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{{Short description|General-purpose
{{Use dmy dates|date=
{{Use American English|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox programming language
| logo = Python
| logo size =
| paradigm = [[
| released = {{start date and age|1991|02|20|df=y}}<ref name="alt-sources-history">{{cite web |url=https://www.tuhs.org/Usenet/alt.sources/1991-February/001749.html |title=Python 0.9.1 part 01/21 |publisher=alt.sources archives |access-date=2021-08-11 |archive-date=11 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811171015/https://www.tuhs.org/Usenet/alt.sources/1991-February/001749.html |url-status=live
| designer = [[Guido van Rossum]]
| developer = [[Python Software Foundation]]
| latest release version = {{wikidata|property|edit|reference|P548=Q2804309|P348}}
| latest release date = {{start date and age|{{wikidata|qualifier|single|P548=Q2804309|P348|P577}}}}
| latest preview version = 3.14.0rc2 <!-- {{wikidata|property|edit|reference|P548=Q51930650|P348}} doesn't work, nor what AI suggested as fix: {{#invoke:Wikidata | claim | P348 | qualifier = P548:Q51930650 | rank = best }} -->
| latest preview date = {{start date and age|2025|08|14|df=y}} <!-- {{start date and age|{{wikidata|qualifier|
{{#invoke:Wikidata | qualifier | P348 | P577 | qualifier = P548:Q51930650 | rank = best | formatting = date }}
-->
| typing = [[Duck typing|duck]], [[Dynamic typing|dynamic]], [[Strong and weak typing|strong]];<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why is Python a dynamic language and also a strongly typed language |url=https://wiki.python.org/moin/Why%20is%20Python%20a%20dynamic%20language%20and%20also%20a%20strongly%20typed%20language|access-date=2021-01-27|website=Python Wiki |archive-date=14 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210314173706/https://wiki.python.org/moin/Why%20is%20Python%20a%20dynamic%20language%20and%20also%20a%20strongly%20typed%20language|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Optional typing|optional type annotations]]{{efn|since 3.5, but those hints are ignored, except with unofficial tools<ref name="type_hint-PEP">{{cite web|url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0483/|title=PEP 483 – The Theory of Type Hints|website=Python.org|access-date=14 June 2018|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614153558/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0483/|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
| implementations = [[CPython]], [[PyPy]], [[MicroPython]], [[CircuitPython]], [[IronPython]], [[Jython]], [[Stackless Python]]
| operating system = [[Cross-platform]]{{efn|
*'''Tier 1''': 64-bit [[Linux]], [[macOS]]; 64- and 32-bit [[Windows]] 10+<ref>{{Cite web |title=PEP 11 – CPython platform support {{!}} peps.python.org |url=https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/ |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs) |language=en}}</ref><!-- Not "Windows for IoT and embedded systems"; NOT UNIX, it's not listed, nor any Unix-like, maybe implied Possibly Windows 8.1 is also supported on at least Python 3.9? Might also work on latest, seems too minor to mention, for any Python version. Windows 7 and 8 are prevented to work on Python 3.9, though it might not rule out 8.1, also some info like this might be a bit wrong:
"Windows 8 and newer for Python 3.9
FreeBSD 10 and newer
macOS Snow Leopard (macOS 10.6, 2008) and newer"
-->
*'''Tier 2''': E.g. 32-bit [[WebAssembly]] (WASI) <!-- (WASI SDK, Wasmtime) meaning wasm32-unknown-wasi; wasm32-unknown-emscripten is unsupported since 3.13. aarch64-pc-windows-msvc and powerpc64le-unknown-linux-gnu -->
*'''Tier 3''': 64-bit [[Android (operating system)|Android]]<!-- too much trivia to mention "5.0+", even if true, it seemingly is, and corresponding API levels, but thouse are ancient, possibly even only way more recent is officially supported? -->,<ref>{{Cite web |title=PEP 738 – Adding Android as a supported platform {{!}} peps.python.org |url=https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/ |access-date=2024-05-19 |website=Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs) |language=en}}</ref> [[iOS]], [[FreeBSD]], and (32-bit) [[Raspberry Pi OS]]<br />Unofficial (or has been known to work): Other [[Unix-like]]/[[BSD]] variants) and a few other platforms<!-- Used to support many more, only few support latest 3.9+ --><ref>{{Cite web |title=Download Python for Other Platforms |url=https://www.python.org/download/other/ |access-date=2023-08-18 |website=Python.org |language=en |archive-date=27 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127015815/https://www.python.org/download/other/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=test – Regression tests package for Python – Python 3.7.13 documentation |url=https://docs.python.org/3.7/library/test.html?highlight=android#test.support.is_android |access-date=2022-05-17 |website=docs.python.org |archive-date=17 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517151240/https://docs.python.org/3.7/library/test.html?highlight=android#test.support.is_android |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=platform – Access to underlying platform's identifying data – Python 3.10.4 documentation |url=https://docs.python.org/3/library/platform.html?highlight=android |access-date=2022-05-17 |website=docs.python.org |archive-date=17 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517150826/https://docs.python.org/3/library/platform.html?highlight=android |url-status=live}}</ref>}}
<!--
https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-committers@python.org/thread/K757345KX6W5ZLTWYBUXOXQTJJTL7GW5/
* Alpine / musl is not supported, because our test suite is failing due to bugs and missing features in musl libc.
* NetBSD and OpenBSD are in a similar state as Alpine: no stable buildbot and AFAIK tests are failing
* [outdated]
* Cygwin and MinGW are officially unsupported, see bpo-45537 and bpo-45538
..
The policy Brett is proposing just makes that explicit and gives us something to point to when someone comes up with a patch to support PDP-11 or when someone's patch for Android breaks Windows. I don't think we'll wind up with tier support police; if a core dev wants to take responsibility for a patch for a platform that is not tier 3 or above they can still do that, but if it breaks things for a supported platform it will be reverted.
..
E.g. Android support was even funded by the PSF recently. [outdated]
Also note that the stdlib does in fact support other Python implementations reusing (parts of) it, e.g. Jython, PyPy and IronPython. Again, without core devs backing these.
-->| license = [[Python Software Foundation License]]
| file ext = .py, .pyw, .pyz,<!-- Too much trivia?: (since 3.5), since 3.8 latest supported and Python 3.5.10 Sept. 5, 2020--><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0441/ |last=Holth |first=Moore |date=30 March 2014 |access-date=12 November 2015 |title=PEP 0441 – Improving Python ZIP Application Support |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226141117/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0441/%20 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
.pyi, .pyc, .pyd<!-- too much trivia: .pyo (before 3.5)<ref>File extension .pyo was removed in Python 3.5. See [https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488/ PEP 0488] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601133202/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488/ |date=1 June 2020}}</ref> -->
| website = {{URL|https://www.python.org/|python.org}}
|
| influenced by = [[ABC (programming language)|ABC]],<ref name="faq-created"/> [[Ada (programming language)|Ada]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.adaic.com/standards/83lrm/html/lrm-11-03.html#11.3 |title=Ada 83 Reference Manual (raise statement) |access-date=7 January 2020 |archive-date=22 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022155758/http://archive.adaic.com/standards/83lrm/html/lrm-11-03.html#11.3 |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=August 2025|reason=The source does not talk about Python. The "raise" keyword it describes is very similar to the Python version, but this is original research (see WP:OR).}} [[ALGOL 68]],<ref name="98-interview"/> <br />[[APL (programming language)|APL]],<ref name="python.org">{{cite web|url=https://docs.python.org/3/library/itertools.html|title=itertools – Functions creating iterators for efficient looping – Python 3.7.1 documentation|website=docs.python.org|access-date=22 November 2016|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614153629/https://docs.python.org/3/library/itertools.html |quote=This module implements a number of iterator building blocks inspired by constructs from APL, Haskell, and SML. |url-status=live}}</ref> [[C (programming language)|C]],<ref name="AutoNT-1"/> [[C++]],<ref name="classmix"/> [[CLU (programming language)|CLU]],<ref name="effbot-call-by-object"/> [[Dylan (programming language)|Dylan]],<ref name="AutoNT-2"/> <br />[[Haskell]],<ref name="AutoNT-3"/><ref name="python.org"/> [[Icon (programming language)|Icon]],<ref name="AutoNT-4"/> [[Lisp (programming language)|Lisp]],<ref name="AutoNT-6"/> {{nowrap|<br />[[Modula-3]]}},{{r|98-interview}}<ref name="classmix"/> [[Perl]],<ref>{{cite web |title=re – Regular expression operations – Python 3.10.6 documentation |url=https://docs.python.org/3/library/re.html |website=docs.python.org |access-date=2022-09-06 |quote=This module provides regular expression matching operations similar to those found in Perl. |archive-date=18 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718132241/https://docs.python.org/3/library/re.html |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Standard ML]]<ref name="python.org"/>
| influenced = [[Apache Groovy]], [[Boo (programming language)|Boo]], [[Cobra (programming language)|Cobra]], [[CoffeeScript]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://coffeescript.org/|title=CoffeeScript|website=coffeescript.org|access-date=3 July 2018|archive-date=12 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612100004/http://coffeescript.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[D (programming language)|D]], [[F Sharp (programming language)|F#]], [[GDScript]], [[Go (programming language)|Go]], [[JavaScript]],<ref>{{cite web
|title=Perl and Python influences in JavaScript
|date=24 February 2013
|website=www.2ality.com
|url=https://www.2ality.com/2013/02/javascript-influences.html
|access-date=15 May 2015
|archive-date=26 December 2018
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226141121/http://2ality.com/2013/02/javascript-influences.html%0A
|url-status=live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|title=Chapter 3: The Nature of JavaScript; Influences
|last=Rauschmayer
|first=Axel
|website=O'Reilly, Speaking JavaScript
|url=https://speakingjs.com/es5/ch03.html
|access-date=15 May 2015
|archive-date=26 December 2018
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226141123/http://speakingjs.com/es5/ch03.html%0A
|url-status=live
}}</ref> [[Julia (programming language)|Julia]],<ref name=Julia/> [[Mojo (programming language)|Mojo]],<ref name="Mojo">{{Cite web |last=Krill |first=Paul |date=2023-05-04 |title=Mojo language marries Python and MLIR for AI development |url=https://www.infoworld.com/article/3695588/mojo-language-marries-python-and-mlir-for-ai-development.html |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=InfoWorld |language=en |archive-date=5 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505064554/https://www.infoworld.com/article/3695588/mojo-language-marries-python-and-mlir-for-ai-development.html |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Nim (programming language)|Nim]], [[Ring (programming language)|Ring]],<ref name="The Ring programming language and other languages">{{cite web |url=https://ring-lang.sourceforge.net/doc1.6/introduction.html#ring-and-other-languages |title=Ring and other languages |author=Ring Team |date=4 December 2017 |work=ring-lang.net |publisher=[[ring-lang]] |access-date=4 December 2017 |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225175312/http://ring-lang.sourceforge.net/doc1.6/introduction.html#ring-and-other-languages |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]],<ref name="bini"/> [[Swift (programming language)|Swift]],<ref name="lattner2014">{{Cite web |url=http://nondot.org/sabre/ |title=Chris Lattner's Homepage |last=Lattner |first=Chris |date=3 June 2014 |access-date=3 June 2014 |publisher=Chris Lattner |quote=The Swift language is the product of tireless effort from a team of language experts, documentation gurus, compiler optimization ninjas, and an incredibly important internal dogfooding group who provided feedback to help refine and battle-test ideas. Of course, it also greatly benefited from the experiences hard-won by many other languages in the field, drawing ideas from Objective-C, Rust, Haskell, Ruby, Python, C#, CLU, and far too many others to list. |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225175312/http://nondot.org/sabre/ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[V (programming language)|V]]<ref name="vpeople">{{Cite web |title=V documentation (Introduction) |url=https://github.com/vlang/v/blob/master/doc/docs.md#introduction |access-date=2024-12-24|website=GitHub |language=en}}</ref>
<!-- Do not put in as there's also a pure Java implementation (Jython): | programming language = [[C (programming language)|C]] -->| wikibooks = Python Programming
}}
'''Python''' is
Python is [[
[[Guido van Rossum]] began working on Python in the late 1980s as a successor to the [[ABC (programming language)|ABC]] programming language. Python 3.0, released in 2008, was a major revision not completely [[backward-compatible]] with earlier versions. Recent versions, such as Python 3.12, have added capabilites and keywords for typing (and more; e.g. increasing speed); helping with (optional) [[static typing]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=mypy - Optional Static Typing for Python |url=https://mypy-lang.org/ |access-date=2025-08-17 |website=mypy-lang.org}}</ref> Currently only versions in the 3.x series are supported.
Python consistently ranks as one of the most popular programming languages, and it has gained widespread use in the [[machine learning]] community.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stack Overflow Developer Survey
==History==
{{Main|History of Python}}
[[File:Guido van Rossum in PyConUS24.jpg|thumb|311x311px|The designer of Python, [[Guido van Rossum]], at PyCon US 2024]]
Python was conceived in the late 1980s<ref name="venners-interview-pt-1"/> by [[Guido van Rossum]] at [[Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica]] (CWI) in the [[Netherlands]] (he first released it in 1991 as Python 0.9.0.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rossum|first=Guido Van|date=2009-01-20|title=The History of Python: A Brief Timeline of Python|url=https://python-history.blogspot.com/2009/01/brief-timeline-of-python.html|access-date=2021-03-05|website=The History of Python|archive-date=5 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200605032200/https://python-history.blogspot.com/2009/01/brief-timeline-of-python.html|url-status=live}}</ref>); it was conceived as a successor to the [[ABC (programming language)|ABC]] programming language, which was inspired by [[SETL]],<ref name="AutoNT-12"/> capable of [[exception handling]] and interfacing with the [[Amoeba (operating system)|Amoeba]] operating system.<ref name="faq-created"/> Python implementation began in December, 1989.<ref name="timeline-of-python"/> Van Rossum assumed sole responsibility for the project, as the lead developer, until 12 July 2018, when he announced his "permanent vacation" from responsibilities as Python's "[[benevolent dictator for life]]" (BDFL); this title was bestowed on him by the Python community to reflect his long-term commitment as the project's chief decision-maker.<ref name="lj-bdfl-resignation"/> (He has since come out of retirement and is self-titled "BDFL-emeritus"<!-- on his Twitter-->.) In January 2019, active Python core developers elected a five-member Steering Council to lead the project.<ref>{{cite web |title=PEP 8100 |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-8100/ |publisher=Python Software Foundation |access-date=4 May 2019 |archive-date=4 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604235027/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-8100/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=PEP 13 – Python Language Governance|url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0013/|access-date=2021-08-25|website=Python.org|language=en|archive-date=27 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527000035/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0013/|url-status=live}}</ref>
The name ''Python'' derives from the British comedy series [[Monty Python's Flying Circus]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Briggs |first1=Jason R. |title=Python for kids: a playful introduction to programming |last2=Lipovača |first2=Miran |date=2013 |publisher=No Starch Press |isbn=978-1-59327-407-8 |___location=San Francisco, Calif}}</ref> (See {{section link||Naming}}.)
Python 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000, with many major new features such as [[list comprehension]]s, [[cycle detection|cycle-detecting]] garbage collection, [[reference counting]], and [[Unicode]] support.<ref name="newin-2.0"/> Python 2.7's [[end-of-life product|end-of-life]] was initially set for 2015, and then postponed to 2020 out of concern that a large body of existing code could not easily be forward-ported to Python 3.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://legacy.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0373/ |title=PEP 373 – Python 2.7 Release Schedule |work=python.org |access-date=9 January 2017 |archive-date=19 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519075520/https://legacy.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0373/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0466/ |title=PEP 466 – Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7.x |work=python.org |access-date=9 January 2017 |archive-date=4 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604232833/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0466/ |url-status=live}}</ref> It no longer receives security patches or updates.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.python.org/doc/sunset-python-2/|title=Sunsetting Python 2|website=Python.org|language=en|access-date=22 September 2019|archive-date=12 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200112080903/https://www.python.org/doc/sunset-python-2/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0373/|title=PEP 373 – Python 2.7 Release Schedule|website=Python.org|language=en|access-date=22 September 2019|archive-date=13 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113033257/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0373/|url-status=live}}</ref> While Python 2.7 and older versions are officially unsupported, a different unofficial Python implementation, [[PyPy]], continues to support Python 2, i.e., "2.7.18+" (plus 3.10), with the plus signifying (at least some) "[[backporting|backported]] security updates".<ref>{{Cite web |last=mattip |date=2023-12-25 |title=PyPy v7.3.14 release |url=https://www.pypy.org/posts/2023/12/pypy-v7314-release.html |access-date=2024-01-05 |website=PyPy |language=en |archive-date=5 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105132820/https://www.pypy.org/posts/2023/12/pypy-v7314-release.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
Python 3.0 was released on 3 December 2008, was a major revision not completely [[backward-compatible]] with earlier versions, with some new semantics and changed syntax. Python 2.7.18, released in 2020, was the last release of Python 2.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pythoninsider.blogspot.com/2020/04/python-2718-last-release-of-python-2.html|title= Python 2.7.18, the last release of Python 2|last=Peterson|first=Benjamin|date=20 April 2020|website=Python Insider|access-date=27 April 2020|archive-date=26 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200426204118/https://pythoninsider.blogspot.com/2020/04/python-2718-last-release-of-python-2.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Several releases in the Python 3.x series have added new syntax to the language, and made a few (considered very minor) backwards-incompatible changes.
{{As of|2025|08|14|since=n}}, Python 3.13 is the latest stable release and Python 3.9 is the oldest supported release.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Status of Python versions |url=https://devguide.python.org/versions/ |access-date=2025-08-05 |website=Python Developer's Guide |language=en}}</ref> Releases receive two years of full support followed by three years of security support.
==Design philosophy and features==
Python is a [[multi-paradigm programming language]].
Python uses
Python's design offers some support for functional programming in the "[[Lisp (programming language)|Lisp]] tradition". It has {{
* Beautiful is better than ugly.
* Explicit is better than implicit.
* Simple is better than complex.
* Complex is better than complicated.
* Readability counts.<!-- Note this isn't a full list, just some of the more significant aphorisms -->
However, Python features regularly violate these principles and have received criticism for adding unnecessary language bloat.<ref name=Python-Changes-2014>{{cite web |last=Lutz |first=Mark |date=January 2022 |website=Learning Python |title=Python changes 2014+ |url=https://learning-python.com/python-changes-2014-plus.html |url-status=live |access-date=25 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315075935/https://learning-python.com/python-changes-2014-plus.html |archive-date=15 March 2024 }}</ref> Responses to these criticisms note that the Zen of Python is a guideline rather than a rule.<ref name=Confusion-regarding-a-rule-in-the-Zen-of-Python>{{cite web |url=https://discuss.python.org/t/confusion-regarding-a-rule-in-the-zen-of-python/15927 |title=Confusion regarding a rule in 'the Zen of Python' |date=2022-05-03 |df=dmy-all |department=Discussions |series=Python help |website=Python.org |access-date=2024-02-25 |archive-date=25 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225221142/https://discuss.python.org/t/confusion-regarding-a-rule-in-the-zen-of-python/15927 |url-status=live}}</ref> The addition of some new features had been controversial: Guido van Rossum resigned as ''Benevolent Dictator for Life'' after conflict about adding the assignment expression operator in {{nobr|Python 3.8 .}}<ref name=The-Most-Controversial-Python-Walrus-Operator>{{cite web |last=Ambi |first=Chetan |date=2021-07-04 |df=dmy-all |title=The most controversial Python 'walrus operator' |website=Python simplified (pythonsimplified.com) |url=https://pythonsimplified.com/the-most-controversial-python-walrus-operator/ |url-status=live |access-date=2024-02-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230827154931/https://pythonsimplified.com/the-most-controversial-python-walrus-operator/ |archive-date=27 August 2023 }}</ref><ref name=The-Controversy-Behind-The-Walrus-Operator-in-Python>{{cite web |last=Grifski |first=Jeremy |date=2020-05-24 |df=dmy-all |title=The controversy behind the 'walrus operator' in Python |website=The Renegade Coder (therenegadecoder.com) |url=https://therenegadecoder.com/code/the-controversy-behind-the-walrus-operator-in-python/ |url-status=live |access-date=2024-02-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228135749/https://therenegadecoder.com/code/the-controversy-behind-the-walrus-operator-in-python/ |archive-date=28 December 2023 }}</ref>
Nevertheless, rather than building all functionality into its core, Python was designed to be highly [[extensible]] via modules. This compact modularity has made it particularly popular as a means of adding programmable interfaces to existing applications. Van Rossum's vision of a small core language with a large standard library and easily extensible interpreter stemmed from his frustrations with ABC, which represented the opposite approach.<ref name=venners-interview-pt-1/>
Python claims to strive for a simpler, less-cluttered syntax and grammar, while giving developers a choice in their coding methodology. In contrast to [[Perl]]'s motto "[[there is more than one way to do it]]", Python advocates an approach where "there should be one – and preferably only one – obvious way to do it".<!-- removed comment with specious demand to leave punctuation contrary to Wikipedia MOS unchanged: Reason given, to duplicate lack of spaces in quote, is a grotesquely false justification. --><ref name=PEP20/> In practice, however, Python provides many ways to achieve a given goal. There are, for example, at least three ways to format a string literal, with no certainty as to which one a programmer should use.<ref name=Python-String-Formatting-Best-Practices>{{cite web |last=Bader |first=Dan |title=Python string formatting best practices |website=Real Python (realpython.com) |url=https://realpython.com/python-string-formatting/ |url-status=live |access-date=2024-02-25 |df=dmy-all |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240218083506/https://realpython.com/python-string-formatting/ |archive-date=18 February 2024 }}</ref> [[Alex Martelli]] is a [[Fellow]] at the [[Python Software Foundation]] and Python book author; he wrote that "To describe something as 'clever' is ''not'' considered a compliment in the Python culture."<ref name=AutoNT-19/>
Python's developers usually try to avoid [[premature optimization]]; they also reject patches to non-critical parts of the [[CPython]] reference implementation that would offer marginal increases in speed at the cost of clarity.<ref name="AutoNT-20"/>{{Failed verification|date=August 2025|reason=The referenced source didn't mention either detail.}} Execution speed can be improved by moving speed-critical functions to extension modules written in languages such as [[C (programming language)|C]], or by using a [[just-in-time compiler]] like [[PyPy]]. It is also possible to [[#Cross-compilers to other languages|cross-compile to other languages]]; but this approach either fails to achieve the expected speed-up, since Python is a very [[dynamic language]], or only a restricted subset of Python is compiled (with potential minor semantic changes).<ref name=PyJL/>
A common [[neologism]] in the Python community is ''pythonic'', which has a wide range of meanings related to program style: Pythonic code may use Python [[Programming idiom|idioms]] well; be natural or show fluency in the language; or conform with Python's minimalist philosophy and emphasis on readability.<ref>{{cite web |title=Code style |department=The hitchhiker's guide to Python |website=docs.python-guide.org |url=https://docs.python-guide.org/writing/style |url-status=live |access-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127154341/https://docs.python-guide.org/writing/style/ |archive-date=27 January 2021 }}</ref>
==Syntax and semantics==
{{Main|Python syntax and semantics}}
[[File:Hello World in Python.png|alt=Block of Python code showing sample source code|thumb|231x231px|An example of Python code and indentation]]
[[File:Af-Helloworld (C Sharp).svg|alt=C code featuring curly braces and semicolon|thumb|233x233px|Example of [[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]] code with curly braces and semicolons]]
Python is meant to be an easily readable language. Its formatting is visually uncluttered
===Indentation===
{{Main|Python syntax and semantics#Indentation}}
Python uses [[whitespace character|whitespace]] indentation, rather than
===Statements and control flow===
Python's [[
* The [[Assignment (computer science)|assignment]] statement, using a single equals sign <code>=</code>
* The <code>[[if-then-else|if]]</code> statement, which conditionally executes a block of code, along with <code>[[Conditional (computer programming)#If–then(–else)|else]]</code> and <code>elif</code> (a contraction of <code>[[Conditional (computer programming)#Else if|else
* The <code>[[Foreach#Python|for]]</code> statement, which iterates over an ''iterable'' object, capturing each element to a local variable for use by the attached block
* The <code>[[While loop#Python|while]]</code> statement, which executes a block of code as long as
* The <code>[[Exception handling syntax#Python|try]]</code> statement, which allows exceptions raised in its attached code block to be caught and handled by <code>except</code> clauses (or new syntax <code>except*</code> in Python 3.11 for exception groups<ref>{{Cite web |title=8. Errors and Exceptions – Python 3.12.0a0 documentation |url=https://docs.python.org/3.11/tutorial/errors.html |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=docs.python.org |archive-date=9 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509145745/https://docs.python.org/3.11/tutorial/errors.html |url-status=live}}</ref>);
* The <code>raise</code> statement, used to raise a specified exception or re-raise a caught exception
* The <code>class</code> statement, which executes a block of code and attaches its local namespace to a [[class (computer science)|class]], for use in object-oriented programming
* The <code>def</code> statement, which defines a [[function (computing)|function]] or [[method (computing)|method]]
* The <code>[[dispose pattern#Language constructs|with]]</code> statement, which encloses a code block within a context manager
* The <code>[[break statement|
* The <code>continue</code> statement, which skips
* The <code>del</code> statement, which removes a
* The <code>pass</code> statement,
* The <code>[[assertion (programming)|assert]]</code> statement, used
* The <code>yield</code> statement, which returns a value from a [[generator (computer programming)#Python|generator]] function (and
* The <code>return</code> statement, used to return a value from a function
* The <code>[[include directive|import]]</code>
* The <code>match</code> and <code>case</code> statements, analogous to a [[switch statement]] construct, which compares an expression against one or more cases as a control-flow measure
The assignment statement (<code>=</code>)
Python does not support [[tail call]] optimization or [[first-class continuations]]
===Expressions===
*
* Python uses the <code>+</code> operator for string concatenation. The language uses the <code>*</code> operator for duplicating a string a specified number of times.
*
* The syntax <code>:=</code>, called the "walrus operator", was introduced in Python 3.8. This operator assigns values to variables as part of a larger expression.<ref name=Python3.8Changelog>{{cite web |title=What's New in Python 3.8 |url=https://docs.python.org/3.8/whatsnew/3.8.html |access-date=14 October 2019 |archive-date=8 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608124345/https://docs.python.org/3.8/whatsnew/3.8.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
* In Python, <code>==</code> compares two objects by value. Python's <code>is</code> operator may be used to compare object identities (i.e., comparison by reference), and comparisons may be chained—for example, {{code|lang=python|code=a <= b <= c}}.
* Python uses <code>and</code>, <code>or</code>, and <code>not</code> as Boolean operators.
* Python has a type of expression called a ''[[List comprehension#Python|list comprehension]]'', and a more general expression called a ''generator expression''.<ref name="AutoNT-59"/>
* [[Anonymous function]]s are implemented using [[Lambda (programming)|lambda expressions]]; however, there may be only one expression in each body.
* Conditional expressions are written as {{code|lang=python|code=x if c else y}}.<ref name="AutoNT-60"/> (This is different in operand order from the <code>[[?:|c ? x : y]]</code> operator common to many other languages.)
* Python
* Python
* Python has a "string format" operator <code>%</code> that functions analogously to <code>[[printf]]</code> format strings in the C language—e.g. {{code|2=python|1="spam=%s eggs=%d" % ("blah", 2)}} evaluates to <code>"spam=blah eggs=2"</code>. In Python 2.6+ and 3+, this operator was supplemented by the <code>format()</code> method of the <code>str</code> class, e.g., {{code|2=python|1="spam={0} eggs={1}".format("blah", 2)}}. Python 3.6 added "f-strings": {{code|2=python|1=spam = "blah"; eggs = 2; f'spam={spam} eggs={eggs}'}}.<ref name="pep-0498">{{cite web |title=PEP 498 – Literal String Interpolation |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0498/ |website=python.org |access-date=8 March 2017 |archive-date=15 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615184141/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0498/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
* Strings in Python can be [[concatenated]] by "adding" them (using the same operator as for adding integers and floats); e.g., {{code|2=python|1="spam" + "eggs"}} returns <code>"spameggs"</code>. If strings contain numbers, they are concatenated as strings rather than as integers, e.g. {{code|2=python|1="2" + "2"}} returns <code>"22"</code>.
* Python supports [[string literal]]s in several ways:
** Delimited by single or double quotation marks; single and double quotation marks have equivalent functionality (unlike in [[Unix shell]]s, [[Perl]], and Perl-influenced languages). Both marks use the backslash (<code>\</code>) as an [[escape character]]. [[String interpolation]] became available in Python 3.6 as "formatted string literals".<ref name="pep-0498"/>
** Triple-quoted, i.e., starting and ending with three single or double quotation marks; this may span multiple lines and function like [[here document]]s in shells, Perl, and [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]].
** [[Raw string]] varieties, denoted by prefixing the string literal with <code>r</code>. Escape sequences are not interpreted; hence raw strings are useful where literal backslashes are common, such as in [[regular expression]]s and [[Windows]]-style paths. (Compare "<code>@</code>-quoting" in [[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]].)
* Python has [[array index]] and [[array slicing]] expressions in lists, which are written as <code>a[key]</code>, {{code|lang=python|code=a[start:stop]}} or {{code|lang=python|code=a[start:stop:step]}}. Indexes are [[zero-based numbering|zero-based]], and negative indexes are relative to the end. Slices take elements from the ''start'' index up to, but not including, the ''stop'' index. The (optional) third slice [[Parameter (computer programming)|parameter]], called ''step'' or ''stride'', allows elements to be skipped or reversed. Slice indexes may be omitted—for example, {{code|lang=python|code=a[:]}} returns a copy of the entire list. Each element of a slice is a [[shallow copy]].
In Python, a distinction between expressions and statements is rigidly enforced, in contrast to languages such as [[Common Lisp]], [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]], or [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]]. This distinction leads to duplicating some functionality
* [[List comprehensions]] vs. <code>for</code>-loops
* [[Conditional (programming)|Conditional]] expressions vs. <code>if</code> blocks
* The <code>eval()</code> vs. <code>exec()</code> built-in functions (in Python 2, <code>exec</code> is a statement); the former function is for expressions, while the latter is for statements
===Methods===
[[Method (computer programming)|Methods]]
===Typing===
[[File:Python 3.13
Python uses [[duck typing]], and it has typed objects but untyped variable names. Type constraints are not checked at
Python allows programmers to define their own types using [[class (computer science)|classes]],
Before version
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Summary of Python 3's built-in types
|-
! Type
! [[immutable object|Mutability]]
! Description
!
|-
| <code>bool</code>
| immutable
| [[Boolean value]]
| {{code|lang=python|True}}<br />{{code|lang=python|False}}
|-
| <code>bytearray</code>
| mutable
| Sequence of [[byte]]s
| {{code|lang=python|bytearray(b'Some ASCII')}}<br />{{code|lang=python|bytearray(b"Some ASCII")}}<br />{{code|lang=python|bytearray([119, 105, 107, 105])}}
|-
| <code>bytes</code>
| immutable
| Sequence of bytes
| {{code|lang=python|b'Some ASCII'}}<br />{{code|lang=python|b"Some ASCII"}}<br />{{code|lang=python|bytes([119, 105, 107, 105])}}
|-
| <code>complex</code>
| immutable
| [[Complex number]] with real and imaginary parts
| {{code|lang=python|3+2.7j}}<br />{{code|lang=python|3 + 2.7j}}
|-
| <code>dict</code>
| mutable
| [[Associative array]] (or dictionary) of key and value pairs; can contain mixed types (keys and values)
| {{code|lang=python|{'key1': 1.0, 3: False} }}<br />{{code|lang=python| {} }}
|-
| <code>
| immutable
| An [[Ellipsis (programming operator)|ellipsis]] placeholder to be used as an index in [[NumPy]] arrays
| {{code|lang=python|...}}<br />{{code|lang=python|Ellipsis}}
|-
| <code>float</code>
| immutable
| [[
|
{{code|lang=python|1.33333}}
Line 230 ⟶ 252:
| <code>frozenset</code>
| immutable
| Unordered [[
| {{nobr|{{code|lang=python|frozenset([4.0, 'string', True])}}}}
|-
| <code>int</code>
| immutable
| [[Integer (computer science)|Integer]] of unlimited magnitude<ref name="pep0237"
| {{code|lang=python|42}}
|-
Line 241 ⟶ 263:
| mutable
| [[list (computer science)|List]], can contain mixed types
| {{code|lang=python|[4.0, 'string', True]}}<br />{{code|lang=python|[]}}
|-
| <code>types.NoneType</code>
| immutable
| An object representing the absence of a value, often called [[
| {{code|lang=python|None}}
|-
| <code>types.NotImplementedType</code>
| immutable
| A placeholder that can be returned from [[Operator overloading|overloaded operators]] to indicate unsupported operand types.
Line 255 ⟶ 277:
| <code>range</code>
| immutable
|
| {{code|lang=python|range(
|-
| <code>set</code>
| mutable
| Unordered [[set (computer science)|set]], contains no duplicates; can contain mixed types, if hashable
| {{code|lang=python| {4.0, 'string', True} }}<br />{{code|lang=python|set()}}
|-
| <code>str</code>
| immutable
| A [[
| {{code|lang=python|'Wikipedia'}}<br />{{code|lang=python|"Wikipedia"}}
multiple
lines"""</syntaxhighlight>
Line 272 ⟶ 294:
| <code>tuple</code>
| immutable
|
| {{code|lang=python|(4.0, 'string', True)}}<br />{{code|lang=python|('single element',)}}<br />{{code|lang=python|()}}
|}
===Arithmetic operations===
Python
Division between integers produces floating-point results. The behavior of division has changed significantly over time:<ref name="pep0238"/>
* The current version of Python (i.e., since 3.0) changed <code>the /</code> operator to always represent floating-point division, e.g., {{code|class=nowrap|2=python|1=5/2 == 2.5}}.
* The floor division <code>//</code> operator was introduced. Thus <code>7//3 == 2</code>, <code>-7//3 == -3</code>, <code>7.5//3 == 2.0</code>, and <code>-7.5//3 == -3.0</code>. For outdated Python 2.7 adding the {{code|class=nowrap|2=python2|1=from __future__ import division}} statement causes a module in Python 2.7 to use Python 3.0 rules for division instead (see above).
In Python terms, the <code>/</code> operator represents ''true division'' (or simply ''division''), while the <code>//</code> operator represents ''floor division.'' Before version 3.0, the <code>/</code> operator represents ''classic division''.<ref name="pep0238"/>
[[Rounding]] towards negative infinity, though a different method than in most languages, adds consistency to Python. For instance, this rounding implies that the equation {{code|class=nowrap|2=python|1=(a + b)//b == a//b + 1}} is always true. The rounding also implies that the equation {{code|class=nowrap|2=python|1=b*(a//b) + a%b == a}} is valid for both positive and negative values of <code>a</code>. As expected, the result of <code>a%b</code> lies in the [[half-open interval]] [0, ''b''), where <code>b</code> is a positive integer; however, maintaining the validity of the equation requires that the result must lie in the interval (''b'', 0] when <code>b</code> is negative.<ref name="AutoNT-62"/>
Python provides a <code>round</code> function for rounding a float to the nearest integer. For [[Rounding#Tie-breaking|tie-breaking]], Python 3 uses the ''round to even'' method: <code>round(1.5)</code> and <code>round(2.5)</code> both produce <code>2</code>.<ref name="AutoNT-64"/> Python versions before 3 used the [[Rounding#Rounding away from zero|round-away-from-zero]] method: <code>round(0.5)</code> is <code>1.0</code>, and <code>round(-0.5)</code> is <code>−1.0</code>.<ref name="AutoNT-63"/>
Python
Python uses [[arbitrary-precision arithmetic]] for all integer operations. The <code>Decimal</code> type/class in the <code>decimal</code> module provides [[decimal floating point|decimal floating-point numbers]] to a pre-defined arbitrary precision with several rounding modes.<ref name="AutoNT-88"/> The <code>Fraction</code> class in the <code>fractions</code> module provides arbitrary precision for [[rational number]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=What's New in Python 2.6 |url=https://docs.python.org/2.6/whatsnew/2.6.html|website=Python v2.6.9 documentation |date=Oct 29, 2013 |access-date=26 September 2015|archive-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223213856/https://docs.python.org/2.6/whatsnew/2.6.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Function syntax===
[[Function (computer programming)|Functions]] are created in Python by using the <code>def</code> keyword. A function is defined similarly to how it is called, by first providing the function name and then the required parameters. Here is an example of a function that prints its inputs:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python3">
def printer(input1, input2="already there"):
print(input1)
print(input2)
printer("hello")
# Example output:
# hello
# already there
</syntaxhighlight>To assign a default value to a function parameter in case no actual value is provided at run time, variable-definition syntax can be used inside the function header.
==
[["Hello, World!" program
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
print('Hello, world!')
Line 305 ⟶ 338:
Program to calculate the [[factorial]] of a positive integer:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python" line="1">
n = int(input('Type a number, and its factorial will be printed: '))
if n < 0:
raise ValueError('You must enter a non
factorial = 1
Line 316 ⟶ 349:
print(factorial)
</syntaxhighlight><!--
Please
-->
==Libraries==
Python's large standard library
Some parts of the standard library are covered by
{{As of|
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Automation]]
* [[Data analytics]]
* [[
* [[Documentation]]
* [[Graphical user
* [[Image processing]]
* [[Machine learning]]
* [[Mobile
* [[Multimedia]]
* [[Computer networking]]
Line 351 ⟶ 385:
{{See also|Comparison of integrated development environments#Python}}
Most{{which?|date=August 2025}} Python implementations (including CPython) include a [[read–eval–print loop]] (REPL)
Python is also bundled with an [[integrated development environment|integrated development environment (IDE)]] called [[IDLE]],<ref name="idle">{{cite web |title=IDLE — Python editor and shell |url=https://docs.python.org/3/library/idle.html |website=Python documentation |version=v3.13.7 |access-date=31 August 2025 |language=en |quote=IDLE is Python's Integrated Development and Learning Environment.}}</ref> which is oriented toward beginners.{{cn|date=August 2025}}
Other shells, including [[IDLE]] and [[IPython]], add additional capabilities such as improved auto-completion, session-state retention, and [[syntax highlighting]].<ref name="idle" /><ref>{{cite web |title=IPython Documentation |url=https://ipython.readthedocs.io/en/stable/ |access-date=31 August 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250831204721/https://ipython.readthedocs.io/en/stable/ |archive-date=2025-08-31 |language=en |version=v9.5.0 |date=August 29, 2025 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Standard desktop IDEs include [[PyCharm]], [[Spyder (software)|Spyder]], and [[Visual Studio Code]];{{cn|date=August 2025}} there are also [[web browser]]-based IDEs, such as the following environments:
* [[PythonAnywhere]], a browser-based IDE and hosting environment; and
* Canopy, a commercial IDE from [[Enthought]] that emphasizes [[scientific computing]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Harper |first1=Doug |title=Enthought Canopy |url=http://physics.wku.edu/phys316/software/canopy/ |website=WKU Physics 316 |publisher=[[Western Kentucky University]] |access-date=31 August 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240818041226/http://physics.wku.edu/phys316/software/canopy/ |archive-date=2024-08-18 |language=en |date=Spring 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Enthought Canopy|url=https://www.enthought.com/products/canopy/|website=[[Enthought]]|access-date=20 August 2016|archive-date=15 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715151703/https://www.enthought.com/products/canopy/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
==Implementations==
Line 361 ⟶ 401:
===Reference implementation===
[[CPython]] is the [[reference implementation]] of Python.
CPython is available for many platforms, including Windows and most modern [[Unix-like]] systems, including macOS (and [[Apple M1]] Macs, since Python 3.9.1, using an experimental installer). <!-- "Windows Vista support dropped in Python 3.7" -->Starting with Python 3.9, the Python installer intentionally fails to install on [[Windows 7]] and 8<!-- but not 8.1? -->;<ref>{{Cite web |title=Changelog – Python 3.9.0 documentation |url=https://docs.python.org/release/3.9.0/whatsnew/changelog.html#changelog |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207001142/https://docs.python.org/release/3.9.0/whatsnew/changelog.html#changelog |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=2021-02-08 |website=docs.python.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Download Python |url=https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-391 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208045225/https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-391/ |archive-date=8 December 2020 |access-date=2020-12-13 |website=Python.org |language=en}}</ref> [[Windows XP]] was supported until Python 3.5<!--"Windows XP support dropped in Python 3.5"-->, with unofficial support for [[OpenVMS|VMS]].<!--"Put online a new version of Python 3.10.0a (IA64only)"--><ref>{{Cite web|title=history [vmspython]|url=https://www.vmspython.org/doku.php?id=history|access-date=2020-12-04|website=www.vmspython.org|archive-date=2 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202194743/https://www.vmspython.org/doku.php?id=history|url-status=live}}</ref> Platform portability was one of Python's earliest priorities.<ref name="AutoNT-69" /> During development of Python 1 and 2, even [[OS/2]] and [[Solaris (operating system)|Solaris]] were supported;<!-- Also python-3.2.2 at http://unixpackages.com/packages/package-list --><ref>{{Cite web|title=Download Python for Other Platforms|url=https://www.python.org/download/other/|access-date=2020-12-04|website=Python.org|language=en|archive-date=27 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127015815/https://www.python.org/download/other/|url-status=live}}</ref> since that time, support has been dropped for many platforms.<!--
Starting with CPython 3.7.0, *nix platforms are expected to provide at least one of C.UTF-8 (full locale), C.utf8 (full locale) or UTF-8 (LC_CTYPE-only locale) as an alternative to the legacy C locale.
-->
All current Python versions (since 3.7) support only operating systems that feature multithreading<!-- (then in 3.7 removing support for [[IRIX]]; and before many other operating systems such as [[OS/2]] and [[VMS]]) -->, by now supporting not nearly as many operating systems (dropping many outdated) than in the past.
===Other implementations===
All alternative implementations have at least slightly different semantics. For example, an alternative may include unordered dictionaries<!-- like with Codon; also PyPy? Cython? -->, in contrast to other current Python versions. As another example in the larger Python ecosystem, PyPy does not support the full C Python API. Alternative implementations include the following:
* [[
* Codon is an implementation with an [[ahead-of-time compilation|ahead-of-time (AOT) compiler]], which compiles a statically-typed Python-like language whose "syntax and semantics are nearly identical to Python's, there are some notable differences"<ref>{{Cite web |title=Codon: Differences with Python |url=https://docs.exaloop.io/codon/general/differences |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525002540/https://docs.exaloop.io/codon/general/differences |archive-date=2023-05-25 |access-date=2023-08-28}}</ref> For example, Codon uses 64-bit machine integers for speed, not arbitrarily as with Python; Codon developers claim that speedups over CPython are usually on the order of ten to a hundred times. Codon compiles to machine code (via [[LLVM]]) and supports native multithreading.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lawson |first=Loraine |date=2023-03-14 |title=MIT-Created Compiler Speeds up Python Code |url=https://thenewstack.io/mit-created-compiler-speeds-up-python-code/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406054200/https://thenewstack.io/mit-created-compiler-speeds-up-python-code/ |archive-date=2023-04-06 |access-date=2023-08-28 |website=The New Stack |language=en-US}}</ref> <!-- It's compile has a restrictive BSL licence, but it doesn't affect generated code: --> Codon can also compile to Python extension modules that can be imported and used from Python.
*
* Pyston is a variant of the Python runtime that uses just-in-time compilation to speed up execution of Python programs.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.infoworld.com/article/3587591/pyston-returns-from-the-dead-to-speed-python.html|title=Pyston returns from the dead to speed Python|last=Yegulalp|first=Serdar|date=29 October 2020|website=[[InfoWorld]]|access-date=26 January 2021|archive-date=27 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127113233/https://www.infoworld.com/article/3587591/pyston-returns-from-the-dead-to-speed-python.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Cinder is a performance-oriented fork of CPython 3.8 that features a number of optimizations, including bytecode inline caching, eager evaluation of coroutines, a method-at-a-time [[Just-in-time compilation|JIT]], and an experimental bytecode compiler.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://github.com/facebookincubator/cinder|title=cinder: Instagram's performance-oriented fork of CPython.|website=[[GitHub]]|access-date=4 May 2021|language=en|archive-date=4 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504112500/https://github.com/facebookincubator/cinder|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The Snek<!-- (previously named Newt) --><ref>{{Cite web |last=Aroca |first=Rafael |date=2021-08-07 |title=Snek Lang: feels like Python on Arduinos |url=https://rafaelaroca.wordpress.com/2021/08/07/snek-lang-feels-like-python-on-arduinos/ |access-date=2024-01-04 |website=Yet Another Technology Blog |language=en |archive-date=5 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105001031/https://rafaelaroca.wordpress.com/2021/08/07/snek-lang-feels-like-python-on-arduinos/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Aufranc (CNXSoft) |first=Jean-Luc |date=2020-01-16 |title=Snekboard Controls LEGO Power Functions with CircuitPython or Snek Programming Languages (Crowdfunding) – CNX Software |url=https://www.cnx-software.com/2020/01/16/snekboard-controls-lego-power-functions-with-circuitpython-or-snek-programming-languages/ |access-date=2024-01-04 |website=CNX Software – Embedded Systems News |language=en-US |archive-date=5 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105001031/https://www.cnx-software.com/2020/01/16/snekboard-controls-lego-power-functions-with-circuitpython-or-snek-programming-languages/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kennedy (@mkennedy) |first=Michael |title=Ready to find out if you're git famous? |url=https://pythonbytes.fm/episodes/show/187/ready-to-find-out-if-youre-git-famous |access-date=2024-01-04 |website=pythonbytes.fm |language=en-US |archive-date=5 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105001031/https://pythonbytes.fm/episodes/show/187/ready-to-find-out-if-youre-git-famous |url-status=live}}</ref><!-- https://keithp.com/blogs/newt-lola/ https://bipes.net.br/snek-web-uploader/ --> embedded computing language "is Python-inspired, but it is not Python. It is possible to write Snek programs that run under a full Python system, but most Python programs will not run under Snek."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Packard |first=Keith |date=2022-12-20 |title=The Snek Programming Language: A Python-inspired Embedded Computing Language |url=https://sneklang.org/doc/snek.pdf |access-date=4 January 2024 |archive-date=4 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240104162458/https://sneklang.org/doc/snek.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Snek is compatible with 8-bit [[AVR microcontrollers]] such as [[ATmega|ATmega 328P]]-based Arduino, as well as larger microcontrollers that are compatible with [[MicroPython]]. Snek is an imperative language that (unlike Python) omits [[object-oriented programming]]. Snek supports only one numeric data type, which features 32-bit [[single-precision|single precision]] (resembling [[JavaScript]] numbers, though smaller).<!-- "Snek is a tiny embeddable language targeting processors with only a few kB of flash and ram. Think of something that would have been running BASIC years ago and you'll have the idea. These processors are too small to run MicroPython." "Snekboard is a custom embedded computer designed to run Snek or CircuitPython." -->
===Unsupported implementations===
[[Stackless Python]] is a significant fork of CPython that implements [[microthread]]s. This implementation uses the [[call stack]] differently, thus allowing massively concurrent programs. PyPy also offers a stackless version.<ref name="AutoNT-73"/>
Just-in-time Python compilers have been developed, but are now unsupported:
* Google began a project named [[Unladen Swallow]] in 2009: this project aimed to speed up the Python interpreter five-fold by using [[LLVM]], and improve [[multithreading (computer architecture)|multithreading]] capability for scaling to thousands of cores,<ref name="AutoNT-74"/> while typical implementations are limited by the [[global interpreter lock]].
* [[Psyco]] is a discontinued [[just-in-time compilation|just-in-time]] [[run-time algorithm specialization|specializing]] compiler, which integrates with CPython and transforms bytecode to machine code at runtime. The emitted code is specialized for certain [[data type]]s and is faster than standard Python code. Psyco does not support Python 2.7 or later.
* [[PyS60]] was a Python 2 interpreter for [[Series 60]] mobile phones, which was released by [[Nokia]] in 2005. The interpreter implemented many modules from Python's standard library, as well as additional modules for integration with the [[Symbian]] operating system. The Nokia [[N900]] also supports Python through the [[GTK]] widget library, allowing programs to be written and run on the target device.<ref>{{cite web|title=Python on the Nokia N900|url=http://www.stochasticgeometry.ie/2010/04/29/python-on-the-nokia-n900/|website=Stochastic Geometry|date=29 April 2010|access-date=9 July 2015|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620000053/http://www.stochasticgeometry.ie/2010/04/29/python-on-the-nokia-n900/|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Cross-compilers to other languages===
There are several compilers/[[transpiler]]s to high-level
* Brython,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Brython|url=https://brython.info/|access-date=2021-01-21|website=brython.info|archive-date=3 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803065954/http://brython.info/|url-status=live}}</ref> Transcrypt,<ref>{{cite web|title=Transcrypt – Python in the browser|url=https://www.transcrypt.org|access-date=22 December 2020|website=transcrypt.org|language=en|archive-date=19 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819133303/http://www.transcrypt.org/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infoq.com/articles/transcrypt-python-javascript-compiler/|title=Transcrypt: Anatomy of a Python to JavaScript Compiler|website=InfoQ|access-date=20 January 2021|archive-date=5 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205193339/https://www.infoq.com/articles/transcrypt-python-javascript-compiler/|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Pyjs]] compile Python to [[JavaScript]]. (The latest release of Pyjs was in 2012.)
* [[Cython]] compiles a superset of Python<!-- actually 2.7 by default, but Python 3 by override --> to C. The resulting code can be used with Python via direct C-level API calls into the Python interpreter.
* PyJL compiles/transpiles a subset of Python to "human-readable, maintainable, and high-performance Julia source code".<ref name=PyJL>{{Cite web|title=Transpiling Python to Julia using PyJL|url=https://web.ist.utl.pt/antonio.menezes.leitao/ADA/documents/publications_docs/2022_TranspilingPythonToJuliaUsingPyJL.pdf|quote=After manually modifying one line of code by specifying the necessary type information, we obtained a speedup of 52.6×, making the translated Julia code 19.5× faster than the original Python code.|access-date=20 September 2023|archive-date=19 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119071525/https://web.ist.utl.pt/antonio.menezes.leitao/ADA/documents/publications_docs/2022_TranspilingPythonToJuliaUsingPyJL.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite the developers' performance claims, this is not possible for ''arbitrary'' Python code; that is, compiling to a faster language or machine code is known to be impossible in the general case. The semantics of Python might potentially be changed, but in many cases speedup is possible with few or no changes in the Python code. The faster Julia source code can then be used from Python or compiled to machine code.
* [[Nuitka]] compiles Python into C<!-- "is the optimizing Python compiler written in Python that creates executables that run without a separate installer"-->.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nuitka Home {{!}} Nuitka Home|url=http://nuitka.net/|access-date=18 August 2017|website=nuitka.net|language=en|archive-date=30 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530211233/https://nuitka.net/|url-status=live}}</ref> This compiler works with Python 3.4 to 3.12 (and 2.6 and 2.7) for Python's main supported platforms (and Windows 7 or even Windows XP) and for Android. The compiler developers claim full support for Python 3.10, <!-- "also finishes full compatibility with the match statements of 3.10" "From here on, we need to re-visit compatibility. A few more obscured 3.10 features are missing, the 3.11 compatibility is not yet complete" -->partial support for Python 3.11 and 3.12, <!-- "This release bumps the long-awaited 3.12 support to a complete level. Now, Nuitka behaves identically to CPython 3.12 for the most part. .. After being late with 3.12 support, we will now be early with 3.13 support if all goes well." --> and experimental support for Python 3.13. Nuitka supports macOS including Apple Silicon-based versions. <!-- "While arm64 (M1) only builds and x86_64 (Intel) only builds work, the value universal which of course implies twice the size, and as such has other disadvantages, is not yet supported. --> The compiler is free of cost, though it has commercial add-ons (e.g., for hiding source code).<!-- "Container Builds (public + commercial)" -->
* [[Numba]] is a JIT compiler that is used from Python; the compiler translates a subset of Python and NumPy code into fast machine code. This tool is enabled by adding a decorator to the relevant Python code.
* Pythran compiles a subset of Python 3 to C++ ([[C++11]]).<ref name="Guelton Brunet Amini Merlini 2015 p=014001">{{cite journal |last1=Guelton |first1=Serge |last2=Brunet |first2=Pierrick |last3=Amini |first3=Mehdi |last4=Merlini |first4=Adrien |last5=Corbillon |first5=Xavier |last6=Raynaud |first6=Alan |title=Pythran: enabling static optimization of scientific Python programs |journal=Computational Science & Discovery |publisher=IOP Publishing |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=16 March 2015 |issn=1749-4699 |doi=10.1088/1749-4680/8/1/014001|doi-access=free |page=014001 |bibcode=2015CS&D....8a4001G}}</ref>
* [[RPython]] can be compiled to C, and it is used to build the PyPy interpreter for Python.
* The Python → 11l → C++ transpiler<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://11l-lang.org/transpiler |title=The Python → 11l → C++ transpiler |access-date=17 July 2022 |archive-date=24 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924233728/https://11l-lang.org/transpiler/ |url-status=live}}</ref> compiles a subset of Python 3 to C++ ([[C++17]]).
There are also specialized compilers:
* [[MyHDL]] is a Python-based [[hardware description language]] (HDL) that converts MyHDL code to [[Verilog]] or [[VHDL]] code.
Some older projects existed, as well as compilers not designed for use with Python 3.x and related syntax:
* Google's Grumpy [[transpile]]s Python 2 to [[Go (programming language)|Go]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://github.com/google/grumpy|title=google/grumpy|date=10 April 2020|via=GitHub|access-date=25 March 2020|archive-date=15 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200415054919/https://github.com/google/grumpy|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://opensource.google/projects/|title=Projects|website=opensource.google|access-date=25 March 2020|archive-date=24 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424191248/https://opensource.google/projects/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theregister.com/2017/01/05/googles_grumpy_makes_python_go/|title=Google's Grumpy code makes Python Go|first=Thomas Claburn in San|last=Francisco|website=www.theregister.com|access-date=20 January 2021|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307165521/https://www.theregister.com/2017/01/05/googles_grumpy_makes_python_go/|url-status=live}}</ref> The latest release was in 2017.
* [[IronPython]]<!-- (abandoned by Microsoft) --> allows running Python 2.7 programs with the .NET [[Common Language Runtime]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=IronPython.net /|url=https://ironpython.net/|website=ironpython.net|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417064418/https://ironpython.net/|url-status=live}}</ref> An [[Software release life cycle#Alpha|alpha]] version (released in 2021), is available for "Python 3.4, although features and behaviors from later versions may be included."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://github.com/IronLanguages/ironpython3 |title=GitHub – IronLanguages/ironpython3: Implementation of Python 3.x for .NET Framework that is built on top of the Dynamic Language Runtime<!-- Bot generated title --> |website=[[GitHub]] |archive-date=28 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928101250/https://github.com/IronLanguages/ironpython3 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Jython]] compiles Python 2.7 to Java bytecode, allowing the use of Java libraries from a Python program.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jython FAQ|url=https://www.jython.org/jython-old-sites/archive/22/userfaq.html|access-date=2021-04-22|website=www.jython.org|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422055726/https://www.jython.org/jython-old-sites/archive/22/userfaq.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Pyrex (programming language)|Pyrex]] (last released in 2010) and [[Shed Skin]] (last released in 2013) compile to C and C++ respectively.
===Performance===
A performance comparison
There are several approaches to optimizing Python performance, given the inherent slowness of an [[interpreted language]]. These approaches include the following strategies or tools:
* [[Just-in-time compilation]]: Dynamically compiling Python code just before it is executed. This technique is used in libraries such as [[Numba]] and [[PyPy]].
* [[Compiler|Static compilation]]: Python code is compiled into machine code sometime before execution. An example of this approach is Cython, which compiles Python into C.
* Concurrency and parallelism: Multiple tasks can be run simultaneously. Python contains modules such as `multiprocessing` to support this form of parallelism. Moreover, this approach helps to overcome limitations of the [[Global interpreter lock|Global Interpreter Lock]] (GIL) in CPU tasks.
* Efficient data structures: Performance can also be improved by using data types such as <code>Set</code> for membership tests, or <code>deque</code> from <code>collections</code> for [[Queueing theory|queue]] operations.
==Language Development==
Python's development is conducted largely through the ''Python Enhancement Proposal'' (PEP) process; this process is the primary mechanism for proposing major new features, collecting community input on issues, and documenting Python design decisions.<ref name="PepCite000"/> Python coding style is covered in PEP 8.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/|title=PEP 8 – Style Guide for Python Code|website=Python.org|access-date=26 March 2019|archive-date=17 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417223549/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/|url-status=live}}</ref> Outstanding PEPs are reviewed and commented on by the Python community and the steering council.<ref name="PepCite000"/>
Enhancement of the language corresponds with development of the CPython reference implementation. The mailing list python-dev is the primary forum for the language's development. Specific issues were originally discussed in the [[Roundup (issue tracker)|Roundup]] [[bug tracker]] hosted by the foundation.<ref name="AutoNT-21"/> In 2022, all issues and discussions were migrated to [[GitHub]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://lwn.net/Articles/885854/ |title=Moving Python's bugs to GitHub [LWN.net] |access-date=2 October 2022 |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002183818/https://lwn.net/Articles/885854/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Development originally took place on a [[Self-hosting (web services)|self-hosted]] source-code repository running [[Mercurial]], until Python moved to [[GitHub]] in January 2017.<ref name=py_dev_guide>{{Cite web|url=https://devguide.python.org/|title=Python Developer's Guide – Python Developer's Guide|website=devguide.python.org|access-date=17 December 2019|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109032501/https://devguide.python.org/|url-status=live}}</ref>
CPython's public releases have three types, distinguished by which part of the version number is incremented:
* ''Backward-incompatible versions'', where code is expected to break and must be manually [[ported]]. The first part of the version number is incremented. These releases happen infrequently—version 3.0 was released 8 years after 2.0. According to Guido van Rossum, a version 4.0 will probably never exist.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hughes |first=Owen |date=2021-05-24 |title=Programming languages: Why Python 4.0 might never arrive, according to its creator |url=https://www.techrepublic.com/article/programming-languages-why-python-4-0-will-probably-never-arrive-according-to-its-creator/ |access-date=2022-05-16 |website=TechRepublic |language=en-US |archive-date=14 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714201302/https://www.techrepublic.com/article/programming-languages-why-python-4-0-will-probably-never-arrive-according-to-its-creator/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''Major or "feature" releases'' are largely compatible with the previous version but introduce new features. The second part of the version number is incremented. Starting with Python 3.9, these releases are expected to occur annually.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0602/|title=PEP 602 – Annual Release Cycle for Python|website=Python.org|language=en|access-date=6 November 2019|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614202755/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0602/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lwn.net/Articles/802777/|title=Changing the Python release cadence [LWN.net]|website=lwn.net|access-date=6 November 2019|archive-date=6 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106170153/https://lwn.net/Articles/802777/|url-status=live}}</ref> Each major version is supported by bug fixes for several years after its release.<ref name="release-schedule"/>
* ''Bug fix releases'',<ref name="AutoNT-22"/> which introduce no new features, occur approximately every three months; these releases are made when a sufficient number of bugs have been fixed [[Upstream (software development)|upstream]] since the last release. Security vulnerabilities are also patched in these releases. The third and final part of the version number is incremented.<ref name="AutoNT-22"/>
Many [[beta release|alpha, beta, and release-candidates]] are also released as previews and for testing before final releases. Although there is a rough schedule for releases, they are often delayed if the code is not ready yet. Python's development team monitors the state of the code by running a large [[unit test]] suite during development.<ref name="AutoNT-23"/>
The major [[academic conference]] on Python is [[PyCon]]. There are also special Python mentoring programs, such as [[PyLadies]].
==API documentation generators==
Tools that can generate documentation for Python [[API]] include [[pydoc]] (available as part of the standard library)
==Naming==
Python's name is
The
* [[Pygame]], a [[language binding|binding]] of [[Simple DirectMedia Layer * [[PyQt]] and [[PyGTK]], which bind [[Qt (software)|Qt]] and GTK to Python respectively; * [[PyPy]], a Python implementation originally written in Python * [[NumPy]], a Python library for numerical processing.
* [[Jupyter]], a [[notebook interface]] and associated project for interactive computing
==Popularity==
Since 2003, Python has consistently ranked in the top ten of the most popular programming languages in the [[TIOBE Programming Community Index]]
[[File:Tiobeindex.png|thumb|TIOBE Index Chart showing Python's popularity compared to other programming languages]]
Large organizations that use Python include [[Wikipedia]], [[Google]],<ref name="quotes-about-python"/> [[Yahoo!]],<ref name="AutoNT-29"/> [[CERN]],<ref name="AutoNT-30"/> [[NASA]],<ref name="AutoNT-31"/> [[Facebook]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://developers.facebook.com/blog/post/301|title=Tornado: Facebook's Real-Time Web Framework for Python – Facebook for Developers|website=Facebook for Developers|language=en-US|access-date=19 June 2018|archive-date=19 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219031313/https://developers.facebook.com/blog/post/301|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], [[Instagram]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://instagram-engineering.com/what-powers-instagram-hundreds-of-instances-dozens-of-technologies-adf2e22da2ad |title=What Powers Instagram: Hundreds of Instances, Dozens of Technologies |date=11 December 2016 |publisher=Instagram Engineering |access-date=27 May 2019 |archive-date=15 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615183410/https://instagram-engineering.com/what-powers-instagram-hundreds-of-instances-dozens-of-technologies-adf2e22da2ad |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Spotify]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://labs.spotify.com/2013/03/20/how-we-use-python-at-spotify/|title=How we use Python at Spotify|website=Spotify Labs|language=en-US|access-date=25 July 2018|date=20 March 2013|archive-date=10 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610005143/https://labs.spotify.com/2013/03/20/how-we-use-python-at-spotify/|url-status=live}}</ref> and some smaller entities such as [[Industrial Light & Magic]]<ref name="AutoNT-32"/> and [[ITA Software|ITA]].<ref name="AutoNT-33"/> The social news networking site [[Reddit]] was developed mostly in Python.<ref>{{Citation|title=GitHub – reddit-archive/reddit: historical code from reddit.com.|url=https://github.com/reddit-archive/reddit|publisher=The Reddit Archives|access-date=20 March 2019|archive-date=1 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601104939/https://github.com/reddit-archive/reddit|url-status=live}}</ref> Organizations that partly use Python include [[Discord]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://elixir-lang.org/blog/2020/10/08/real-time-communication-at-scale-with-elixir-at-discord/ | title=Real time communication at scale with Elixir at Discord | date=8 October 2020 }}</ref> and [[Baidu]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.freelancinggig.com/blog/2018/07/05/what-programming-language-is-baidu-built-in/#:~:text=Even%20though%20Baidu%20has%20used,part%20JavaScript%20has%20been%20applied | title=What Programming Language is Baidu Built In? | date=5 July 2018 }}</ref>
==Types of use==
{{further|List of Python software}}
[[File:Python Powered.png|thumb|Software that is powered by Python]]
Python has many uses, including the following:
* [[Scripting language|Scripting]] for [[web application]]s
* Scientific computing
* [[Artificial intelligence]] and [[machine learning]] projects
* [[Graphical user interface]]s and [[desktop environment]]s
* Embedded scripting in software and hardware products
* Operating systems
* [[Information security]]
Python can serve as a scripting language for web applications, e.g., via the {{Not a typo|[[mod_wsgi]]}} module for the [[Apache webserver|Apache web server]].<ref name="AutoNT-35" /> With [[Web Server Gateway Interface]], a standard API has evolved to facilitate these applications. [[Web framework]]s such as [[Django (web framework)|Django]], [[Pylons (web framework)|Pylons]], [[Pyramid (web framework)|Pyramid]], [[TurboGears]], [[web2py]], [[Tornado (web server)|Tornado]], [[Flask (web framework)|Flask]], Bottle, and [[Zope]] support developers in the design and maintenance of complex applications. Pyjs and [[IronPython]] can be used to develop the client-side of Ajax-based applications. [[SQLAlchemy]] can be used as a [[Data mapper pattern|data mapper]] to a relational database. [[Twisted (software)|Twisted]] is a framework to program communication between computers; this framework is used by [[Dropbox]], for example.
Libraries such as [[NumPy]], [[SciPy]] and [[Matplotlib]] allow the effective use of Python in scientific computing,<ref name="cise">{{cite journal |last=Oliphant |first=Travis |title=Python for Scientific Computing |journal=Computing in Science and Engineering |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=10–20 |year=2007 |url=https://www.h2desk.com/blog/python-scientific-computing/ |doi=10.1109/MCSE.2007.58 |citeseerx=10.1.1.474.6460 |bibcode=2007CSE.....9c..10O |s2cid=206457124 |access-date=10 April 2015 |archive-date=15 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615193226/https://www.h2desk.com/blog/python-scientific-computing/ |url-status=live| issn=1521-9615 }}</ref><ref name="millman">{{cite journal |first1=K. Jarrod |last1=Millman |first2=Michael |last2=Aivazis |title=Python for Scientists and Engineers |journal=Computing in Science and Engineering |volume=13 |number=2 |pages=9–12 |year=2011 |url=http://www.computer.org/csdl/mags/cs/2011/02/mcs2011020009.html |doi=10.1109/MCSE.2011.36 |bibcode=2011CSE....13b...9M |access-date=7 July 2014 |archive-date=19 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219031439/https://www.computer.org/csdl/mags/cs/2011/02/mcs2011020009.html |url-status=live}}</ref> with specialized libraries such as [[Biopython]] and [[Astropy]] providing ___domain-specific functionality. [[SageMath]] is a [[computer algebra system]] with a [[notebook interface]] that is programmable in Python; the SageMath library covers many aspects of [[mathematics]], including [[algebra]], [[combinatorics]], [[numerical mathematics]], [[number theory]], and [[calculus]].<ref name="ICSE" >{{Citation|title=Science education with SageMath|url=http://visual.icse.us.edu.pl/methodology/why_Sage.html|publisher=Innovative Computing in Science Education|access-date=22 April 2019|archive-date=15 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615180428/http://visual.icse.us.edu.pl/methodology/why_Sage.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[OpenCV]] has Python bindings with a rich set of features for [[computer vision]] and [[image processing]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=OpenCV: OpenCV-Python Tutorials|url=https://docs.opencv.org/3.4.9/d6/d00/tutorial_py_root.html|access-date=2020-09-14|website=docs.opencv.org|archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923063145/https://docs.opencv.org/3.4.9/d6/d00/tutorial_py_root.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
Python is commonly used in artificial-intelligence and machine-learning projects, with support from libraries such as [[TensorFlow]], [[Keras]], [[Pytorch]], [[scikit-learn]] and [[ProbLog]] (a logic language).<ref name="whitepaper2015">{{cite web |last1=Dean |first1=Jeff |last2=Monga |first2=Rajat |first3=Sanjay |last3=Ghemawat |display-authors=2 |author-link1=Jeff Dean (computer scientist) |title=TensorFlow: Large-scale machine learning on heterogeneous systems |url=http://download.tensorflow.org/paper/whitepaper2015.pdf |website=TensorFlow.org |publisher=Google Research |access-date=10 November 2015 |date=9 November 2015 |archive-date=20 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120004649/http://download.tensorflow.org/paper/whitepaper2015.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Piatetsky |first1=Gregory |title=Python eats away at R: Top Software for Analytics, Data Science, Machine Learning in 2018: Trends and Analysis |url=https://www.kdnuggets.com/2018/05/poll-tools-analytics-data-science-machine-learning-results.html/2 |website=KDnuggets |access-date=30 May 2018 |archive-date=15 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115234216/https://www.kdnuggets.com/2018/05/poll-tools-analytics-data-science-machine-learning-results.html/2 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://scikit-learn.org/stable/testimonials/testimonials.html|title=Who is using scikit-learn? – scikit-learn 0.20.1 documentation|website=scikit-learn.org|access-date=30 November 2018|archive-date=6 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506210716/https://scikit-learn.org/stable/testimonials/testimonials.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author-link1=Norman Jouppi |last1=Jouppi |first1=Norm |title=Google supercharges machine learning tasks with TPU custom chip |url=https://cloudplatform.googleblog.com/2016/05/Google-supercharges-machine-learning-tasks-with-custom-chip.html |website=Google Cloud Platform Blog |access-date=19 May 2016 |archive-date=18 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518201516/https://cloudplatform.googleblog.com/2016/05/Google-supercharges-machine-learning-tasks-with-custom-chip.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ProbLogConcepts">{{cite journal |last1=De Raedt |first1=Luc |last2=Kimmig|first2=Angelika |title=Probabilistic (logic) programming concepts |journal=Machine Learning |date=2015 |volume=100 |number=1 |pages=5–47 |doi=10.1007/s10994-015-5494-z |s2cid=3166992 |doi-access=free}}</ref> As a scripting language with a [[modular programming|modular architecture]], simple syntax, and rich text processing tools, Python is often used for [[natural language processing]].<ref name="AutoNT-47"/>
The combination of Python and [[Prolog]] has proven useful for AI applications, with Prolog providing knowledge representation and reasoning capabilities. The Janus system, in particular, exploits similarities between these two languages, in part because of their dynamic typing and their simple, recursive data structures. This combination is typically applied natural language processing, visual query answering, geospatial reasoning, and handling semantic web data.<ref>Andersen, C. and Swift, T., 2023. The Janus System: a bridge to new prolog applications. In Prolog: The Next 50 Years (pp. 93–104). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=SWI-Prolog Python interface |url=https://www.swi-prolog.org/pldoc/doc_for?object=section(%27packages/janus.html%27) |access-date=2024-03-15 |language=en-US |archive-date=15 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315162046/https://www.swi-prolog.org/pldoc/doc_for?object=section%28%27packages%2Fjanus.html%27%29 |url-status=live}}</ref>
The Natlog system, implemented in Python, uses [[Definite clause grammar|Definite Clause Grammars]] (DCGs) to create prompts for two types of generators: text-to-text generators such as GPT3, and text-to-image generators such as DALL-E or Stable Diffusion.<ref>Tarau, P., 2023. Reflections on automation, learnability and expressiveness in logic-based programming languages. In Prolog: The Next 50 Years (pp. 359–371). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.</ref>
Python can be used for graphical user interfaces (GUIs), by using libraries such as [[Tkinter]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/3/library/tkinter.html |title=Tkinter — Python interface to TCL/Tk |access-date=9 June 2023 |archive-date=18 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018043136/http://docs.python.org/library/tkinter.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, for the [[One Laptop per Child]] XO computer, most of the [[Sugar (software)|Sugar]] desktop environment is written in Python (as of 2008).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/python-tkinter-tutorial/ |title=Python Tkinter Tutorial |date=3 June 2020 |access-date=9 June 2023 |archive-date=9 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609031631/https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/python-tkinter-tutorial/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
Python is embedded in many software products (and some hardware products) as a scripting language. These products include the following:
* [[finite element method]] software such as [[Abaqus]],
* 3D parametric modelers such as [[FreeCAD]],
* 3D animation packages such as [[3ds Max]], [[Blender (software)|Blender]], [[Cinema 4D]], [[LightWave 3D|Lightwave]], [[Houdini (software)|Houdini]], [[Maya (software)|Maya]], [[modo (software)|modo]], [[MotionBuilder]], [[Autodesk Softimage|Softimage]],
* the visual effects compositor [[Nuke (software)|Nuke]],
* 2D imaging programs such as [[GIMP]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://gimp-win.sourceforge.net/faq.html |title=Installers for GIMP for Windows – Frequently Asked Questions |author=<!-- Staff writer(s); no by-line. --> |date=26 July 2013 |access-date=26 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717070814/http://gimp-win.sourceforge.net/faq.html |archive-date=17 July 2013}}</ref> [[Inkscape]], [[Scribus]] and [[Paint Shop Pro]],<ref name="AutoNT-38" /> and
* [[musical notation]] programs such as [[scorewriter]] and [[Capella (notation program)|capella]].
Among hardware products, the [[Raspberry Pi]] [[single-board computer]] project has adopted Python as its main user-programming language.
Many operating systems include Python as a standard component. Python ships with most [[Linux distribution]]s,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://docs.python.org/3/using/unix.html|title=Python Setup and Usage|publisher=Python Software Foundation|access-date=10 January 2020|archive-date=17 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617143505/https://docs.python.org/3/using/unix.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[AmigaOS 4]] (using Python 2.7), [[FreeBSD]] (as a package), [[NetBSD]], and [[OpenBSD]] (as a package); it can be used from the command line (terminal). Many Linux distributions use installers written in Python: [[Ubuntu]] uses the [[Ubiquity (software)|Ubiquity]] installer, while [[Red Hat Linux]] and [[Fedora Linux]] use the [[Anaconda (installer)|Anaconda]] installer. [[Gentoo Linux]] uses Python in its [[package management system]], [[Portage (software)|Portage]].<ref name="AutoNT-51" />
Python is used extensively in the information security industry, including in exploit development.<ref name="AutoNT-49" /><ref name="AutoNT-50" />
==Limitations==
* The energy usage of Python is much worse than C by a factor of 75.88.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Pereira |first=Rui |last2=Couto |first2=Marco |last3=Ribeiro |first3=Francisco |last4=Rua |first4=Rui |last5=Cunha |first5=Jácome |last6=Fernandes |first6=João Paulo |last7=Saraiva |first7=João |date=2017-10-23 |title=Energy efficiency across programming languages: how do energy, time, and memory relate? |url=https://doi.org/10.1145/3136014.3136031 |journal=Proceedings of the 10th ACM SIGPLAN International Conference on Software Language Engineering |series=SLE 2017 |___location=New York, NY, USA |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery |pages=256–267 |doi=10.1145/3136014.3136031 |isbn=978-1-4503-5525-4}}</ref>
* Python lacks do while loops<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-ideas/2013-June/021610.html|title=[Python-ideas] PEP 315: do-while}}</ref>
* The throughput of Python is worse than C by a factor of 71.9.<ref name=":1" />
* The average memory usage of Python is worse than C by a factor of 2.4.<ref name=":1" />
* Creating an executable with Python requires bundling the entire Python interpreter into the executable, which causes binary sizes of small executable to be massive.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://pyinstaller.org/en/stable/operating-mode.html|title=What PyInstaller Does and How It Does It}}</ref>
* Significant whitespace causes Python scripts to be difficult to minify. The most compact minification can transform each indent level into a tab.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://github.com/dflook/python-minifier/issues/130|title=Feature Request: Whitespace Minification and Line Merging Options #130}}</ref> However, this always takes up at least as much or more than braces.
==Languages influenced by Python==
Python's design and philosophy have influenced many other programming languages:
* [[Boo (programming language)|Boo]] uses indentation, a similar syntax, and a similar object model.<ref name="AutoNT-90"
* [[Cobra (programming language)|Cobra]] uses indentation and a similar syntax
* [[CoffeeScript]], a programming language that cross-compiles to JavaScript, has a Python-inspired syntax.
* [[ECMAScript]]
* [[GDScript]], a Python-like scripting language
* [[Go (programming language)|Go]] is designed for
* [[Groovy (programming language)|Groovy]] was motivated by
* [[Julia (programming language)|Julia]] was designed to be "as usable for general programming as Python".<ref name=Julia>{{cite web
* [[Mojo (programming language)|Mojo]] is a non-strict<ref name="Mojo"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Modular Docs – Why Mojo |url=https://docs.modular.com/mojo/why-mojo.html |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=docs.modular.com |language=en |quote=Mojo as a member of the Python family [..] Embracing Python massively simplifies our design efforts, because most of the syntax is already specified. [..] we decided that the right long-term goal for Mojo is to provide a superset of Python (i.e. be compatible with existing programs) and to embrace the CPython immediately for long-tail ecosystem enablement. To a Python programmer, we expect and hope that Mojo will be immediately familiar, while also providing new tools for developing systems-level code that enable you to do things that Python falls back to C and C++ for. |archive-date=5 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505083518/https://docs.modular.com/mojo/why-mojo.html |url-status=live}}</ref> superset of Python (e.g., omitting classes, and adding [[struct]]).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Spencer |first=Michael |title=What is Mojo Programming Language? |url=https://datasciencelearningcenter.substack.com/p/what-is-mojo-programming-language |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=datasciencelearningcenter.substack.com |date=4 May 2023 |language=en |archive-date=5 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505090408/https://datasciencelearningcenter.substack.com/p/what-is-mojo-programming-language |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Nim (programming language)|Nim]] uses indentation and a similar syntax.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.infoworld.com/article/3157745/application-development/nim-language-draws-from-best-of-python-rust-go-and-lisp.html |title=Nim language draws from best of Python, Rust, Go, and Lisp |first=Serdar |last=Yegulalp |date=16 January 2017 |website=InfoWorld |quote=Nim's syntax is strongly reminiscent of Python's, as it uses indented code blocks and some of the same syntax (such as the way if/elif/then/else blocks are constructed). |access-date=7 June 2020 |archive-date=13 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013211847/https://www.infoworld.com/article/3157745/application-development/nim-language-draws-from-best-of-python-rust-go-and-lisp.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]]'s creator, [[Yukihiro Matsumoto]], said that "I wanted a scripting language that was more powerful than Perl, and more object-oriented than Python. That's why I decided to design my own language."<ref name="linuxdevcenter"/>
* [[Swift (programming language)|Swift]], a programming language developed by Apple, has some Python-inspired syntax.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nondot.org/sabre |title=Chris Lattner's Homepage |publisher=Chris Lattner |first=Chris |last=Lattner |author-link=Chris Lattner |date=3 June 2014 |access-date=3 June 2014 |quote=I started work on the Swift Programming Language in July of 2010. I implemented much of the basic language structure, with only a few people knowing of its existence. A few other (amazing) people started contributing in earnest late in 2011, and it became a major focus for the Apple Developer Tools group in July 2013 [...] drawing ideas from Objective-C, Rust, Haskell, Ruby, Python, C#, CLU, and far too many others to list. |archive-date=22 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222150510/http://nondot.org/sabre/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Kotlin (programming language)|Kotlin]] blends Python and Java features, which minimizes boilerplate code and enhances developer efficiency.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jalan |first=Nishant Aanjaney |date=2022-11-10 |title=Programming in Kotlin |url=https://medium.com/codex/programming-in-kotlin-934bdb3659cf |access-date=2024-04-29 |website=CodeX |language=en}}</ref>
Python's development practices have also been emulated by other languages. For example,
==See also==
{{Portal|Computer programming|Free and open-source software}}
* [[Google Colab]]{{snd}} zero setup [[Online integrated development environment|online IDE]] that runs Python
* [[pip (package manager)]]
{{Clear}}
==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
{{
<ref name="faq-created">{{cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/faq/general.html#why-was-python-created-in-the-first-place |title=Why was Python created in the first place? |work=General Python FAQ |publisher=Python Software Foundation |access-date=22 March 2007 |archive-date=24 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024164224/http://docs.python.org/faq/general.html#why-was-python-created-in-the-first-place |url-status=live |quote=I had extensive experience with implementing an interpreted language in the ABC group at CWI, and from working with this group I had learned a lot about language design. This is the origin of many Python features, including the use of indentation for statement grouping and the inclusion of very high-level data types (although the details are all different in Python).}}</ref>
<ref name="98-interview">{{cite web |url=http://www.amk.ca/python/writing/gvr-interview |title=Interview with Guido van Rossum (July 1998) |last=Kuchling |first=Andrew M. |work=amk.ca |date=22 December 2006 |access-date=12 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070501105422/http://www.amk.ca/python/writing/gvr-interview |archive-date=1 May 2007 |quote=I'd spent a summer at DEC's Systems Research Center, which introduced me to Modula-2+; the Modula-3 final report was being written there at about the same time. What I learned there later showed up in Python's exception handling, modules, and the fact that methods explicitly contain 'self' in their parameter list. String slicing came from Algol-68 and Icon.}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoNT-1">{{
<ref name="classmix">{{cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/tutorial/classes.html |title=Classes |work=The Python Tutorial |publisher=Python Software Foundation |access-date=20 February 2012 |quote=It is a mixture of the class mechanisms found in C++ and Modula-3 |archive-date=23 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023030209/http://docs.python.org/tutorial/classes.html |url-status=live
<ref name="effbot-call-by-object">{{cite web |url=http://effbot.org/zone/call-by-object.htm |title=Call By Object |work=effbot.org |last=Lundh |first=Fredrik |quote=replace "CLU" with "Python", "record" with "instance", and "procedure" with "function or method", and you get a pretty accurate description of Python's object model. |access-date=21 November 2017 |archive-date=23 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191123043655/http://effbot.org/zone/call-by-object.htm |url-status=live
<ref name="AutoNT-2">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.3/mro/ |title=The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order |last=Simionato |first=Michele |publisher=Python Software Foundation |quote=The C3 method itself has nothing to do with Python, since it was invented by people working on Dylan and it is described in a paper intended for lispers |access-date=29 July 2014 |archive-date=20 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820231854/https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.3/mro/ |url-status=live
<ref name="AutoNT-3">{{cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/howto/functional.html |title=Functional Programming HOWTO |last=Kuchling |first=A. M. |work=Python v2.7.2 documentation |publisher=Python Software Foundation |quote=List comprehensions and generator expressions [...] are a concise notation for such operations, borrowed from the functional programming language Haskell. |access-date=9 February 2012 |archive-date=24 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024163217/http://docs.python.org/howto/functional.html |url-status=live
<ref name="pep0238">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0238/ |title=PEP 238 – Changing the Division Operator |first1=Moshe |last1=Zadka |first2=Guido |last2=van Rossum |date=11 March 2001 |work=Python Enhancement Proposals |publisher=Python Software Foundation |access-date=23 October 2013 |archive-date=28 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528115550/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0238/ |url-status=live
<ref name="AutoNT-4">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0255/ |title=PEP 255 – Simple Generators |first1=Neil |last1=Schemenauer |first2=Tim |last2=Peters |first3=Magnus Lie |last3=Hetland |date=18 May 2001 |work=Python Enhancement Proposals |publisher=Python Software Foundation |access-date=9 February 2012 |archive-date=5 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200605012926/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0255/ |url-status=live
<ref name="AutoNT-
<ref name="bini">{{cite book |last=Bini |first=Ola |title=Practical JRuby on Rails Web 2.0 Projects: bringing Ruby on Rails to the Java platform |year=2007 |publisher=APress |___location=Berkeley |isbn=978-1-59059-881-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/practicaljrubyon0000bini/page/3 3] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/practicaljrubyon0000bini/page/3}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoNT-7">{{cite web |last=Kuhlman |first=Dave |url=https://www.davekuhlman.org/python_book_01.pdf|title=A Python Book: Beginning Python, Advanced Python, and Python Exercises |at=Section 1.1|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120623165941/http://cutter.rexx.com/~dkuhlman/python_book_01.html |archive-date=23 June 2012}}</ref>
<ref name="
<ref name="
<ref name="
<ref name="
<ref name="AutoNT-13">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/community/pycon/dc2004/papers/24/metaclasses-pycon.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530030205/http://www.python.org/community/pycon/dc2004/papers/24/metaclasses-pycon.pdf |archive-date=30 May 2009 |title=Python Metaclasses: Who? Why? When? |last=The Cain Gang Ltd. |access-date=27 June 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoNT-14">{{cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/3.0/reference/datamodel.html#special-method-names |title=3.3. Special method names |work=The Python Language Reference |publisher=Python Software Foundation |access-date=27 June 2009 |archive-date=15 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215123146/https://docs.python.org/3.0/reference/datamodel.html#special-method-names |url-status=live
<ref name="AutoNT-15">{{cite web |url=http://www.nongnu.org/pydbc/ |title=PyDBC: method preconditions, method postconditions and class invariants for Python |access-date=24 September 2011 |archive-date=23 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191123231931/http://www.nongnu.org/pydbc/ |url-status=live
<ref name="AutoNT-16">{{cite web |url=http://www.wayforward.net/pycontract/ |title=Contracts for Python |access-date=24 September 2011 |archive-date=15 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615173404/http://www.wayforward.net/pycontract/ |url-status=live
<ref name="AutoNT-17">{{cite web |url=https://sites.google.com/site/pydatalog/ |title=PyDatalog |access-date=22 July 2012 |archive-date=13 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613160231/https://sites.google.com/site/pydatalog/ |url-status=live
<ref name="AutoNT-18">{{cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/3/library/itertools.html |title=6.5 itertools – Functions creating iterators for efficient looping |publisher=Docs.python.org |access-date=22 November 2016 |archive-date=14 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614153629/https://docs.python.org/3/library/itertools.html |url-status=live
<ref name="PEP20">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0020/ |title=PEP 20 – The Zen of Python |last=Peters |first=Tim |date=19 August 2004 |work=Python Enhancement Proposals |publisher=Python Software Foundation |access-date=24 November 2008 |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226141127/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0020/ |url-status=live
<ref name="AutoNT-19">{{cite book |url=http://shop.oreilly.com/product/9780596007973.do |title=Python Cookbook, 2nd Edition |publisher=[[O'Reilly Media]] |last1=Martelli |first1=Alex |last2=Ravenscroft |first2=Anna |last3=Ascher |first3=David |year=2005 |page=230 |isbn=978-0-596-00797-3 |access-date=14 November 2015 |archive-date=23 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223171254/http://shop.oreilly.com/product/9780596007973.do |url-status=live
<ref name="AutoNT-20">{{cite web |
<ref name="PepCite000">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0001/ |title=PEP 1 – PEP Purpose and Guidelines |last1=Warsaw |first1=Barry |last2=Hylton |first2=Jeremy |last3=Goodger |first3=David |date=13 June 2000 |work=Python Enhancement Proposals |publisher=Python Software Foundation |access-date=19 April 2011 |archive-date=6 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606042011/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0001/ |url-status=live
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===Sources===
* {{cite web |url=https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonForArtificialIntelligence |title=Python for Artificial Intelligence |publisher=Python Wiki
* {{cite journal |editor-last=Paine |editor-first=Jocelyn |title=AI in Python |journal=AI Expert Newsletter |publisher=Amzi! |date=August 2005 |url=http://www.ainewsletter.com/newsletters/aix_0508.htm#python_ai_ai |access-date=11 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326105810/http://www.ainewsletter.com/newsletters/aix_0508.htm#python_ai_ai |archive-date=26 March 2012 |url-status=dead
* {{cite web |url=https://pypi.python.org/pypi/PyAIML |title=PyAIML 0.8.5 : Python Package Index |publisher=Pypi.python.org |access-date=17 July 2013}}
* {{cite book |title=Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach |last1=Russell |first1=Stuart J. |author-link1=Stuart J. Russell |last2=Norvig |first2=Peter |author-link2=Peter Norvig |name-list-style=amp |edition=3rd |year=2009 |publisher=Prentice Hall |___location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |isbn=978-0-13-604259-4
==Further reading==
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7. Neutrality on the part of editors is essential. In terms of major debates, items representing all major positions should be included, with annotations indicating the specific POV of each. We may have to work out rules where topic disputes are irreconcilable.
-->
* {{cite book |last=Downey |first=Allen
* {{cite book |last=Lutz |first=Mark |title=Learning Python |publisher=O'Reilly Media |year=2013 |edition=5th |isbn=978-0-596-15806-4}}
* {{cite book |last=
* {{cite book |last=
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* {{Official website}}
* [https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/ The Python Tutorial]
{{Python (programming language)|state=expanded}}
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{{Statistical software}}
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