End-user development: Difference between revisions

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'''End-user development''' ('''EUD''') or '''end-user programming''' ('''EUP''') refers to activities and tools that allow [[User (computing)|end-user]]s – people who are not professional software developers – to [[Computer programming|program computers]]. People who are not professional developers can use EUD tools to create or modify ''software artifacts'' (descriptions of automated behavior) and complex data objects without significant knowledge of a [[programming language]]. In 2005 it was estimated (using statistics from the U.S. [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]]) that by 2012 there would be more than 55 million end-user developers in the United States, compared with fewer than 3 million professional programmers.<ref>{{Cite book|lastlast1=Scaffidi|firstfirst1=C.|last2=Shaw|first2=M.|last3=Myers|first3=B.|date=2005-09-01|title=Estimating the numbers of end users and end user programmers|journal=2005 IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC'05) |chapter=Estimating the Numbers of End Users and End User Programmers |date=2005-09-01|pages=207–214|doi=10.1109/VLHCC.2005.34|isbn=978-0-7695-2443-6|s2cid=14608501 }}</ref> Various EUD approaches exist, and it is an active [[Discipline (academia)|research topic]] within the field of [[computer science]] and [[human-computer interaction]]. Examples include [[natural language programming]],<ref>Little, Greg, and Robert C. Miller. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20171210231913/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b740/08688a029d7c48a2153a7905e7fa65fea72f.pdf Translating keyword commands into executable code]." Proceedings of the 19th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology. ACM, 2006.</ref><ref>Bruckman, Amy, and Elizabeth Edwards. "[http://www.cc.gatech.edu/~asb/papers/conference/edwards-bruckman-chi99.pdf Should we leverage natural-language knowledge? An analysis of user errors in a natural-language-style programming language]." Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, 1999.

{{Programming paradigms}}

'''End-user development''' ('''EUD''') or '''end-user programming''' ('''EUP''') refers to activities and tools that allow [[User (computing)|end-user]]s – people who are not professional software developers – to [[Computer programming|program computers]]. People who are not professional developers can use EUD tools to create or modify ''software artifacts'' (descriptions of automated behavior) and complex data objects without significant knowledge of a [[programming language]]. In 2005 it was estimated (using statistics from the U.S. [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]]) that by 2012 there would be more than 55 million end-user developers in the United States, compared with fewer than 3 million professional programmers.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Scaffidi|first=C.|last2=Shaw|first2=M.|last3=Myers|first3=B.|date=2005-09-01|title=Estimating the numbers of end users and end user programmers|journal=2005 IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC'05)|pages=207–214|doi=10.1109/VLHCC.2005.34|isbn=978-0-7695-2443-6}}</ref> Various EUD approaches exist, and it is an active [[Discipline (academia)|research topic]] within the field of [[computer science]] and [[human-computer interaction]]. Examples include [[natural language programming]],<ref>Little, Greg, and Robert C. Miller. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20171210231913/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b740/08688a029d7c48a2153a7905e7fa65fea72f.pdf Translating keyword commands into executable code]." Proceedings of the 19th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology. ACM, 2006.</ref><ref>Bruckman, Amy, and Elizabeth Edwards. "[http://www.cc.gatech.edu/~asb/papers/conference/edwards-bruckman-chi99.pdf Should we leverage natural-language knowledge? An analysis of user errors in a natural-language-style programming language]." Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, 1999.

APA

</ref> [[spreadsheet]]s,<ref name="encyclopedia"/> [[scripting languageslanguage]]s (particularly in an office suite or art application), [[Visual programming language|visual programming]], trigger-action programming and [[programming by example]].

The most popular EUD tool is the [[spreadsheet]].<ref name="encyclopedia">{{cite book|url=http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/end-user_development.html|first1=Margaret M.|last1=Burnett|author1-link=Margaret Burnett|first2=Christopher|last2=Scaffidi|title=End-User Development|date=January 2024 |publisher=Interaction-Design.org}} at "Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction".</ref><ref name="Empowering Users">{{cite web|url=http://www.uxmatters.com/mt/archives/2009/08/empowering-users-to-create-their-own-software.php|title=Empowering Users to Create Their Own Software|first=Peter |last=Hornsby |date=2009-08-03 |access-date=2014-01-31 |website=UXmatters}}</ref> Due to their unrestricted nature, spreadsheets allow relatively un-sophisticated computer users to write programs that represent complex data models, while shielding them from the need to learn lower-level programming languages.<ref>{{cite book |lastlast1=Abraham |firstfirst1=R. |last2=Burnett |first2=M |last3=Erwig |first3=M |year=2009 |chapter=Spreadsheet programming |title=Wiley Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Engineering |pages=1–10}}</ref> Because of their common use in business, spreadsheet skills are among the most beneficial skills for a graduate employee to have, and are therefore the most commonly sought after<ref>Kruck, S. & Sheetz, S., 2001. [http://www.pucrs.br/ciencias/viali/tic_literatura/artigos/planilhas/KRUCK-SHEETZ_SpreadsheetAccTheory.pdf Spreadsheet accuracy theory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818052312/http://www.pucrs.br/ciencias/viali/tic_literatura/artigos/planilhas/KRUCK-SHEETZ_SpreadsheetAccTheory.pdf |date=2018-08-18 }}. Journal of Information Systems Education.</ref> In the United States of America alone, there are an estimated 13 million end-user developers programming with spreadsheets<ref>Scaffidi, C., Shaw, M. & Myers, B., 2005. [http://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~cscaffid/papers/eu_20050923_vlhcc.pdf Estimating the Numbers of End Users and End User Programmers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912030301/http://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~cscaffid/papers/eu_20050923_vlhcc.pdf |date=2011-09-12 }}. 2005 IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC’05), pp.207–214.</ref>

The [[programming by example]] (''PbE'') approach reduces the need for the user to learn the abstractions of a classic programming language. The user instead introduces some examples of the desired results or operations that should be performed on the data, and the PbE system infers some abstractions corresponding to a program that produces this output, which the user can refine. New data may then be introduced to the automatically created program, and the user can correct any mistakes made by the program in order to improve its definition. [[Low-code development platforms]] are also an approach to EUD.

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==Definition==

Lieberman et al. propose the following definition:<ref>Lieberman, H., Paternò, F., Klann, M., and Wulf, V. (2006). End-User Development: An Emerging Paradigm. In: End-User Development, Lieberman, H., Paternò, F., and Wulf, V. (eds.), Springer Netherlands, 2006, ser. Human-Computer Interaction Series, vol. 9, Chapter 1, pp. 1-7, {{doi|10.1007/1-4020-5386-X_1}}</ref>

<blockquote>End-User Development can be defined as a set of methods, techniques, and tools that allow users of software systems, who are acting as non-professional software developers, at some point to create, modify or extend a software artifact.</blockquote>Ko et al. propose the following definition:<ref>{{Cite journal|lastlast1=Ko|firstfirst1=Andrew J.|last2=Abraham|first2=Robin|last3=Beckwith|first3=Laura|last4=Blackwell|first4=Alan|last5=Burnett|first5=Margaret|last6=Erwig|first6=Martin|last7=Scaffidi|first7=Chris|last8=Lawrance|first8=Joseph|last9=Lieberman|first9=Henry|date=2011-04-01|title=The State of the Art in End-user Software Engineering|journal=ACM Comput. Surv.|volume=43|issue=3|pages=21:1–21:44|doi=10.1145/1922649.1922658|issn=0360-0300|citeseerx=10.1.1.159.8597|s2cid=9435548 }}</ref>

<blockquote>End-user programming is programming to achieve the result of a program primarily for personal, rather [than] public use.</blockquote>

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* [[Computer animation|Animation]] scripts used by graphic artists to describe characters, environments and how characters move to produce an intended animation

* [[Configuration file]]s that blur the line between programs and data (e.g., [[E-mail filtering|email filters]] are sequenced lists of criteria and actions to take)

* [[Example-Centric Programming]] tools<ref>{{cite book|last1=Scaffidi|first1=Christopher|last2=Brandt|first2=Joel|last3=Burnett|first3=Margaret|last4=Dove|first4=Andrew|last5=Myers|first5=Brad|title=SIG: end-user programming|journal=CHI '12 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems |chapter=SIG: End-user programming |date=2012|pages=1193–1996|doi=10.1145/2212776.2212421|isbn=9781450310161|series=Chi Ea '12|s2cid=17748945 }}</ref>

* [[Mod (computer gaming)|Game modifications]] to introduce users' own characters, environments, etc. — many recent games are distributed with modification in mind

* Interaction scripts used in [[Call centre|CRM call centres]]

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* Process models used in [[workflow application]]s

* [[Software prototyping|Prototypes]] and ___domain-specific programs written by businesspeople, engineers, and scientists to demonstrate or test specific theories

* Robot behaviour<ref>{{cite book|last1=Leonardi|first1=Nicola|last2=Manca|first2=Marco|last3=Paternò|first3=Fabio|last4=Santoro|first4=Carmen | title=Trigger-ActionProceedings Programmingof forthe Personalising Humanoid2019 Robot Behaviour |journal=CHI '19 ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems |chapter=Trigger-Action Programming for Personalising Humanoid Robot Behaviour |date=2019|pages=1–13 |doi=10.1145/3290605.3300675|isbn=978-145035970-2|s2cid=140220651 }}</ref>

* Scientific models used in [[computer simulation]].

* Scripts and macros added to extend or automate [[Office suite|office productivity suites]] and [[Graphics software|graphics applications]].

* Simulations created using [[Software prototyping#Application definition or simulation software|application definition software]]

* [[Simultaneous editing]] of many related items either through a [[Batch processing|batch process]] specified by the end user or by [[Direct manipulation interface|direct manipulation]], like those available in the [[Lapis (text editor)|Lapis text editor]] and [http://blogs.gnome.org/jessevdk/2009/11/15/new-gedit-plugin-multi-edit/ multi edit].

* [[Spreadsheets|Spreadsheet]] models, e.g., used for budgeting, risk analysis, interactive [[machine learning]],<ref name=spreadsheet_machinelearning>{{cite book|last1=Sarkar|first1=Advait|last2=Blackwell|first2=Alan|last3=Jamnik|first3=Mateja|last4=Spott|first4=Martin|title=2014 IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC) |chapter=Teach and Trytry: A simple interaction technique for exploratory data modelling by end users|journal=2014 IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC 2014)|pages=53–56|doi=10.1109/VLHCC.2014.6883022|date=July 2014|isbn=978-1-4799-4035-6|citeseerx=10.1.1.695.2025|s2cid=14845341 }}</ref> or [[electronic circuit design]]<ref name="haynes1985fall">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1985-11/1985_11_BYTE_10-11_Inside_the_IBM_PCs#page/n145/mode/2up | title=Circuit Design with Lotus 1-2-3 | work=BYTE | date=Fall 1985 | access-date=19 March 2016 | author=Haynes, John L. | pages=143–156}}</ref>

* [[Visual programming language|Visual programming]] in the form of visual languages such as [[AgentSheets]], [[LabVIEW]], [[Scratch (programming language)]] or [[LEGO Mindstorms]].

* [[Web page]]s - plain HTML or HTML and scripting

* [[Wiki]]s - a collaborative end-user development process <ref>{{Citationcite web needed| title = Wiki Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary | URL = https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/wiki | access-date =May 201022 April 2025}}</ref>

* [[Mashup (web application hybrid)|Web Mashups]] in the form of visual languages.<ref>{{Cite book | lastlast1=Roy Chowdhury | firstfirst1=Soudip | last2=Rodriguez | first2=Carlos | last3=Daniel | first3=Florian | last4=Casati | first4=Fabio | year=2010 | title=Wisdom-aware computing: on the interactive recommendation of composition knowledge | pages=[https://archive.org/details/serviceorientedc0000maxi/page/144 144–155] | url=https://archive.org/details/serviceorientedc0000maxi/page/144 | isbn=9783642193934 | series=Icsoc'10 }}</ref>

* [[3D modeling|3D models]] created with end-user oriented tools and apps such as [[Sketchup]]

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Many end-user development activities are collaborative in nature, including collaboration between professional developers and end-user developers and collaboration among end-user developers.

Mutual development<ref>{{Cite book|lastlast1=Andersen|firstfirst1=Renate|last2=Mørch|first2=Anders I.|datetitle=2009End-03-02User Development |titlechapter=Mutual Development: A Case Study in Customer-Initiated Software Product Development |journaldate=End2009-User Development03-02|volume=5435|language=en|pages=31–49|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-00427-8_3|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science|isbn=978-3-642-00425-4|citeseerx=10.1.1.598.9066}}</ref> is a technique where professional developers and end-user developers work together in creating software solutions. In mutual development, the professional developers often “under design” the system and provide the tools to allow the “owners of problems<ref>{{Cite book|title=User-Centred Requirements for Software Engineering Environments|last=Fischer|first=Gerhard|date=1994-01-01|publisher=Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg|pages=297–306|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-03035-6_23|chapter = Putting the Owners of Problems in Charge with Domain-oriented Design Environments|isbn = 978-3-642-08189-7|citeseerx = 10.1.1.310.8814}}</ref>" to create the suitable solution at use time for their needs, objectives and situational contexts.<ref>{{Cite book|title=End User Development|lastlast1=Fischer|firstfirst1=Gerhard|last2=Giaccardi|first2=Elisa|date=2006-01-01|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=9781402042201|editor-last=Lieberman|editor-first=Henry|series=Human-Computer Interaction Series|pages=[https://archive.org/details/enduserdevelopme0000unse/page/427 427–457]|language=en|doi=10.1007/1-4020-5386-x_19|editor-last2=Paternò|editor-first2=Fabio|editor-last3=Wulf|editor-first3=Volker|url=https://archive.org/details/enduserdevelopme0000unse/page/427}}</ref> Then the communication between professional developers and end-user developers can often stimulate formalizing ad hoc modifications by the end users into software artifacts, transforming end-user developed solutions into commercial product features with impacts beyond local solutions.

In this collaboration, various approaches such as the Software Shaping Workshop<ref>{{Cite book|title=End User Development|lastlast1=Lieberman|firstfirst1=Henry|last2=Paternò|first2=Fabio|last3=Klann|first3=Markus|last4=Wulf|first4=Volker|date=2006-01-01|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=9781402042201|editor-last=Lieberman|editor-first=Henry|series=Human-Computer Interaction Series|pages=[https://archive.org/details/enduserdevelopme0000unse/page/1 1–8]|language=en|doi=10.1007/1-4020-5386-x_1|s2cid=15559793 |editor-last2=Paternò|editor-first2=Fabio|editor-last3=Wulf|editor-first3=Volker|url=https://archive.org/details/enduserdevelopme0000unse/page/1}}</ref> are proposed to bridge the communication gap between professional developers and end-user developers. These approaches often provide translucency according to the social translucence model,<ref>{{Cite journal|lastlast1=Erickson|firstfirst1=Thomas|last2=Kellogg|first2=Wendy A.|date=2000-03-01|title=Social Translucence: An Approach to Designing Systems That Support Social Processes|journal=ACM Trans. Comput.-Hum. Interact.|volume=7|issue=1|pages=59–83|doi=10.1145/344949.345004|s2cid=5943805 |issn=1073-0516}}</ref> enabling everyone in the collaboration to be aware of changes made by others and to be held accountable of their actions because of the awareness.

Besides programming collaboration platforms like GitHub, which are mostly utilized by expert developers due to their steep learning curve, collaborations among end-user developers often take place on wiki platforms where the software artifacts created are shared. End-user development is also often used for creating automation scripts or interactive tutorials for sharing “how-to” knowledge. Examples of such application include CoScripter<ref>{{Cite book|lastlast1=Leshed|firstfirst1=Gilly|last2=Haber|first2=Eben M.|last3=Matthews|first3=Tara|last4=Lau|first4=Tessa|date=2008-01-01|title=CoScripter: Automating & Sharing How-to Knowledge in the Enterprise|journal=Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems |chapter=CoScripter |date=2008-01-01|series=CHI '08|___location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=ACM|pages=1719–1728|doi=10.1145/1357054.1357323|isbn=9781605580111|s2cid=5989563 }}</ref> and HILC.<ref>{{Cite book|lastlast1=Intharah|firstfirst1=Thanapong|last2=Turmukhambetov|first2=Daniyar|last3=Brostow|first3=Gabriel J.|date=2017-01-01|title=Help, It Looks Confusing: GUI Task Automation Through Demonstration and Follow-up Questions|journal=Proceedings of the 22Nd22nd International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces |chapter=Help, It Looks Confusing |date=2017-01-01|series=IUI '17|___location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=ACM|pages=233–243|doi=10.1145/3025171.3025176|isbn=9781450343480|s2cid=16596496 }}</ref> In such applications, user can create scripts for tasks using pseudo-natural language or via programming by demonstration. The users can choose to upload the script to a wiki style repository of scripts. OnUsers thison wiki,such userswikis can browse available scripts and extend existing scripts to support additional parameters, to handle additional conditions or to operate on additional objects.

Online and offline communities of end-user developers have also been formed, where end-user developers can collaboratively solve EUD problems of shared interest or for mutual benefit. In such communities, local experts spread expertise and advice. Community members also provide social support for each other to support the collaborative construction of software.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastlast1=Fischer|firstfirst1=G.|last2=Giaccardi|first2=E.|last3=Ye|first3=Y.|last4=Sutcliffe|first4=A. G.|last5=Mehandjiev|first5=N.|date=2004-09-01|title=Meta-design: A Manifesto for End-user Development|journal=Commun. ACM|volume=47|issue=9|pages=33–37|doi=10.1145/1015864.1015884|s2cid=11675776 |issn=0001-0782}}</ref>

==Criticism==

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<blockquote>It’s simply unfathomable that we could expect security... from the vast majority of software applications out there when they’re written with little, if any, knowledge of generally accepted good practices such as specifying before coding, systematic testing, and so on.... How many X for Complete Idiots (where "X" is your favorite programming language) books are out there? I was initially amused by this trend, but recently I’ve become uneasy thinking about where these dabblers are applying their newfound knowledge.</blockquote>

This viewpoint assumes that all end users are equally naive when it comes to understanding software, although Pliskin and Shoval argue this is not the case, that sophisticated end users are capable of end-user development.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Nava |last=Pliskin |author2=Shoval, Peretz |title=End-user prototyping: sophisticated users supporting system development |journal=ACM SIGMIS Database |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=7–17|year=1987|doi=10.1145/1017816.1017817|s2cid=18183262 |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, compared with expert programmers, end-user programmers rarely have the time or interest in systematic and disciplined software engineering activities,<ref>{{Cite book|lastlast1=Brandt|firstfirst1=Joel|last2=Guo|first2=Philip J.|last3=Lewenstein|first3=Joel|last4=Klemmer|first4=Scott R.|date=2008-01-01|title=Opportunistic Programming: How Rapid Ideation and Prototyping Occur in Practice|journal=Proceedings of the 4th Internationalinternational Workshopworkshop on End-user Softwaresoftware Engineeringengineering |chapter=Opportunistic programming |date=2008-01-01|series=WEUSE '08|___location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=ACM|pages=1–5|doi=10.1145/1370847.1370848|isbn=9781605580340|s2cid=17479074 }}</ref> which makes ensuring the quality of the software artifact produced by end-user development particularly challenging.

In response to this, the study of '''end-user software engineering''' has emerged. It is concerned with issues beyond end-user development, whereby end users become motivated to consider issues such as reusability, security and verifiability when developing their solutions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eusesconsortium.org/findings.php |title=End-User Software Engineering: Empirical Findings| publisher=End Users Shaping Effective Software Consortium | access-date=2008-05-28 }}</ref>

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* {{cite book |last= Cypher |first= Allen |others= Contributor Daniel C. Halbert |title= Watch What I Do: Programming by Demonstration |publisher= Publisher: MIT Press |url= https://archive.org/details/watchwhatido00alle |isbn= 978-0-262-03213-1 |year= 1993 }}

* {{cite book |last= Lieberman |first= Henry |others= Contributor Ben Shneiderman |title= Your Wish is My Command: Programming By Example |publisher= Publisher: Morgan Kaufmann |url= http://web.media.mit.edu/~lieber/PBE/Your-Wish/ |isbn=978-1-55860-688-3 |year= 2001}}

* F. Paternò (2013) [http://www.hindawi.com/isrn/se/2013/532659/ End User Development: Survey of an Emerging Field for Empowering People], ISRN Software Engineering, vol. 2013, Article ID 532659, 11 pages, 2013. {{doi|10.1155/2013/532659|doi-access=free}}, 2013

* B. Guo, D. Zhang, M. Imai. Enabling User-Oriented Management for Ubiquitous Computing: The Meta-Design Approach, Computer Networks, Elsevier, Vol. 54, No. 16, 2010.

* Burnett, Margaret M. and Scaffidi, Christopher (2011): [http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/end-user_development.html End-User Development]. In: Soegaard, Mads and Dam, Rikke Friis (eds.). "Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction".

* [[Kierkegaard, Patrick]] (2011) {{cite book|title chapter= Beefing Upup End User Development: Legal Protection and Regulatory Compliance | journal=End-user Development. Lecture Notes in Computer Science| series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science| volume=6654/2011 | year=2011| pages=203–217| doi=10.1007/978-3-642-21530-8_16 | pagesisbn=203–217978-3-642-21529-2|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science|last1=Kierkegaard| first1=Patrick|isbn title=978End-3-642-21529-2User Development}}

==External links==

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* [http://eusesconsortium.org EUSES Consortium, a collaboration that researches end user computing]

* [https://www.springer.com/west/home/generic/search/results?SGWID=4-40109-22-85672321-0&referer=www.springeronline.com&SHORTCUT=www.springer.com/sgw/cda/frontpage/0,11855,4-40109-22-85672321-0,00.html The End User Development book]

* [http://giove.cnuce.cnr.it/eud-net.htm The European Commission Network of Excellence on End-User Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191133/http://giove.cnuce.cnr.it/eud-net.htm |date=2016-03-03 }}

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120402234145/http://www.iisi.de/international-symposium-on-end-user-development/conference-series/ Conference Series International Symposium on End-User Development]

{{Programming paradigms navbox}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:End-User Development}}