Design prototyping: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Creation and testing of prototypes}}

<!-- EDIT BELOW THIS LINE -->'''Design prototyping''' in its broader definition comprises the actions to make, test and analyse a [[prototype]], a [[Physical model|model]] or a [[mockup]] according to one or various purposes in different stages <ref name="Blom_Holm">{{Cite journal|last1=Blomkvist|first1=Johan|last2=Holmlid|first2=Stefan|date=2011|title=Existing prototyping perspectives: Considerations for service design|journal=Nordes 4}}</ref> of the [[design|design process]].<ref name="Floyd">{{Cite book|last=Floyd|first=Christiane|title=A systematic look at prototyping|work=In Approaches to prototyping|publisher=Springer|year=1984|___location=Berlin, Heidelberg|pages=1–18}}</ref><ref name="Stickdorn">{{Cite book|last1=Stickdorn|first1=Marc|url=|title=This is service design doing : applying service design thinking in the real world : a practitioner's handbook|last2=Hormess|first2=Markus Edgar|last3=Lawrence|first3=Adam|last4=Schneider|first4=Jakob|publisher=O'Reilly Media, Inc.|others=Markus Hormess, Adam Lawrence, Jakob Schneider|year=2018|isbn=978-1-4919-2718-2|edition=1st|___location=Sebastopol, CA|oclc=922913141}}</ref> Other definitions consider ''prototyping'' as the methods or techniques for making a prototype (e.g., [[Rapid prototyping|rapid prototyping techniques]]),<ref name=":0" /> or a stage in the design process (prototype development, prototype or prototyping).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Archer|first=L. Bruce|title=The structure of the design process|work=Design methods in architecture|publisher=Lund Humphries, Bradford and London|year=1969|pages=76–102}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hasso Plattner Institute of Design|url=https://web.stanford.edu/~mshanks/MichaelShanks/files/509554.pdf|title=An introduction to design thinking: process guide|year=2010}}</ref><ref name="Stickdorn" /><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Friis Dam|first1=Rikke|last2=Yu Siang|first2=Teo|year=2019|title=Stage 4 in the Design Thinking Process: Prototype|url=https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/article/stage-4-in-the-design-thinking-process-prototype|url-status=live|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Interaction Design Foundation}}</ref> The concept of ''prototyping'' in design disciplines' literature is also related to the concepts of ''experimentation'' (i.e., an iterative problem-solving process of trying, failing and improving),<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Thomke|first=Stefan H.|date=1998|title=Managing Experimentation in the Design of New Products|url=http://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10.1287/mnsc.44.6.743|journal=Management Science|language=en|volume=44|issue=6|pages=743–762|doi=10.1287/mnsc.44.6.743|issn=0025-1909|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and ''Research through Design (RtD)'' (i.e., designers make a prototype with the purpose of conducting research and generating knowledge while trying it, rather than aiming to improving it to become a final product).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Frayling|first=Christopher|title=Research in art and design|publisher=Royal College of Art|year=1993|volume=1|___location=London|pages=1–5|issue=1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Stappers|first1=Pieter Jan|url=https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/book/the-encyclopedia-of-human-computer-interaction-2nd-ed/research-through-design|title=Research through design|last2=Giaccardi|first2=Elisa|work=The encyclopedia of human-computer interaction|publisher=The Interaction Design Foundation|year=2017|pages=1–94}}</ref>

== Background ==

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{{Blockquote|text="As you come down in scale, it is much more likely that you will be able to mass produce the object, and therefore be able to make a prototype, test it and try it out and explore it."|author=J.K. Page <ref>{{Cite book|last=Page|first=J.K.|title=A Review of the Papers Presented at the Conference|work=Conference on Design Methods|year=1963|pages=212}}</ref>}}

In 1968, [[L. Bruce Archer|Bruce Archer]], a relevant figure in the "Design Methods Movement" describes the design process. One of the stages of the process is called "Prototype development" and it indicates activities to build and test a prototype.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Archer|first=L Bruce|title=The Structure of Design Processes|work=Thesis|publisher=Royal College of Art|year=1968}}</ref> Thus, it would be possible to say that from a design methods' perspective, ''prototyping'' recalls a process in which a prototype is built, tried out and tested. In the same line, additional references to prototyping can be found in later editions of the [[Design Research Society|Design Research Society's]] Conferences.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Design Research Society |last1=DRS |title=DRS Conference volumes |url=https://dl.designresearchsociety.org/conference-volumes/index.2.html |website=DRS Digital Library |publisher=DRS |access-date=17 June 2021}}</ref> For example, referring to build models and use them to consult people out of the design team, review the model and make decisions on how to modify the design proposal;<ref>{{cite bookjournal|url=https://dl.designresearchsociety.org/conference-volumes/2|title=The Design Activity International Conference, 1973|journal=DRS Conference Volumes|date=1973|publisher=Design Research Society|editor1-last=Design Research Society|pages=192}}</ref> or describing modelling (creating a model) and model simulation.<ref>{{Cite bookjournal|url=https://dl.designresearchsociety.org/conference-volumes/4|title=Proceedings of the Design Research Society International Conference, 1980: Design: Science: Method|journal=DRS Conference Volumes|publisher=Guildford, IPC Business Press Limited|year=1981|editor-last=Jacques|editor-first=R|pages=224–229|editor-last2=Powell|editor-first2=J.}}</ref>

However, one of the first documented uses of the term ''prototyping'' linked to a design process appears in 1983 in ''A systematic look at prototyping'' <ref name="Floyd" /> in the field of information systems and software development. The work of Floyd was inspired by the discussions among the scholars who were preparing the ''Working Conference on Prototyping.'' It focuses on ''prototype'' as a process, rather than the artefact and how prototyping could be applied to the full solution (or product) or parts of it seeking to improve the final output. Although this work was not developed within the design discipline, it provides a comprehensive characterisation of prototyping by defining its steps, purposes and strategies. Moreover, it serves as a referent to further studies of design prototyping.

[[File:3D printing functional prototypes.jpg|thumb|Example of a rapid prototyping technique: 3D printing of prototypes]]

Later, around the year of 1990, the availability of methods for rapidly manufacturing models and prototypes stimulated the publication of a great body of literature dedicated to [[rapid prototyping]] techniques and technologies (e.g., [[3D printing]]). Technologies for [[3D printing|additive manufacturing]] (i.e., adding material) or [[Machining|substractive manufacturing]] (i.e., removing material) together with the use of software for [[computer-aided design]] (CAD), leveraged prototype building but also the fabrication of products in limited numbers.

Along the years, further efforts have been dedicated to characterising prototyping in design disciplines in the fields of [[interaction design]], [[User experience design|experience design]],<ref name="Buchenau">{{Cite journalbook|last1=Buchenau|first1=Marion|last2=Suri|first2=Jane Fulton|datetitle=2000Proceedings of the 3rd conference on Designing interactive systems: Processes, practices, methods, and techniques |titlechapter=Experience prototyping |date=2000|chapter-url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/347642.347802?casa_token=aJCXf4G3Ze8AAAAA:ts_focl2ekhyxQwk9e5X22FX0BUq1TtuehKRpI9hsJmtY6KdT937jKOKpN1C3vtdLv_cYCTLmUA|journalseries=Proceedings of the 3rd Conference on Designing Interactive Systems:Dis Processes, Practices, Methods, and Techniques'00|pages=424–433|doi=10.1145/347642.347802|hdl=10654/43854 |isbn=1581132190|s2cid=6481095}}</ref> [[product design]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hallgrimssom|first=Bjarki|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1145028866|title=Prototyping and modelmaking for product design|publisher=Laurence King Publishing|year=2012|isbn=978-1-78067-446-9|oclc=1145028866}}</ref> and [[service design]],<ref name="Blom_Holm" /><ref name="Blom">{{Cite book|last=Blomkvist|first=Johan|url=https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A712357&dswid=-1860|title=Representing future situations of service: prototyping in service design|work=Doctoral dissertation|publisher=Linköping University Electronic Press|year=2014}}</ref><ref name="Stickdorn" /> as well as in product-design-related fields such as engineering/mechanical design.<ref name="Stowe">{{Cite book|last=Stowe|first=David|title=Investigating the Role of Prototyping in Mechanical Design Using Case Study Validation|work=Master Thesis|publisher=Clemson University|year=2008}}</ref><ref name="Camburn">{{Cite journal|last1=Camburn|first1=Bradley|last2=Viswanathan|first2=Vimal|last3=Linsey|first3=Julie|author3-link=Julie Linsey|last4=Anderson|first4=David|last5=Jensen|first5=Daniel|last6=Crawford|first6=Richard|last7=Otto|first7=Kevin|last8=Wood|first8=Kristin|date=2017|title=Design prototyping methods: state of the art in strategies, techniques, and guidelines|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S2053470117000105/type/journal_article|journal=Design Science|language=en|volume=3|pages=e13|doi=10.1017/dsj.2017.10|s2cid=116507313|issn=2053-4701|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2000, designers from [[IDEO]] described ''experience prototyping,'' introducing types of design representations and methods that allow to simulate aspects of an interaction that people experience by themselves.<ref name="Buchenau" /> Experience prototyping can combine various types of prototypes such as spaces, products and interfaces to resemble what the real experience could be like. Around the year of 2010, studies were developed to examine the prototyping of services theorising from the growing practice of service design,<ref name="Blom" /> which later in 2018 were also used as a reference for service design practitioners.<ref name="Stickdorn" />

== Prototyping cycle ==

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[[File:Paper prototype of website user interface, 2015-04-16.jpg|thumb|Paper prototype of a website user interface]]

# Preparation: to decide about the aims of prototyping, define questions and assumptions that are going to be examined, identify the participants of the prototyping sessions and the dimensions of the prototype that are going to be tested.

# Making: some or various dimensions will be represented in a prototype (e.g., material, form or function) <ref name="Lim">{{Cite journal|last1=Lim|first1=Youn-Kyung|last2=Stolterman|first2=Erik|last3=Tenenberg|first3=Josh|date=2008|title=The anatomy of prototypes: Prototypes as filters, prototypes as manifestations of design ideas|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/1375761.1375762|journal=ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction|language=en|volume=15|issue=2|pages=1–27|doi=10.1145/1375761.1375762|s2cid=9985664|issn=1073-0516|url-access=subscription}}</ref> employing an appropriate{{clarify|date=October 2021}} depending on the purpose. The relevance on making on design has been increasing in the last years and transforming while new design disciplines emerge. For instance, whilst [[Sketch (drawing)|sketches]] were previously another category of visual design representations,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pei|first1=Eujin|last2=Campbell|first2=Ian|last3=Evans|first3=Mark|date=2011|title=A taxonomic classification of visual design representations used by industrial designers and engineering designers|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2752/175630610X12877385838803|journal=The Design Journal|volume=14|issue=1|pages=64–91|doi=10.2752/175630610X12877385838803|s2cid=108653894}}</ref> today they could also be considered prototypes in service design.<ref name="Stickdorn"/>

# Testing: the prototyping session develops in a defined setup with certain characteristics of space and environment and will follow a method to gather feedback.

# Analysing: the results of the testing will be integrated into the solution and updated in the following prototype versions.[[File:UX prototyping 4.jpg|thumb|User experience (UX) prototyping: testing of a mobile application]]

One example of this cycle could be the design of a digital interface in the early stages of the process applying [[paper prototyping]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Stickdorn, Lawrence, Hormeß, Schneider|title=This is Service Design Doing - Methods - Paper prototyping|url=https://www.thisisservicedesigndoing.com/methods/paper-prototyping|url-status=live|access-date=June 17, 2021|website=This is Service Design Doing}}</ref> In this case, prototyping may seek to explore and evaluate multiple alternatives of ideas with the users as fast and cheap as possible, before investing time to program it. Thus, the prototypes will represent the structure of the interface by using simple forms and text to indicate the elements (1). A common technique for creating prototypes of digital interfaces would be to sketch [[Website wireframe|wireframes]] in paper (2). The team will meet with a potential user and the wireframes will be presented by the design researcher. The user will simulate to click the elements and explain the actions that intends to do while moving to other sheets that represent other screens in the navigation flow (3). The feedback gathered will be used to make decisions on the aspects that need to be modified and the layout of the interface will be updated (4).

== Characteristics of prototyping ==

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=== Position in the process ===

[[File:Double-diamond-process.jpg|thumb|Double Diamond inspired in the [[Design Council|Design Council´'s]] model of the design process.]]

Whilst for some scholars prototyping was happening in a particular stage of the design process, the importance of prototyping has been gaining relevance as a continuous activity since the early stages of the process.<ref name="Blom_Holm" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sanders|first1=Elizabeth B.-N.|last2=Stappers|first2=Pieter Jan|date=2014-01-02|title=Probes, toolkits and prototypes: three approaches to making in codesigning|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15710882.2014.888183|journal=CoDesign|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=5–14|doi=10.1080/15710882.2014.888183|s2cid=108955372|issn=1571-0882|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Considering in which moment of the process prototyping is going to be developed will guide decisions on its purpose and further characteristics of prototyping.

=== Purpose ===

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Prototypes can represent one component of a future solution such as "(Inter)actions, service processes, experiences, physical objects, environments, spaces, architecture, digital artifacts and software, ecosystems, [or] (business) value" <ref name="Stickdorn" /> or comprise various of these components.<ref name="Blom_Holm" />

Moreover, a prototype can reflect one or multiple dimensions of the future solution and a variety of aspects could be considered. A simple approach would be to think on the ''[[fidelity]],'' meaning how close the prototype resembles to the final solution (blom)(stick). More comprehensive approaches can be considered through multiple dimensions. For instance, Houde and Hill describe the “role” (i.e., functionality for the user), “look and feel” (i.e., sensory, and experiential aspects), “implementation” (i.e., performance of the solution).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Houde|first1=Stephanie|last2=Hill|first2=Charles|date=1997|title=What do prototypes prototype?|url=http://www.itu.dk/people/malmborg/Interaktionsdesign/Kompendie/Houde-Hill-1997.pdf|journal=Handbook of Human-computer Interaction|publication-place=North-Holland|pages=367–381|doi=10.1016/B978-044481862-1.50082-0|isbn=9780444818621|s2cid=18520479 }}</ref> Lim, Stolterman and Tenenberg propose a classification of prototypes according to “filtering dimensions: functionality, interactivity, and spatial structure"; and “manifestation dimensions:materials, resolution, and scope".<ref name="Lim" /> They suggest these dimensions can be pondered in order to decide how the prototype should be.

{{Blockquote|text="The best prototype is one that, in the simplest and the most efficient way, makes the possibilities and limitations of a design idea visible and measurable”|author=Lim, Stolterman and Tenenberg, 2008 <ref name="Lim" />}}

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* [[Product design]]

* [[Service design]]

* [[Software prototyping]]

* [[Participatory design|Participatory design - co-design]]