Regulation and monitoring of pollution: Difference between revisions

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To protect the [[environment (biophysical)|environment]] from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations worldwide have enacted legislation to regulate various types of pollution as well as to mitigate the adverse effects of [[pollution]]. At the local level, regulation usually is supervised by [[Environmental agency|environmental agencies]] or the broader [[public health system]]. Jurisdictions often have different levels [[Environmental law|regulation and policy choices]] about pollution. Historically, polluters will lobby governments in less economically developed areas or countries to maintain lax regulation to protect [[industrialisation]] at the cost of human and [[environmental health]]. {{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}

The modern environmental regulatory environment has its origins in the United States with the beginning of industrial regulations around Air and Water pollution connected to industry and mining during the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Oppenheimer |first=Michael |date=2003-10-01 |title=Atmospheric Pollution: History, Science, and Regulation |url=https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.1629008 |journal=Physics Today |volume=56 |issue=10 |pages=65–66 |doi=10.1063/1.1629008 |bibcode=2003PhT....56j..65J |issn=0031-9228|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Because many pollutants have transboundary impacts, the UN and other treaty bodies have been used to regulate pollutants that circulate as [[air pollution]], [[water pollution]] or [[Global waste trade|trade in wastes]]. Early international agreements were successful at addressing Global Environmental issues, such as [[Montreal Protocol]], which banned Ozone depleting chemicals in 1987, with more recent agreements focusing on broader, more widely dispersed chemicals such as [[persistent organic pollutant]]s in the [[Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants]] created in 2001, such as [[PCBs]], and the [[Kyoto Protocol]] in 1997 which initiated collaboration on addressing greenhouse gases to [[mitigate climate change]]. Governments, [[Nonprofit organization|NPOs]], research groups, and [[Citizen science|citizen scientists]] monitor pollution with an expanding list of low-cost pollution monitoring tools.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Botero-Valencia |first1=J.S. |last2=Barrantes-Toro |first2=C. |last3=Marquez-Viloria |first3=D. |last4=Pearce |first4=Joshua M. |date=December 2023 |title=Low-cost air, noise, and light pollution measuring station with wireless communication and tinyML |journal=HardwareX |language=en |volume=16 |pages=e00477 |doi=10.1016/j.ohx.2023.e00477|pmid=37822753 |pmc=10562912 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Idrees |first1=Zeba |last2=Zheng |first2=Lirong |date=2020-03-01 |title=Low cost air pollution monitoring systems: A review of protocols and enabling technologies |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2452414X19300792 |journal=Journal of Industrial Information Integration |volume=17 |pages=100123 |doi=10.1016/j.jii.2019.100123 |issn=2452-414X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Regulation and monitoring by region==

===International===

Since pollution crosses political boundaries, international treaties have been made through the [[United Nations]] and its agencies to address international pollution issues.

====Greenhouse gas emissions====

The [[Kyoto Protocol]]<ref name=Kyoto>[http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf Kyoto Protocol To The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]</ref> is an amendment to the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC), an international treaty on [[global warming]]. It also reaffirms sections of the UNFCCC. Countries which [[ratify]] this [[Protocol (treaty)|protocol]] commit to reduce their [[greenhouse gas emissions|emissions of carbon dioxide]] and five other [[greenhouse gases]], or engage in [[emissions trading]] if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.<ref name=Kyoto/> A total of 141 countries have ratified the agreement. Notable exceptions include the United States and Australia, who have signed but not ratified the agreement. The stated reason for the United States not ratifying is the exemption of large emitters of greenhouse gases who are also [[Developing country|developing countries]], like China and India.<ref name="BushNoKyoto">

{{cite web|date=2001-06-11|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/06/print/20010611-2.html|title=President Bush Discusses Global Climate Change|format=Transcription of speech|access-date=2006-04-09}}</ref>

AnA [[2007007 United Nations Climate Change Conference|UN environmental conference]] held in [[Baliali]] 3–14 December 2007 with the participation fromof 180 countries, aimsaiming to replace the [[Kyoto Protocol]], which will end in 2012. During the first day of the conference United States, [[Saudi Arabia]], and Canada[anada]] were presented with the "Fossil-of-the-day- award", a symbolic bag of coal for their negative impact on the global climate. The bags included the flags of the respective countries.<ref>[http://www.fossil-of-the-day.org/ Fossil-of-the-Day Awards at UN Climate Change Negotiations<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

====Toxic wastes====

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===Canada===

In Canada, the regulation of pollution and its effects are monitored by a number ofseveral organizations, depending on the nature of the pollution and its ___location. The three levels of government (Federal&nbspfederal;– Canada Wide;-wide, Provincial;, and Municipal) equally share in the responsibilities, and in the monitoring and correction of pollution.

===China===

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{{further|Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals}}

The basic European rules are included in the [[Directive (European Union)|Directive]] 96/61/EC of 24 September 1996 concerning integrated pollution prevention and control (IPPC)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32008L0001:EN:NOT|title = EUR-Lex - 32008L0001 - EN - EUR-Lex| date=15 January 2008 }}</ref> and the [[National Emission Ceilings Directive]].

====United Kingdom====

{{More citations needed|section|date=April 2025}}

{{unreferenced section|date=July 2018}}{{See also|Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution}}

In the 1840s, the United Kingdom brought onto the statute booksenacted legislation to control water pollution, andwhich was strengthened in 1876 in the '''Rivers Pollution Prevention Act.'''<ref name="Hansard">{{cite web|url= https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/lords/1961/jul/03/rivers-prevention-of-pollution-bill|publisher=Hansard|access-date=4 September 2020|title=RIVERS (PREVENTION OF POLLUTION) BILL|date=July 1961}}</ref>and The law was subsequently extended to all freshwaters in the '''Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) Act 1951''' and applied to coastal waters by the ''' Rivers (Prevention of Pollution ) Act 1961.'''<ref name="Hansard"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Eliz2/9-10/50|publisher= HM Government|title=Rivers (Prevention of Pollution ) Act 196|date=27 July 1961}}</ref>

The '''Environmental Protection Act of 1990''' established the system of Integrated Pollution Control (IPC). Currently,{{when|date=July 2018}} the clean upcleanup of historic contamination is controlled under a specific statutory scheme found in Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1996 (Part IIA), as inserted by the Environment Act 1995, and other ‘rules’rules found in regulations and statutory guidance. The Act came into force in England in April 2000.

Within the current{{when|date=July 2018}} regulatory framework, Pollution Prevention and Control (PPC) is a regime for controlling pollution from certain designated industrial activities. The regime introduces the concept of [[ Best Available Techniques]] (BAT) to environmental regulations. Operators must use the BAT to control pollution from their industrial activities to prevent, and where that is not practicable, to reduce to acceptable levels, pollution to air, land and water from industrial activities. The Best Available Techniques also aim to balance the cost to the operator against the benefits to the environment.

The system of Pollution Prevention and Control is replacing that of IPC and has been taking effect between 2000 and 2007. The Pollution Prevention and Control regime implements the European Directive (EC/96/61) on integrated pollution prevention and control.

{{unreferenced section|date=July 2018}}{{See also|Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution}}

===United States===

====Pollution prevention====

{{Excerpt|Pollution prevention in the US}}[[Image:Polluted Ditch by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|A polluted ditch along [[Interstate 25]] between [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]] and [[Pueblo, Colorado]].]]

====Air pollution====

The [[United States Congress]] passed the [[Clean Air Act (United States)|Clean Air Act]] in 1963, to legislaterequiring the reduction of [[smog]] and [[Air pollution|atmospheric pollution]] in general. ThatThe legislationlaw has subsequently beenwas amended and extended in 1966, 1970, 1977 and 1990. InPursuant 1968to the legislation, the [[US Public Health Service]] published a list of [[AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors|emission factors]] in 1968, with periodic updates published by the [[US Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA). Numerous state and local governments have enacted similar legislation either implementing or filling in locally important gaps in the national program. The national Clean Air Act and similar [[U.S. state|state]] legislative acts have led to the widespread use of [[atmospheric dispersion modeling]] to analyze the air quality impacts of proposed major actions.<ref>{{cite book | author-last=Beychok, |author-first=Milton R. | title=[[Fundamentals of Stack Gas Dispersion]] | edition=4th| publisher=author-published |year=20051994 |isbn=0-9644588-0-29780964458802 |publisher=MR Beychok}} [http://www.air-dispersion.com www.air-dispersion.com]</ref> in order to analyze the air quality impacts of proposed major actions. WithUnder the 1990 Clean Air Act amendments, the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) beganinitiated a controversial [[carbon emissions trading]] system in which tradable rights to emit a specified level of carbon are granted to polluters.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

====Water pollution====

[[File:Nashville teachers graduate STEM curriculum with Corps externships (9203468499).jpg|thumb|Ambient water sample collection on a lake in [[Nashville, Tennessee]]]]

Enactment of the 1972 [[Clean Water Act]] (CWA) required thousands of facilities to obtain permits for discharges to [[navigable]] waters,water bodies through the [[Clean Water Act#NPDES permits for point sources|National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)]]. It also required EPA to establish national technology-based discharge standards for municipal [[sewage treatment]] plants, and for many industrial categories (the latter are called "[[effluent guidelines]].")<ref name="US CWA 1972">United States. Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments of 1972, {{USPL|92|500}}, {{USC|33|1251}} ''et seq.'' October 18, 1972.</ref>

Municipal and industrial permittees are required to regularly collect and analyze wastewater samples, and submit [[Discharge Monitoring Report]]s to a state agency or EPA.<ref>{{cite report |authorpublisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) |___location=Washington, D.C. |date=2010 |title=NPDES Permit Writers' Manual |url=https://www.epa.gov/npdes/npdes-permit-writers-manual |id=EPA- 833-K-10-001 |pages=8–14}}</ref> Amendments in 1977 required stricter regulation of [[toxic]] pollutants.<ref>U.S. Clean Water Act of 1977, {{USPL|95|217}}, December 27, 1977. "Toxic Pollutants." Section 53307. {{usc|33|1317}}</ref> In 1987, Congress expanded NPDES permit coverage to include municipal and industrial [[stormwater]] discharges.<ref>U.S. Water Quality Act of 1987, {{USPL|100|4}}, February 4, 1987. "Section 405. Municipal and Industrial Stormwater Discharges." {{USCSub|33|1342|p}}</ref> {{Details|United States regulation of point source water pollution}}

The Act also requires the use of [[Best management practice for water pollution|best management practices]] for a wide range of other water discharges, including [[nonpoint source pollution]].<ref>U.S. Clean Water Act,. "Section 319. Nonpoint source management programs." {{uscUSC|33|1329}},. "Section 404. Permits for dredged or fill material." {{uscUSC|33|1344}}</ref>

[[Thermal pollution]] discharges are regulated under section 316(a) of the CWA.<ref>U.S. Clean Water Act. "Section 316. Thermal discharges." {{USCSub|33|1326|a}}</ref> NPDES permits include [[effluent limitation]]s on water temperature to protect the biotic life supported by a water body. A permittee may request a variance to the typical thermal limitations. Alternate limitations may be issued in limited circumstances if the permittee has provided sufficient proof through data submission that aquatic life in the water body will be protected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hanlon |first=James A. |date=28 October 2008 |title=Implementation of Clean Water Act Section 316(a) Thermal Variances in NPDES Permits (Review of Existing Requirements) |url=https://www3.epa.gov/region1/npdes/merrimackstation/pdfs/ar/AR-338.pdf|publisher=EPA |id=Memorandum to EPA Regional Water Division Directors}}</ref>

{{Further|United States regulation of point source water pollution}}

In addition to wastewater discharge monitoring, EPA works with federal, state and local environmental agencies to conduct [[Environmental monitoring#Water quality monitoring|ambient water monitoring]] programs in water bodies nationwide.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ambient Water Monitoring and Assessment: Resources and Tools |url=https://www.epa.gov/awma |date=2023-01-25 |publisher=EPA}}</ref> The CWA requires the EPA and the states to prepare reports to Congress on the condition of the nation's waters.<ref>{{cite web |title=National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress |url=https://www.epa.gov/waterdata/national-water-quality-inventory-report-congress |date=2022-12-07 |publisher=EPA}}</ref> Ambient water quality data collected by EPA, the [[US Geological Survey]] and other organizations are available to the public in several online databases.<ref>{{cite web |title=Water Quality Data Download |url=https://www.epa.gov/waterdata/water-quality-data-download |date=2022-07-14 |publisher=EPA}}</ref>

====Land pollution====

Congress passed the [[Resource Conservation and Recovery Act]] (RCRA) in 1976, which created a regulatory framework for both [[municipal solid waste]] and [[hazardous waste]] disposed on land.<ref>U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. {{USPL|94|580}}, {{USC|42|6901}} ''et seq.'' October 21, 1976.</ref> RCRA requires that all hazardous wastes be managed and tracked from generation of the waste, through transport and processing, to final disposal, by means ofusing a nationwide permit system. The ''Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984'' mandated regulation of [[underground storage tank]]s containing petroleum and hazardous chemicals, and the phasing out of land disposal of hazardous waste.<ref>U.S. Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984, {{USPL|98|616}}, November 8, 1984.</ref> The 1992 [[Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965|Federal Facilities Compliance Act]], passed in 1992, clarified RCRA coverage of federally owned properties such as military bases. Illegal disposal of waste is punishable by fines of up to $25,000 per occurrence.<ref>{{cite report |date=2014 |title=Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Orientation Manual |chapter-url=https://www.epa.gov/hwgenerators/resource-conservation-and-recovery-act-rcra-orientation-manual |chapter=Chapter I. Introduction to RCRA |publisher=EPA |id=EPA 530-F-11-003}}</ref>{{see also|Superfund|labelEPA 1=Superfundand -state Cleanupagencies programregulate contaminated sites and facilities under RCRA for operating facilities, and the "[[Superfund]]" law for abandoned hazardousfacilities.<ref>United wasteStates. sitesComprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980. {{uspl|96|510}}, approved December 11, 1980. {{USC|42|9601}} ''et seq.''</ref>

To specifically mitigate [[soil pollution]] from fertilizers, the U.S. [[Natural Resources Conservation Service]] (NRCS), [[National Institute of Food and Agriculture]] (NIFA), and [[Agricultural Research Service]] (ARS) monitor soil resources and provide guidelines to prevent nutrient loss.<ref>{{Cite report |last1=Siemering |first1=Geoffrey |last2=Feisthauer |first2=Natalie |last3=Ronzan |first3=Marilena |title=Global assessment of soil pollution |chapter=11. Status of soil pollution in North America |chapter-url=https://www.fao.org/3/cb4894en/online/src/html/chapter-11-2.html |year=2021 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO); United Nations environment programme (UNEP) |___location=Rome |doi=10.4060/cb4894en |isbn=978-92-5-134469-9}}</ref>

====Noise pollution====

{{see also|noise pollution}}

Passage of the [[Noise Control Act]] in 1972 established mechanisms of setting emission standards for virtually every source of noise including motor vehicles, aircraft, certain types of [[HVAC]] equipment and major appliances. It also put local government on notice as to their responsibilities in [[land use]] planning to address [[noise mitigation]]. This [[noise regulation]] framework comprised a broad data basedatabase detailing the extent of [[noise health effects]]. Congress ended the funding of the federal noise control program in 1981, which curtailed the development of further national regulations.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/clean-air-act-overview/clean-air-act-title-iv-noise-pollution |title=Clean Air Act Title IV - Noise Pollution |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=20162025-02-13 |website=Clean Air Act Overview |publisher=EPA}}</ref>

==== Light pollution ====

Light Pollutionpollution in the United States is not federally regulated. TheAt Environmentalleast Protection19 Agencystates (EPA),and inone chargeterritory ofhave mostimplemented environmentallaws regulations,that does not manageregulate light pollution. to some extent.<ref name=":0NCSL">{{Cite web |last=Schultz |first=Jennifer |title=States Shut Out Light Pollution |url=https://www.ncsl.org/research/environment-and-natural-resources/states-shut-out-light-pollution.aspx |access-date=20212022-1103-2325 |websitepublisher=wwwNational Conference of State Legislatures |___location=Washington, D.ncslC.org}}</ref>

State legislation includes restrictions on hardware, protective equipment, and net light pollution ratings. Such legislation has been coined "Dark Skies" Legislation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Legislation |url=https://darksky.org/?s=legislation |access-date=2025-04-03 |publisher=DarkSky International |___location=Tucson, AZ}}</ref> States have implemented light pollution regulation for many factors, including public safety, energy conservation, improved astronomy research, and reduced environmental effects.<ref name="NCSL"/>

====Consumer product labeling====

18 states and one territory have implemented laws that regulate light pollution to some extent. State legislation includes restrictions on hardware, protective equipment, and net light pollution ratings. Such legislation has been coined "Dark Skies" Legislation. <ref>{{Cite web|title=International Dark Sky Association|url=https://www.darksky.org/|access-date=2021-11-23|website=International Dark-Sky Association|language=en-US}}</ref>

The state of California [[Proposition 65|Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment]] (OEHHA) has maintained an independent list of substances with product labeling requirements as required by [[Proposition 65]] since 1986. The state law is intended to protect drinking water sources from toxic substances that cause cancer or birth defects and to reduce or eliminate exposures to those chemicals generally.<ref>State of California. Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (2025-03-17). [https://www.oehha.ca.gov/proposition-65 Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986 (Proposition 65)].</ref>

==== Research ====

States have implemented light pollution regulation for many factors including; public safety, energy conservation, improved astronomy research, and reduced environmental effects.<ref name=":0" />

The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP)<ref>{{cite web |date=2010-08-12 |title=SIS.nlm.nih.gov |url=http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/enviro.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180901172235/https://sis.nlm.nih.gov/enviro.html |archive-date=2018-09-01 |access-date=2010-08-26 |publisher=SIS.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref> at the [[United States National Library of Medicine]] (NLM) maintains a comprehensive toxicology and environmental health web site that includes access to resources produced by TEHIP and by other government agencies and organizations. This website includes links to databases, bibliographies, tutorials, and other scientific and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP is also responsible for the Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET),<ref>{{cite web |title=Toxnet.nlm.nih.gov |url=http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19981206103141/http://www.toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 6, 1998 |access-date=2010-08-26 |publisher=Toxnet.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref> an integrated system of toxicology and environmental health databases that are available free of charge on the web.

[[TOXMAP]] is a Geographic Information System (GIS) that is part of TOXNET. TOXMAP uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the EPA [[Toxics Release Inventory]] and [[Superfund Basic Research Program|Superfund Basic Research Programs]].

====State programs====

The state of California [[Proposition 65|Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment]] (OEHHA) has maintained an independent list of substances with product labeling requirements as part of [[Proposition 65]] since 1986.

==See also==

*[[Greenhouse gas monitoring]]

*[[List of environmental issues]]

*[[Dutch standards]], environmental pollutant reference values

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[[Category:Pollution]]

[[Category:Regulation|Pollution]]

[[Category:Environmental monitoring]]