become very curious about these drugs they've learned about from police officers."<ref>Laugesen, W. The dire consequences of D.A.R.E. ''Boulder Weekly'', December 4, 1998,</ref> The scientific research evidence in 1998 indicated that the officers were unsuccessful in preventing the increased awareness and curiosity from being translated into illegal use. The evidence suggested that, by exposing young impressionable children to drugs, the program was, in fact, encouraging and nurturing drug use.<ref>Dennis P. Rosenbaum, Ph.D. Professor and Head and Gordon S. Hanson, Ph.D. Research Associate Department of Criminal Justice and Center for Research in Law and Justice University of Illinois at Chicago – [http://www.drugsense.org/tfy/uic.htm Assessing the effects of School-based Drug Education: A Six-year Multi-Level Analysis of Project D.A.R.E.] by April 6, 1998. Media Awareness Project (MAP) Inc. d/b/a DrugSense</ref> Studies funded by the National Institute of Justice in 1998,<ref name="NIJWHATWORKS" /><ref>[http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/171676.PDF National Institute of Justice. Research in Brief], July 1998. Summary of its Report to Congress, Preventing Crime: What Works, What Doesn't, What's Promising. (PDF document)</ref> and the [[California Legislative Analyst's Office]] in 2000<ref>[http://www.lao.ca.gov/analysis_2000/crim_justice/cj_12_OCJP_8100_anl00.htm][[California Legislative Analyst's Office]] ''Analysis of the 2000–2001 Budget Bill.'' no date</ref> also concluded that the program was ineffective.

===1999 D.A.R.E.– policeLynam cars''et al.''===

A ten-year study was completed by Donald R. Lynam and colleagues involving one thousand D.A.R.E. graduates in an attempt to measure the effects of the program. After the ten-year period, no measurable effects were noted. The researchers compared levels of alcohol, cigarette, marijuana and the use of illegal substances before the D.A.R.E. program (when the students were in sixth grade) with the post-D.A.R.E. levels (when they were 20 years old). Although there were some measured effects shortly after the program on the attitudes of the students towards drug use, these effects did not seem to carry on long-term.<ref>Donald R. Lynam, Richard Milich, Rick Zimmerman, Scott P. Novak, T. K. Logan, Catherine Martin, Carl Leukefeld, and Richard Clayton. "Project DARE: No Effects at 10-Year Follow-Up", ''Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology'', vol. 67, no. 4.</ref>

[[Image:West_Vancouver_Police_Cruiser.jpg|thumb|200px|right|West Vancouver D.A.R.E. jeep]]

A number of D.A.R.E. programs in local police departments have some notable vehicles marked as [[Police car|police cars]] to promote the program. The DARE cars appear at schools and in parades. Typically these cars are high-end or performance cars that have been seized in a drug raid. They are used to send the message that drug dealers forfeit all their glamorous trappings when they get caught. Cars include the Chevrolet Corvette, Ford Mustang, and Humvee.

=== 2001 – Office of the Surgeon General===

D.A.R.E. cars can also be regular police vehicles that are nearing the end of their service life that are pressed into service for the promotion.

In 2001, the [[Surgeon General of the United States]], [[David Satcher]], placed the D.A.R.E. program in the category of "Ineffective Primary Prevention Programs".<ref name="SurgeonGeneral">{{cite news|agency=Reuters|access-date=2019-07-29|title=Youth Violence Epidemic Not Over, Surgeon General Warns|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/18/health/youth-violence-epidemic-not-over-surgeon-general-warns.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=18 January 2001|issn=0362-4331|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref> The U.S. General Accounting Office concluded in 2003 that the program was sometimes counterproductive in some populations, with those who graduated from D.A.R.E. later having higher than average rates of drug use (a [[boomerang effect (psychology)|boomerang effect]]).

===2007 – ''Perspectives on Psychological Science''===

== D.A.R.E. in the UK ==

In March 2007, the D.A.R.E. program was placed on a list of treatments that have the potential to cause harm in clients in the [[Association for Psychological Science|APS]] journal, ''Perspectives on Psychological Science''.<ref>Lilienfeld, S. O. (2007). Psychological treatments that cause harm. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''2'', 53–70.</ref>

===2009 – Texas A&M===

D.A.R.E. (UK)<ref>[http://www.dare.uk.com/Pages/Static/AboutD.A.R.E.aspx/ D.A.R.E UK] </ref> is a national charity that operates across the UK. The program has been delivered (now discontinued) by Police Officers from the [[Ministry of Defence Police]] (MDP) to children who attend schools on Garrison estates or located near Garrison areas.

"The Social Construction of 'Evidence-Based' Drug Prevention Programs: A Reanalysis of Data from the Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE) Program," Evaluation Review, Vol. 33, No.4, 394–414 (2009). Studies by Dave Gorman and Carol Weiss argue that the D.A.R.E. program has been held to a higher standard than other youth drug prevention programs. Gorman writes, "what differentiates DARE from many of the programs on evidence-based lists might not be the actual intervention but rather the manner in which data analysis is conducted, reported, and interpreted." Dennis M. Gorman and J. Charles Huber Jr.

The D.A.R.E UK program is currently operating in the following areas:

The [[U.S. Department of Education]] prohibits any of its funding to be used to support drug prevention programs that have not been able to demonstrate their effectiveness.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://reason.com/archives/2004/01/01/just-say-no-again|title=Just Say No Again|first=Renee Moilanen from the January 2004 issue-view article in the Digital|last=Edition|date=1 January 2004|website=Reason.com}}</ref> Accordingly, D.A.R.E. America, in 2004, instituted a major revision of its curriculum.<ref>[http://www.dare.com/home/newdareprogram.asp New D.A.R.E. Program] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011041336/http://www.dare.com/home/newdareprogram.asp |date=October 11, 2007 }}</ref>

*East Midlands

*South West

*London

*Wales

The U.S. [[Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration]] (SAMHSA) identified alternative start-up regional programs, none of which have longevity nor have they been subjected to intense scrutiny.<ref>[http://modelprograms.samhsa.gov/model.htm SAMSHA Model Programs] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070917190948/http://modelprograms.samhsa.gov/model.htm |date=September 17, 2007 }} – Effective Substance Abuse and Mental Health Programs for Every community. December 2007</ref>

The program aims to provide:

==Reception==

* drug education and prevention activities to help children to understand the dangers of the misuse of drugs

[[File:West Vancouver Police Cruiser.jpg|thumb|right|Police cruiser painted in D.A.R.E. colors]]

* Teaches about the harmful effects of drugs, providing information that is appropriate to the age group to which it is delivered

The D.A.R.E. program is consistent with the "zero-tolerance orthodoxy of current U.S. drug control policy." According to researcher D. M. Gorman of the Rutgers University [[Center of Alcohol Studies]], it supports the ideology and the "prevailing wisdom that exists among policy makers and politicians."<ref>Gorman, D. M. Irrelevance of evidence in the development of school-based drug prevention policy. Evaluation Review, 1998, 22(1), 118–146.</ref>

* Develops the life skills to resist peer pressure and personal pressure, and to avoid the misuse of drugs

*Prevention is better than intervention

*DARE educates primary and secondary school children, therefore preventing many of them from misusing drugs

It also claims to meet the needs of stake holders such as school districts,<ref>Retsinas, J. Decision to cut off U.S. aid to D.A.R.E. Hailed. Providence Business News, 2001, 15(47), 5B.</ref> parents, and law enforcement agencies. "DARE America also has been very successful in marketing its program to the news media through a carefully orchestrated [[public relations]] campaign that highlights its popularity while downplaying criticism."<ref name=autogenerated2>[http://www.csun.edu/CommunicationStudies/ben/news/cia/970320.dare.html Hamilton, Denise. The Truth About D.A.R.E.; The big-bucks antidrug program for kids doesn't work. Los Angeles New Times, March 20, 1997] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208102524/http://www.csun.edu/CommunicationStudies/ben/news/cia/970320.dare.html |date=December 8, 2007 }}</ref>

== See also==

*[[GREAT]] Program

Psychologists at the [[University of Kentucky]] concluded that "continued enthusiasm [for DARE] shows Americans' stubborn resistance to apply science to drug policy."<ref>[http://www.cerd.org/press/269-2 Barry, Ellen. The study adds to doubts on D.A.R.E. program. ''Boston Globe'', 8/2/99, p. A01]</ref>

*[[Illegal drugs]]

*[[Legal issues of cannabis]]

Marsha Rosenbaum, who headed the West Coast office of the [[Lindesmith Center]], a [[drug policy reform]] organization, provided an opinion for a 1999 [[Village Voice]] article, "In D.A.R.E.'s worldview, Marlboro Light cigarettes, Bacardi rum, and a drag from a joint are all equally dangerous. For that matter, so is snorting a few lines of cocaine." D.A.R.E. "isn't really education. It's indoctrination."<ref name=truthord>Gonnerman, Jennifer – [http://www.druglibrary.org/think/~jnr/truthord.htm Truth or D.A.R.E.: The Dubious Drug-Education Program Takes New York.] ''[[Village Voice]],'' April 7, 1999.</ref> The article also stated, "Part of what makes DARE so popular is that participants get lots of freebies. There are fluorescent yellow pens with the DARE logo, tiny DARE dolls, bumper stickers, graduation certificates, DARE banners for school auditoriums, DARE rulers, pennants, DARE coloring books, and T-shirts for all DARE graduates."<ref name=truthord />

*[[Police Athletic League]]

*[[Prohibition (drugs)]]

D.A.R.E. has failed to fact check some articles on their website, promoting one news piece that was [[satire]], titled "Edible Marijuana Candies Kill 9 in Colorado, 12 at Coachella."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.dare.org/edible-marijuana-candies-kill-9-in-colorado-12-at-coachella/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504130047/http://www.dare.org/edible-marijuana-candies-kill-9-in-colorado-12-at-coachella/ | url-status=dead | archive-date=2015-05-04 | title=Edible Marijuana Candies Kill 9 in Colorado, 12 at Coachella - D.A.R.E. America| date=2015-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2015/05/04/d-a-r-e-gets-duped-by-anti-pot-satire/|title=D.A.R.E. gets duped by anti-pot satire|newspaper=Washington Post|date=4 May 2015|author=Christopher Ingraham}}</ref>

*[[Students for Sensible Drug Policy]]

*[[War on Drugs]]

===Responses to criticism===

==== Motivation of the critics ====

D.A.R.E. America has generally dismissed many criticisms and independent studies of its program, labeling them false, misleading, or biased. "DARE has long dismissed criticism of its approach as flawed or the work of groups that favor decriminalization of drug use," according to the ''New York Times'' in 2001.<ref>Zernike, Kate. The anti-drug program says it will adopt a new strategy. ''The New York Times'', February 15, 2001</ref> In a press release titled "Pro-drug Groups Behind Attack on Prevention Programs; DARE Seen as Target as Mayors' Conference Called to Combat Legalization Threat," D.A.R.E. asserted that pro-drug legalization individuals and groups were behind criticisms of the program, which were portrayed as based on "vested interests" and "to support various individual personal agendas at the expense of our children."<ref name="jeff Elliot" />

D.A.R.E. has attacked critics for allegedly being motivated by their financial self-interest in programs that compete with D.A.R.E. It has charged that "they are setting out to find ways to attack our programs and are misusing science to do it. The bottom line is that they don't want police officers to do the work because they want it for themselves."<ref>[http://chronicle.com/weekly/v48/i08/08a01201.htm Miller, David. D.A.R.E. ''Chronicle of Higher Education'', 10/19/01]</ref> Critics have also been dismissed as being jealous of D.A.R.E.'s success.<ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/dare6.htm Cauchon, Dennis. D.A.R.E. doesn't work: Studies find drug program not effective. ''USA Today'', October 11, 1993.]</ref>

==== Rebuttal of statistics ====

Ronald J. Brogan, New York City's D.A.R.E. fundraiser and spokesman, said in 1999 "If you take German for 17 weeks, you're not going to speak German. The critics say the effect dissipates over the years. No shit, Sherlock."<ref name="truthord" /> The article in which he was quoted observed that "DARE officials say the solution to this problem is not less DARE but more of it, and they urge cities to teach DARE in middle and high school."<ref name="autogenerated1" />

One leader explained that "I don't have any statistics for you. Our strongest numbers are the numbers that don't show up."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://reason.com/archives/2001/01/01/dare-aware|title=DARE Aware|first=Jacob Sullum from the January 2001 issue-view article in the Digital|last=Edition|date=1 January 2001|website=Reason.com}}</ref> The 1998 University of Maryland report presented to the U.S. National Institute of Justice stated, "Officials of DARE America are often quoted as saying that the strong public support for the program is a better indicator of its utility than scientific studies."<ref name="NIJWHATWORKS" />

====New curriculum ====

In 2009, D.A.R.E. adopted the "''keepin' it REAL''" curriculum.<ref name="pennkir">{{cite web|url=http://publicpolicy.wharton.upenn.edu/live/news/292-keepin-it-real-the-costs-of-a-drug-prevention|title='KEEPIN' IT REAL': THE COSTS OF A DRUG PREVENTION PROGRAM|date=1 Dec 2013|work=INSIDE PENN WHARTON PPI|publisher=Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania|author=Theodore Caputi, W'17|access-date=18 May 2015|archive-date=26 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626110411/http://publicpolicy.wharton.upenn.edu/live/news/292-keepin-it-real-the-costs-of-a-drug-prevention|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="hecht1">{{cite journal|last=Hecht|first=Michael|author2=Colby, Margaret |author3=Miller-Day, Michelle |title=The dissemination of keepin' it REAL through D.A.R.E. America: A lesson in disseminating health messages. |journal=Health Communication|year=2010|volume=25|issue=6–7|pages=6–7|doi=10.1080/10410236.2010.496826|pmid=20845153|s2cid=27088163}}</ref> Rather than solely focusing on the perils of alcohol and other drugs, ''keepin' it REAL'' developed a 10-lesson curriculum that included aspects of European American, Mexican American, and African American culture integrated with culturally based narration and performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kulis|first1=Stephen|last2=Nieri|first2=Tanya|last3=Yabiku|first3=Scott|last4=Stromwall|first4=Layne K.|last5=Marsiglia|first5=Flavio Francisco|date=2007-02-28|title=Promoting Reduced and Discontinued Substance Use among Adolescent Substance Users: Effectiveness of a Universal Prevention Program|url= |journal=Prevention Science|language=en|volume=8|issue=1|pages=35–49|doi=10.1007/s11121-006-0052-3|issn=1389-4986|pmc=3055561|pmid=17096196}}</ref> The program was developed by Penn State researchers, who evaluated its effectiveness, though critics contend the program does not implement a long-term evaluation system.<ref name="pennkir" />

In 2013, the [[Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration]] ranked its "readiness for dissemination" at 1.5 out of 4.<ref name="pennkir" /> Two field [[randomized controlled trial]]s showed the effectiveness of the multicultural ''keepin' it REAL'' for reducing substance use across grade levels and ethnic/racial groups, which highlights the importance of grounding substance use prevention programs in their audiences' cultural attitudes, values, norms, and beliefs.<ref name="hecht3">{{cite journal |last=Hecht|first=Michael|author2=Graham, John |author3=Elek, Elvira |title=The drug resistance strategies intervention: Program effects on substance use.|journal=Health Communication|year=2006|volume=20|issue=3|pages=267–276|doi=10.1207/s15327027hc2003_6|pmid=17137418|s2cid=283050}}</ref><ref name="pmid21128119">{{cite journal|last=Marsiglia|first=Flavio|author2=Kulis, Stephen |author3=Yabiku, Scott |author4=Nieri, Tanya |author5= Coleman, Elizabeth |title=When to intervene: Elementary school, middle school or both? Effects of keepin' it REAL on substance use trajectories of Mexican heritage youth.|journal=Prevention Science|date=March 2011 |volume=12|issue=1|pages=48–62|doi=10.1007/s11121-010-0189-y|pmid=21128119|pmc=3042028}}</ref> The second study "evaluated onset of drug use across and within ethnic groups and the ideal times to intervene" finding "a double dose of intervention in elementary and middle school was no more effective than middle school intervention alone."<ref name="pmid21128119" />

Following the passing of [[Washington Initiative 502]] that legalized cannabis consumption in Washington state, the D.A.R.E. program was changed in the state to remove cannabis messages from their year 5 curriculum, arguing "research has found that teaching children about drugs with which they have never heard of or have no real life understanding may stimulate their interest or curiosity about the substance."<ref name="hitandrundec2012">{{cite web|url=http://reason.com/blog/2012/12/03/dare-americas-most-famous-anti-drug-prog|title=D.A.R.E., America's Most Famous Anti-Drug Program, Will No Longer Talk to 10- and 11-Year-Old Children About Marijuana |work=Reason.com Hit and Run blog|author=Mike, Riggs |date=3 Dec 2012}}</ref>

===Ironic response===

T-shirts and other merchandise reading "D.A.R.E. To Keep Kids Off Drugs" became popular as an [[irony|ironic]] item in [[drug culture]] and other [[counterculture]]s starting in the 1990s. According to a report from ''[[Vice Media|Vice]]'', the program's appealing logo and acronym may unintentionally suggest one should dare to experiment with drugs.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wright|first=Briony|date=April 20, 2017|title=the unlikely story behind 'd.a.r.e to keep kids off drugs' t-shirts|url=https://i-d.co/article/the-unlikely-story-behind-dare-to-keep-kids-off-drugs-t-shirts/|website=Vice}}</ref> [[Reddit]] co-founder [[Alexis Ohanian]] in a 2022 tweet<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ohanian |first=Alexis |date=22 Oct 2022 |title=Alexis Ohanian Twitter Feed |url=https://twitter.com/alexisohanian/status/1583456260485439488 |access-date=2022-10-22 |website=Twitter |language=en}}</ref> referred to his sporting of the T-Shirt in 2019 with "What are you all wearing for Halloween this year?"

==References==

{{Reflist|30em}}

<references />

== External links ==

*[http://www.dare.com{{Commons category|Drug Abuse Resistance Education home page]}}

* {{Official website}}

*[http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03172r.pdf 2003 U.S. Government Accountability Office study showing DARE to be ineffective]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110719062032/http://www.dare.org/kids/pages/dare_world/dw_links_frame.htm DARE World]

*[http://daregeneration.blogspot.com DARE Generation Diary] &ndash; [[blog]] of the SSDP

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090313011024/http://www.dare.com/officers/Officers_StartaDAREProgram/Default075b.asp?N=Officers_StartaDAREProgram&M=43&S=0 How to Start a DARE Program in your Community]

*[http://drcnet.org/DARE/ A Different Look at DARE]

* [http://www.theiacp.org/About/PressCenter/tabid/81/Default.aspx International Association of Chiefs of Police, IACP] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926231058/http://www.theiacp.org/About/PressCenter/tabid/81/Default.aspx |date=2011-09-26 }}

* [http://www.dare.uk.com/ D.A.R.E UK website]

* [http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03172r.pdf 2003 U.S. General Accounting Office letter to Senator Richard J. Durbin]

* [http://www.dare-uk.org/ UK website]

* [http://www.pmmg.mg.gov.br/proerd Training Center Minas Gerais / DARE Brazil (PROERD)]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091106152238/http://www.proerd.rn.gov.br/ DARE Brazil (PROERD)]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121012172121/http://www.kir.psu.edu/ Official Keepin' It Real website]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131218232243/http://alamoareadare.com/ Alamo Area / Bexar County DARE]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131203184838/http://sirc.asu.edu/keepinitreal ASU's official Keepin' it REAL website]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aH0YV0WTng8 Drug Abuse Helpline]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:UnitedHealth Stateseducation controlledin substancesthe lawUnited States]]

[[Category:Education in the United States]]

[[Category:Law enforcement in the United States]]

[[Category:1983American establishmentscompanies established in 1983]]

[[Category:Law enforcement in the United Kingdom]]

[[Category:Drug rehabilitation]]

[[Category:CriminologyHistory topicsof drug control in the United States]]

[[Category:Law enforcement in England and Wales]]

[[Category:1983 establishments in California]]