Cuttlefish: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 23:40, 17 March 2005

Latest revision as of 18:42, 14 August 2025

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{{Short description|Family of demersal cephalopod}}

{{Taxobox_begin | color = pink | name = Cuttlefish}}

{{pp-pc|small=yes}}

{{Taxobox_image | image = [[Image:Cuttlefish.jpg|250px|A Cuttlefish seen in profile]] | caption = A Cuttlefish seen in profile}}

{{Cleanup|reason=Article needs updating. Sections may be better moved to their appropriate pages|date=August 2025}}

{{Taxobox_begin_placement | color = pink}}

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{{Taxobox_regnum_entry | taxon = [[Animal]]ia}}

{{Automatic taxobox

{{Taxobox_phylum_entry | taxon = [[Mollusca]]}}

| fossil_range = {{fossil range | earliest = Cretaceous | Miocene | Recent | ref = <ref>Whiteaves, J.F. 1897. On some remains of a ''Sepia''-like cuttle-fish from the Cretaceous rocks of the South Saskatchewan. ''The Canadian Record of Science'' '''7''': 459–462.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1016/S0016-7878(78)80013-3| title = The preservation of the shells of Sepia in the middle Miocene of Malta | first2 = H. M.| year = 1978| last2 = Pedley| last1 = Hewitt | first1 = R.| journal = Proceedings of the Geologists' Association| volume = 89| issue = 3| pages = 227–237| bibcode = 1978PrGA...89..227H }}</ref>}}

{{Taxobox_classis_entry | taxon = [[Cephalopod]]a}}

| image = {{Multiple image

{{Taxobox_ordo_entry | taxon = '''Sepiida'''}}<br>{{Taxobox_authority | author = [[Karl Alfred von Zittel|Zittel]] | date = [[1895]]}}

| border = infobox

{{Taxobox_end_placement}}

| perrow = 2/2/2

{{Taxobox_section_subdivision | color = pink | plural_taxon = [[Family (biology)|Families]]}}

| total_width = 300

[[Sepiadariidae]]<br>

| image1 = Sepia común (Sepia officinalis), Parque natural de la Arrábida, Portugal, 2020-07-21, DD 62.jpg

[[Sepiidae]]

| link1 = Sepia officinalis

{{Taxobox_end}}

| image2 = Sepia elegans 2.jpg

'''Cuttlefish''' are animals of the [[order (biology)|order]] '''Sepiida''', and are marine [[cephalopod]]s, small relatives of [[squid]]s and [[nautilus]].

| link2 = Sepia elegans

| image3 = Sepia tuberculata 15605421.jpg

| link3 = Sepia tuberculata

| image4 = Ascarosepion pfefferi (13532420473).jpg

| link4 = Ascarosepion pfefferi

| image5 = Acanthosepion pharaonis.jpg

| link5 = Acanthosepion pharaonis

| image6 = Sepiella inermis.jpg

| link6 = Sepiella inermis

}}

| image_caption = Cuttlefish from multiple genera

| taxon = Sepiidae

| authority = [[William Elford Leach|Leach]], 1817

| subdivision_ranks = Genera

| subdivision =

*''[[Acanthosepion]]''

*''[[Ascarosepion]]''

*''[[Aurosepina]]''

*''[[Decorisepia]]''

*''[[Digitosepia]]''

*''[[Doratosepion]]''

*''[[Erythalassa]]''

*''[[Hemisepius]]''

*''[[Lusepia]]''

*''[[Rhombosepion]]''

*''[[Sepia (genus)|Sepia]]''

*''[[Sepiella]]''

*''[[Spathidosepion]]''

}}

'''Cuttlefish''' or '''cuttles'''<!-- Sourced later in article --> are [[Marine (ocean)|marine]] [[Mollusca|molluscs]] of the [[Family (biology)|family]] '''Sepiidae'''. They belong to the [[class (biology)|class]] [[Cephalopod]]a which also includes [[squid]], [[octopus]]es, and [[nautilus]]es. Cuttlefish have a unique internal [[mollusc shell|shell]], the [[cuttlebone]], which is used for control of [[buoyancy]].

Cuttlefish have an internal shell, large eyes, and ten arms furnished with denticulated suckers, by means of which it secures its prey. The name is sometimes applied to dibranchiate cephalopods generally.

Cuttlefish have large, W-shaped [[pupil]]s, eight [[Cephalopod arm|arm]]s, and two [[tentacle]]s furnished with [[:wikt:denticulate|denticulated]] suckers, with which they secure their prey. They generally range in size from {{convert|15|to|25|cm|in|0|abbr=on}}, with [[Cephalopod size|the largest species]], the [[giant cuttlefish]] (''Sepia apama''), reaching {{convert|50|cm|in|abbr=on}} in [[mantle (mollusc)|mantle]] length and over {{convert|10.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in mass.<ref>Reid, A., P. Jereb, & C. F. E. Roper (2005). "Family Sepiidae". ''In:'' P. Jereb & C. F. E. Roper, eds. ''Cephalopods of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of species known to date. Volume 1. Chambered nautiluses and sepioids (Nautilidae, Sepiidae, Sepiolidae, Sepiadariidae, Idiosepiidae and Spirulidae)''. FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes. No. 4, Vol. 1. Rome, FAO. pp. 57–152.</ref>

Cuttlefish are caught for food, though squid is more popular. They

are probably best known today for the [[shoehorn]] shaped piece of tough material given to [[parakeet]]s as a bill-sharpener and source of dietary [[calcium]]. Called the cuttlebone, it is composed of [[calcium carbonate]] and is porous to provide the cuttlefish with [[buoyancy]].

Cuttlefish eat small molluscs, crabs, shrimp, fish, octopuses, worms, and other cuttlefish. Their predators include dolphins, larger fish (including sharks), seals, seabirds, and other cuttlefish. The typical life expectancy of a cuttlefish is about 1–2 years. Studies are said to indicate cuttlefish to be among the most [[Cephalopod intelligence|intelligent]] [[invertebrate]]s.<ref name="NOVA">{{Cite web |title=NOVA {{!}} Kings of Camouflage {{!}} PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/camo/ |access-date=2025-07-22 |website=www.pbs.org}}</ref> Cuttlefish also have one of the largest [[Brain-to-body mass ratio#Brain-body size relationship|brain-to-body size]] ratios of all invertebrates.<ref name=NOVA />

Cuttlefish are sometimes called the [[chameleon]] of the sea because of their remarkable ability to rapidly alter their skin color. Their skin flashes a fast-changing pattern as communication to other individual of the same species, as well as serving as [[camouflage]] from predators.

The [[Greco-Roman world]] valued the cuttlefish as a source of the unique brown [[pigment]] the creature releases from its [[Siphon (mollusc)|siphon]] when it is alarmed. The word for the cuttlefish in both [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin language|Latin]], ''sepia'', now refers to the [[Sepia (color)|reddish-brown color sepia]] in English.

Cuttlefish have ink, like squids. This ink was formerly an important [[dye]], called [[sepia]]. Today artificial dyes have replaced natural sepia.

{{toclimit|3}}

==Nomenclature==

Like [[octopus]]es, cuttlefish have been successfully raised as [[pet]]s in home [[aquarium]]s, though even their bare necessities are significant. In particular, cuttlefish need a minimum amount of [[sea water]] in proportion to their body size, their tank needs to be cleaned ''every'' time they ink, they cannot tolerate abrupt changes in light levels, and they cannot coexist with other animals, and rarely ever with other cuttlefish. All other animals of comparable or smaller size, including other cuttlefish, are instinctively seen as food.

The "cuttle" in "cuttlefish", which is itself sometimes used to refer to these animals,<ref>{{cite web | title=The Cephalopoda | work=University of California Museum of Paleontology | url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/cephalopoda.php | access-date=2017-06-27}}</ref> is derived from the Old English name for the group, ''cudele''. The word may be [[cognate]] with the [[Old Norse]] ''koddi'' (cushion) and the [[Middle Low German]] ''Kudel'' (rag).<ref name=SOED>{{Cite OED|Cuttlefish}}</ref>

=== Taxonomy ===

Domestic cuttlefish are very reminiscent of [[domestic cat]]s, even exhibiting cat-like habits such as resting, pouncing on moving prey, begging owners for food, and even begging for more food than they need or is healthy for them. Like cats, cuttlefish are not truly [[Domestication|tame]], but rather tolerate and cooperate with their owners to live a comfortable life. But unlike cats, cuttlefish ''will'' try to eat other cuttlefish.

{{Cleanup|section|reason=Pages need to be moved to their new species name (along with a review of naming standards), Genera pages need to be made, and the giant list of assigned-to-Sepia species needs to be reviewed to remove synonyms|date=August 2025}}

116 [[species]] of cuttlefish are currently recognized;<ref name="WoRMS"/> for decades, the classification of this family relied on just three genera: ''[[Metasepia]]'', ''[[Sepia (cephalopod)|Sepia]]'', and ''[[Sepiella]]'', with Sepia containing most of the species and several [[subgenera]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2025|reason=Basing this on the previous version of Sepiidae, but must find example of this previous system}} A 2023 paper shifted this perception by having recovered ''Sepia'' as containing several [[Clade|monophyletic groups or clades]]. The authors subsequently revived several synonymized genera and elevated some subgenera of ''Sepia'' to full genus level, reassigning many species of ''Sepia'' to these revived genera. Conversely, ''Metasepia'' was found to nest within one of these revived genera, and as it was named after ''Ascarosepion'' it became a [[junior synonym]] of that genus.<ref name="BareBones">{{cite journal |last1=Lupše |first1=Nik |last2=Reid |first2=Amanda |last3=Taite |first3=Morag |last4=Kubodera |first4=Tsunemi |last5=Allcock |first5=A. Louise |title=Cuttlefishes (Cephalopoda, Sepiidae): the bare bones—an hypothesis of relationships |journal=Marine Biology |date=16 June 2023 |volume=170 |issue=8 |page=93 |doi=10.1007/s00227-023-04195-3 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023MarBi.170...93L }}</ref>

{{cladogram|title=[[Maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree]] from Lupše ''[[et al.]]'' 2023<ref name="BareBones"/>|caption=''[[Sepia bertheloti]]'' was also analyzed, but its position within this analysis was poorly resolved.<ref name="BareBones"/>|style=width:350px;line-height=:120%;

|cladogram={{cladeR

|label1='''Sepiidae'''

|1={{cladeR

|1={{cladeR

|1=''[[Acanthosepion]]''

|2=''[[Ascarosepion]]'' (incl. ''Metasepia'') }}

|2={{cladeR

|1={{cladeR

|1=''[[Sepiella]]''

|2=''[[Sepia (cephalopod)|Sepia]]'' ''[[sensu stricto]]'' }}

|2={{cladeR

|1=''[[Rhombosepion]]''

|2={{cladeR

|1=''[[Spathidosepion]]''

|2={{cladeR

|1={{cladeR

|1={{cladeR

|1=''[[Doratosepion]]''

|2=''[[Aurosepina]]'' }}

|2=''[[Erythalassa]]'' }}

|2={{cladeR

|1=''[[Decorisepia]]''

|2={{cladeR

|1=''[[Digitosepia]]''

|2=''[[Lusepia]]''

}} }} }} }} }} }} }} }}

}}

The genera and species of Sepiidae is as follows:<ref name="WoRMS">{{cite web |title=Sepiidae Leach, 1817 |url=https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=11723 |website=marinespecies.org |publisher=World Register of Marine Species |access-date=30 April 2025}}</ref>

*Order [[Sepiida]]

Cuttlefish eat small molluscs, crabs, shrimp, fish and other cutttleish. Their predators are sharks, fish and other cuttlefish. They live about 1 to 2 years. Most of them can be found in the english channel.

**Suborder [[Sepiina]]

==Classification==

***Superfamily {{Extinct}}Vasseurioidea

[[Image:Camouflage.jpg|250px|right|thumbnail|An infant cuttlefish protects itself with camouflage]]

***Superfamily Sepioidea

****Family {{Extinct}}Anomalosaepiidae Yancey & Garvie, 2011

****Family {{Extinct}}Belosaepiidae Dixon, 1850

****'''Family Sepiidae'''

*****Genus ''[[Acanthosepion]]''

******''[[Acanthosepion aculeata]]'', needle cuttlefish ([[Type species|type]])

******''[[Acanthosepion elliptica]],'' ovalbone cuttlefish

******''[[Sepia esculenta]]'', golden cuttlefish

******''[[Sepia lycidas]]'', kisslip cuttlefish

******''[[Acanthosepion pharaonis]]'', Pharaoh cuttlefish

******''[[Acanthosepion ramani]]''

******''[[Acanthosepion recurvirostra]]'', curvespine cuttlefish

******''[[Sepia smithi]]'', Smith's cuttlefish

******''[[Sepia stellifera]]''

*****Genus ''[[Ascarosepion]]''

******''[[Ascarosepion apama]]'', giant Australian cuttlefish

******''[[Ascarosepion bandense]]'', stumpy-spined cuttlefish

******''[[Ascarosepion cultratum]],'' knifebone cuttlefish

******''[[Ascarosepion filibrachia]]''

******''[[Ascarosepion latimanus]]'', broadclub cuttlefish

******''[[Ascarosepion mestus]]'', reaper cuttlefish (type)

******''[[Ascarosepion novaehollandiae]]'', New Holland cuttlefish

******''[[Ascarosepion opipara]]''

******''[[Ascarosepion papuensis]]'', Papuan cuttlefish

******''[[Ascarosepion pfefferi]]'', flamboyant cuttlefish

******''[[Ascarosepion plangon]]'', mourning cuttlefish

******''[[Ascarosepion rozella]]'', rosecone cuttlefish

******''[[Ascarosepion tullbergi]]'', paintpot cuttlefish

*****Genus ''[[Aurosepina]]''

******''[[Aurosepina arabica]]'', Arabian cuttlefish

*****Genus ''[[Decorisepia]]''

******''[[Sepia australis]]'', southern cuttlefish

******''[[Sepia hedleyi]]'', Hedley's cuttlefish (type)

******''[[Decorisepia madokai]]'', Madokai's cuttlefish

*****Genus ''[[Digitosepia]]''

******''[[Digitosepia barosei]]''

******''[[Sepia dubia]]''

******''[[Sepia faurei]]''

******''[[Sepia robsoni]]'' (type)

******''[[Digitosepia shazaei]]''

******''[[Digitosepia roeleveldi]]''

*****Genus ''[[Doratosepion]]''

******''[[Doratosepion andreana]]'', Andrea cuttlefish (type)

******''[[Sepia braggi]]'', slender cuttlefish

******''[[Sepia erostrata]]''

******''[[Sepia foliopeza]]''

******''[[Doratosepion kobiensis]]'', Kobi cuttlefish

******''[[Sepia limata]]''

******''[[Sepia longipes]]'', longarm cuttlefish

******''[[Sepia lorigera]]'', spider cuttlefish

******''[[Sepia pardex]]''

******''[[Sepia peterseni]]''

******''[[Sepia tenuipes]]''

******''[[Sepia tokioensis]]''

*****Genus ''[[Erythalassa]]''

******''[[Sepia trygonina]]'', trident cuttlefish

*****Genus ''[[Hemisepius]]''

******''[[Sepia typica]]''

*****Genus ''[[Lusepia]]''

******''[[Sepia hieronis]]''

*****Genus ''[[Rhombosepion]]''

******''[[Sepia elegans]]'', elegant cuttlefish (type)

******''[[Rhombosepion omani]]'', Oman cuttlefish

******''[[Sepia orbignyana]]'', pink cuttlefish

******''[[Sepia prashadi]]'', hooded cuttlefish

*****Genus ''[[Sepia (genus)|Sepia]]''

******''[[Sepia hierredda]]''

******''[[Sepia officinalis]]'', common cuttlefish (type)

******''[[Sepia vermiculata]]''

*****Genus ''[[Sepiella]]''

******''[[Sepiella inermis]]'', spineless cuttlefish

******''[[Sepiella japonica]]'', Japanese spineless cuttlefish

******''[[Sepiella ornata]]'', ornate cuttlefish (type, pending confirmation)

*****Genus ''[[Spathidosepion]]''

******''[[Sepia angulata]]''

******''[[Sepia papillata]]''

******''[[Sepia tuberculata]]'' (type, pending genetic analysis)

The subsequent species are in need of taxonomic review, as they were not examined in the 2023 study.

There are 119 [[species]] currently recognised, grouped into 5 [[genus|genera]]. [[Sepiadariidae]] contains seven species and 2 genera. All the rest ar in [[Sepiidae]].

<!--Reference https://marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=138477 when working on this list-->

{{Div col|colwidth=24em}}

*? ''[[Sepia bartletti]]''

*? ''[[Sepia baxteri]]'' *

*? ''[[Sepia dannevigi]]'' *

*? ''[[Sepia whitleyana]]''

*''[[Sepia acuminata]]''

*''[[Sepia adami]]''

*''[[Sepia appellofi]]''

*''[[Sepia aureomaculata]]''

*''[[Sepia bathyalis]]''

*''[[Sepia bertheloti]]'', African cuttlefish

*''[[Sepia bidhaia]]''

*''[[Sepia brevimana]]'', shortclub cuttlefish

*''[[Sepia burnupi]]''

*''[[Sepia carinata]]''

*''[[Sepia chirotrema]]''

*''[[Sepia confusa]]''

*''[[Sepia cottoni]]''

*''[[Sepia dollfusi]]''

*''[[Sepia elongata]]''

*''[[Sepia elobyana]]'', Guinean cuttlefish

*''[[Sepia filibrachia]]''

*''[[Sepia gibba]]''

*''[[Sepia incerta]]''

*''[[Sepia insignis]]''

*''[[Sepia irvingi]]''

*''[[Sepia ivanovi]]''

*''[[Sepia joubini]]''

*''[[Sepia kiensis]]'' *

*''[[Sepia koilados]]''

*''[[Sepia mascarensis]]''

*''[[Sepia mira]]''

*''[[Sepia mirabilis]]''

*''[[Sepia murrayi]]'', frog cuttlefish

*''[[Sepia plana]]''

*''[[Sepia plathyconchalis]]''

*''[[Sepia pulchra]]''

*''[[Sepia reesi]]''

*''[[Sepia rex]]''

*''[[Sepia rhoda]]''

*''[[Sepia savignyi]]'', broadback cuttlefish

*''[[Sepia saya]]''

*''[[Sepia senta]]''

*''[[Sepia sewelli]]''

*''[[Sepia simoniana]]''

*''[[Sepia sokotriensis]]''

*''[[Sepia subplana]]''

*''[[Sepia subtenuipes]]''

*''[[Sepia sulcata]],'' grooved cuttlefish

*''[[Sepia tala]]''

*''[[Sepia tanybracheia]]''

*''[[Sepia thurstoni]]''

*''[[Sepia vecchioni]]''<ref>Neethiselvan, N. & V.K. Venkataramani 2010. {{cite web |url= http://www.americanscience.org/journals/am-sci/am0604 |title= A New Species of Cuttlefish, ''Sepia vecchioni'' (Cephalopoda, Sepiidae) from Colachal Coast, South India. }}{{dead link|date=May 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ''Journal of American Science'' '''6'''(4): 12–21.</ref>

*''[[Sepia vercoi]]''

*''[[Sepia vietnamica]]''

*''[[Sepia vossi]]''

*''[[Sepiella weberi]]''

*''[[Sepia zanzibarica]]''

{{Div col end}}

<!--List of accepted species per WoRMS, please confirm:

Sepia acuminata E. A. Smith, 1916

Sepia adami Roeleveld, 1972

Sepia appelloefi Wülker, 1910

Sepia aureomaculata Okutani & Horikawa, 1987

Sepia bathyalis Khromov, Nikitina & Nesis, 1991

Sepia bertheloti A. d'Orbigny, 1835

Sepia bidhaia A. Reid, 2000

Sepia brevimana Steenstrup, 1875

Sepia burnupi Hoyle, 1904

Sepia carinata Sasaki, 1920

Sepia chirotrema S. S. Berry, 1918

Sepia confusa E. A. Smith, 1916

Sepia cottoni Adam, 1979

Sepia dollfusi Adam, 1941

Sepia elobyana Adam, 1941

Sepia elongata A. d'Orbigny, 1842

Sepia furcata Ho & Lu, 2005

Sepia gibba Ehrenberg, 1831

Sepia grahami A. Reid, 2001

Sepia hirunda Ho & Lu, 2005

Sepia incerta E. A. Smith, 1916

Sepia insignis E. A. Smith, 1916

Sepia irvingi W. T. Meyer, 1909

Sepia ivanovi Khromov, 1982

Sepia joubini Massy, 1927

Sepia kiensis Hoyle, 1885

Sepia koilados A. Reid, 2000

Sepia mascarensis Filippova & Khromov, 1991

Sepia mira (Cotton, 1932)

Sepia mirabilis Khromov, 1988

Sepia murrayi Adam & Rees, 1966

Sepia plana Lu & A. Reid, 1997

Sepia plathyconchalis Filippova & Khromov, 1991

Sepia prabahari Neethiselvan & Venkataramani, 2002

Sepia pulchra Roeleveld & Liltved, 1985

Sepia reesi Adam, 1979

Sepia rhoda (Iredale, 1954)

Sepia savignyi Blainville, 1827

Sepia saya Khromov, Nikitina & Nesis, 1991

Sepia senta Lu & A. Reid, 1997

Sepia sewelli Adam & Rees, 1966

Sepia simoniana Thiele, 1920

Sepia sokotriensis Khromov, 1988

Sepia subplana Lu & Boucher-Rodoni, 2001

Sepia subtenuipes Okutani & Horikawa, 1987

Sepia sulcata Hoyle, 1885

Sepia tala Khromov, Nikitina & Nesis, 1991

Sepia tanybracheia A. Reid, 2000

Sepia thurstoni Adam & Rees, 1966

Sepia tuberculata Lamarck, 1798

Sepia vecchioni Neethiselvan & Venkataramani, 2010

Sepia vercoi Adam, 1979

Sepia vietnamica Khromov, 1987

Sepia vossi Khromov, 1996

Sepia zanzibarica Pfeffer, 1884

-->

*''[[Sepiella cyanea]]''

*''[[Sepiella mangkangunga]]''

*''[[Sepiella ocellata]]''

The species listed above with an asterisk (<nowiki>*</nowiki>) are questionable and need further study to determine if they are a valid species or a synonym. The question mark (?) indicates questionable placement within the genus.

[[File:Trachyteuthis hastiformis 3243.JPG|thumb|''[[Trachyteuthis hastiformis]]''; [[Museo de la Naturaleza y Arqueología|Museum of Nature and Archaeology]]]]

=== Fossil record===

*CLASS [[Cephalopoda|CEPHALOPODA]]

The earliest fossils of cuttlefish are from the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Whiteaves |first=J.F. |year=1897 |title=On some remains of a ''Sepia''-like cuttle-fish from the Cretaceous rocks of the South Saskatchewan |journal=The Canadian Record of Science |volume=7 |pages=459–462}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0016-7878(78)80013-3| title=The preservation of the shells of Sepia in the middle Miocene of Malta |first2=H. M. |year=1978 |last2=Pedley |last1=Hewitt |first1=R. |journal=Proceedings of the Geologists' Association |volume=89| issue=3 |pages=227–237| bibcode=1978PrGA...89..227H }}</ref> represented by ''[[Ceratisepia]]'' from the Late [[Maastrichtian]] [[Maastricht Formation]] of the Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Maastrichtian Ceratisepia and Mesozoic cuttlebone homeomorphs - Acta Palaeontologica Polonica|url=https://www.app.pan.pl/article/item/app44-305.html|access-date=2020-12-17|website=www.app.pan.pl}}</ref> Although the Jurassic ''[[Trachyteuthis]]'' was historically considered possibly related to cuttlefish,<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|year=2010|volume=84|issue=4|pages=523–32|title=''Glyphiteuthis rhinophora'' n. sp., a trachyteuthidid (Coleoidea, Cephalopoda) from the Cenomanian (Late Cretaceous) of Mexico|doi=10.1007/s12542-010-0066-9|last1=Fuchs|first1=Dirk|last2=Stinnesbeck|first2=Wolfgang|last3=Ifrim|first3=Christina|last4=Giersch|first4=Samuel|last5=Padilla Gutierrez|first5=José Manuel|last6=Frey|first6=Eberhard|bibcode=2010PalZ...84..523F |s2cid=129754736}}</ref> later studies considered it to be more closely related to octopuses and vampire squids.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fuchs |first1=Dirk |last2=Iba |first2=Yasuhiro |last3=Tischlinger |first3=Helmut |last4=Keupp |first4=Helmut |last5=Klug |first5=Christian |date=October 2016 |title=The locomotion system of Mesozoic Coleoidea (Cephalopoda) and its phylogenetic significance |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/let.12155 |journal=Lethaia |language=en |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=433–454 |doi=10.1111/let.12155|bibcode=2016Letha..49..433F |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

**Subclass [[Nautiloidea]]: nautilus

**Subclass [[Coleoidea]]: [[squid]], [[octopus]], [[cuttlefish]]

***Superorder [[Decapodiformes]]

****Order [[Spirulida]]: Ram's Horn Squid

****'''Order Sepiida''': cuttlefish

*****Family [[Sepiadariidae]]

*****Family [[Sepiidae]]

****Order [[Sepiolida]]: bobtail squid

****Order [[Teuthida]]: squid

***Superorder [[Octopodiformes]]

==See AlsoDescription==

===Cuttlebone===

[[Whyalla, South Australia]]: "Cuttlefish capital of the world"

{{main|Cuttlebone}}

{{multiple image

| align=right

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| width =140

| image1 =Cuttlefish-Cuttlebone2.jpg

| alt1 =

| caption1 =

| image2 =Cuttlefish-Cuttlebone1.jpg

| alt2 =

| caption2 =

| footer =Top and bottom view of a cuttlebone, the buoyancy organ and internal shell of a cuttlefish

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Unlike other cephalopods, cuttlefish possess a unique internal structure called the [[cuttlebone]], a highly modified internal shell, which is porous and is made of [[aragonite]]. Except for ''[[Spirula]]'', they are the only coleoid cephalopods with a shell with a [[phragmocone]] divided into chambers separated by septa.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-022-04120-0|title=The shell structure and chamber production cycle of the cephalopod Spirula (Coleoidea, Decabrachia)|first1=Antonio G.|last1=Checa|first2=Christian|last2=Grenier|first3=Erika|last3=Griesshaber|first4=Wolfgang W.|last4=Schmahl|first5=Julyan H. E.|last5=Cartwright|first6=Carmen|last6=Salas|first7=Morgane|last7=Oudot|date=October 12, 2022|journal=Marine Biology|volume=169|issue=10|pages=132|via=Springer Link|doi=10.1007/s00227-022-04120-0|bibcode=2022MarBi.169..132C |hdl=10481/77740|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The pores provide it with [[buoyancy]], which the cuttlefish regulates by changing the gas-to-liquid ratio in the chambered cuttlebone via the [[ventral]] [[siphuncle]].<ref>{{Cite journal| first1=A.| last2= Mutterlose| first2=J.| title=Stable isotope records from ''Sepia officinalis''—a key to understanding the ecology of belemnites?| journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters| volume=247| issue=3–4| pages=212| year=2006| last1=Rexfort| doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2006.04.025| bibcode=2006E&PSL.247..212R}}</ref> Each [[species]]' cuttlebone has a distinct shape, size, and pattern of ridges or texture. The cuttlebone is unique to cuttlefish, and is one of the features that distinguish them from their squid relatives.<ref name="Staaf 2017">{{cite book |last=Staaf |first=Danna |title=Squid Empire: The Rise and Fall of the Cephalopods |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=udIwDwAAQBAJ|page=112}} |year=2017 |publisher=University Press of New England |isbn=978-1-5126-0128-2|pages=112–}}</ref>

===Visual system===

[[File:Cuttlefish eye.jpg|thumb|The characteristic W-shape of the cuttlefish eye]]

[[File:Sepia eyelid shape.theora.ogv|thumb|Pupil expansion in ''[[Sepia officinalis]]'']]

Cuttlefish, like other cephalopods, have sophisticated eyes. The [[organogenesis]] and the final structure of the [[cephalopod eye]] fundamentally differ from those of [[Vertebrates|vertebrate]]s, such as humans.<ref name="Muller">{{cite web|last=Muller |first=Matthew |url=http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/midorcas/animalphysiology/websites/2003/Muller/development%20of%20the%20cephalopod%20eye.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031121103918/http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/midorcas/animalphysiology/websites/2003/Muller/development%20of%20the%20cephalopod%20eye.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2003-11-21 |title=Development of the Eye in Vertebrates and Cephalopods and Its Implications for Retinal Structure |work=The Cephalopod Eye |publisher=Davidson College Biology Department |access-date=2007-04-06 }}</ref>

Superficial similarities between cephalopod and vertebrate eyes are thought to be examples of [[convergent evolution]]. The cuttlefish pupil is a smoothly curving W-shape.<ref>{{Cite journal

| last1=Schaeffel | first1=F. | last2=Murphy | first2=C. J. | last3=Howland | first3=H. C. | title=Accommodation in the cuttlefish (''Sepia officinalis'') | journal=The Journal of Experimental Biology | volume=202 | issue=22 | pages=3127–3134 | year=1999 | doi=10.1242/jeb.202.22.3127 | pmid=10539961

| doi-access=free | bibcode=1999JExpB.202.3127S }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Murphy | first1=C. J. | last2=Howland | first2=H. C. | doi=10.1002/jez.1402560505 | title=The functional significance of crescent-shaped pupils and multiple pupillary apertures | journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology | volume=256 | pages=22–28| year=1990 | issue=S5 | bibcode=1990JEZ...256S..22M }}</ref> Although cuttlefish cannot see color,<ref name="Mathger2006">{{cite journal|vauthors=Mäthger LM, Barbosa A, Miner S, Hanlon RT |title=Color blindness and contrast perception in cuttlefish (''Sepia officinalis'') determined by a visual sensorimotor assay |journal=Vision Research |volume=46 |issue=11 |year=2006 |pmid=16376404 |doi=10.1016/j.visres.2005.09.035 |pages=1746–53 |s2cid=16247757 |doi-access= }}</ref> they can perceive the [[polarization of light]], which enhances their perception of [[Contrast (vision)|contrast]]. They have two spots of concentrated sensor cells on their [[retina]]s (known as [[Fovea centralis|fovea]]e), one to look more forward, and one to look more backward. The eye changes focus by shifting the position of the entire lens with respect to the retina, instead of reshaping the lens as in mammals. Unlike the vertebrate eye, no [[blind spot (vision)|blind spot]] exists, because the [[optic nerve]] is positioned behind the retina. They are capable of using [[stereopsis]], enabling them to discern depth/distance because their brain calculates the input from both eyes.<ref name="Feord">{{cite journal | last1=Feord | first1=R. C. | last2=Sumner | first2=M. E. | last3=Pusdekar | first3=S. | last4=Kalra | first4=L. | last5=Gonzalez-Bellido | first5=P. T. | last6=Wardill | first6=Trevor J. | title=Cuttlefish use stereopsis to strike at prey | journal=Science Advances| volume=6 | issue=2 | year=2020 | issn=2375-2548 | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aay6036 | pmid=31934631 | page=eaay6036| pmc=6949036 | bibcode=2020SciA....6.6036F | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/08/us/3d-glasses-cuttlefish-scn-trnd/index.html|title=Scientists put 3D glasses on cuttlefish and showed them film clips. The results were surprising|first=Ryan |last=Prior|date=9 January 2020 |publisher=CNN|access-date=2020-01-09}}</ref>

The cuttlefish's eyes are thought to be fully developed before birth, and they start observing their surroundings while still in the egg. In consequence, they may prefer to hunt the prey they saw before hatching.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news | work= BBC News | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7435757.stm | title=Cuttlefish spot target prey early | access-date=2008-05-06 | date=2008-06-05}}</ref>

=== Arms and mantle cavity ===

Cuttlefish have eight arms and two additional elongated tentacles that are used to grasp prey. The elongated tentacles and mantle cavity serve as defense mechanisms; when approached by a predator, the cuttlefish can suck water into its mantle cavity and spread its arms in order to appear larger than normal.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tonmo.com/pages/sepia-bandensis-husbandry/|title=Sepia bandensis: husbandry and breeding|website=The Octopus News Magazine Online|date=8 March 2019 |access-date=2019-04-15}}</ref> Though the mantle cavity is used for jet propulsion, the main parts of the body that are used for basic mobility are the fins, which can maneuver the cuttlefish in all directions.<ref name="Karson Boal Hanlon 2003 pp. 149–155">{{cite journal | last1=Karson | first1=Miranda A. | last2=Boal | first2=Jean Geary | last3=Hanlon | first3=Roger T. | title=Experimental evidence for spatial learning in cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) | journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology | publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) | volume=117 | issue=2 | year=2003 | issn=1939-2087 | doi=10.1037/0735-7036.117.2.149 | pages=149–155| pmid=12856785 }}</ref>

===Suckers===

The [[Sucker (cephalopod anatomy)|suckers]] of cuttlefish extend most of the length of their arms and along the distal portion of their tentacles. Like other cephalopods, cuttlefish have "taste-by-touch" sensitivity in their suckers, allowing them to discriminate among objects and water currents that they contact.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cephalopod behaviour |last1=Hanlon|first1 = Roger T.|last2=Messenger|first2=John |isbn=978-0521897853 |oclc=1040658735 |date=2018-03-22|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref>

===Circulatory system===

The blood of a cuttlefish is an unusual shade of green-blue, because it uses the copper-containing protein [[haemocyanin]] to carry oxygen instead of the red, iron-containing protein [[haemoglobin]] found in vertebrates' blood. The blood is pumped by three separate hearts: two [[branchial heart]]s pump blood to the cuttlefish's pair of gills (one heart for each), and the third pumps blood around the rest of the body. Cuttlefish blood must flow more rapidly than that of most other animals because haemocyanin carries substantially less oxygen than haemoglobin. Unlike most other mollusks, cephalopods like cuttlefish have a [[Circulatory system#Closed circulatory system|closed]] circulatory system.<ref name="Fowler Roush Wise 2013">{{cite web | last1=Fowler | first1=Samantha | last2=Roush | first2=Rebecca | last3=Wise | first3=James | title=Mollusks and Annelids | website=BCcampus Open Publishing | date=2013-04-25 | url=https://opentextbc.ca/conceptsofbiologyopenstax/chapter/mollusks-and-annelids/ | access-date=2022-02-21}}</ref>

===Ink===

{{Main|Cephalopod ink}}

Like other marine mollusks, cuttlefish have ink stores that are used for chemical deterrence, [[phagomimicry]], sensory distraction, and evasion when attacked.<ref name="derby">{{Cite journal|last1=Derby|first1=Charles D.|last2=Kicklighter|first2=Cynthia E.|last3=Johnson|first3=P. M.|last4=Zhang|first4=Xu|date=2007-05-01|title=Chemical Composition of Inks of Diverse Marine Molluscs Suggests Convergent Chemical Defenses|journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology|language=en|volume=33|issue=5|pages=1105–1113|doi=10.1007/s10886-007-9279-0|pmid=17393278|bibcode=2007JCEco..33.1105D |s2cid=92064|issn=0098-0331}}</ref> Its composition results in a dark colored ink, rich in [[ammonium]] salts and [[amino acid]]s that may have a role in phagomimicry defenses.<ref name=derby/> The ink can be ejected to create a "[[smoke screen]]" to hide the cuttlefish's escape, or it can be released as a [[Pseudomorph#In_other_fields|pseudomorph]] of similar size to the cuttlefish, acting as a decoy while the cuttlefish swims away.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/camo/anat-nf.html|title=NOVA {{!}} Kings of Camouflage {{!}} Anatomy of a Cuttlefish (non-Flash)|website=www.pbs.org|access-date=2019-04-15}}</ref>

Human use of this substance is wide-ranged. A common use is in cooking with squid ink to darken and flavor rice and pasta. It adds a black tint and a sweet flavor to the food. In addition to food, cuttlefish ink can be used with plastics and staining of materials.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} The diverse composition of cuttlefish ink, and its deep complexity of colors, allows for dilution and modification of its color. Cuttlefish ink can be used to make noniridescent reds, blues, and greens,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Yafeng|last2=Dong|first2=Biqin|last3=Chen|first3=Ang|last4=Liu|first4=Xiaohan|last5=Shi|first5=Lei|last6=Zi|first6=Jian|year=2015|title=Using Cuttlefish Ink as an Additive to Produce Non-iridescent Structural Colors of High-Color Visibility|journal=Advanced Materials|volume=27|issue=32|pages=4719–24|doi=10.1002/adma.201501936|pmid=26175211|bibcode=2015AdM....27.4719Z |s2cid=10974421 }}</ref> subsequently used for [[biomimetic]] colors and materials.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}}

===Poison and venom===

A common gene between cuttlefish and almost all other cephalopods allows them to produce venom, excreting it through their beak to help kill their prey.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2009/04/octopus-venom-hunting-cephalopod/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180930193124/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2009/04/octopus-venom-hunting-cephalopod/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 30, 2018 |title=All Octopuses Are Venomous, Study Says |date=2009-04-17 |website=Animals |access-date=2019-08-06}}</ref> Additionally, the muscles of the flamboyant cuttlefish (''[[Metasepia pfefferi|Metasepa pfefferi]]'') contain [[tetrodotoxin]] which is found to be the same as the [[blue-ringed octopus]]. <ref name=NOVA/> It is as lethal as the venom of fellow cephalopod, the [[blue-ringed octopus]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/teachers/viewing/3404_camo.html |title=Kings of Camouflage |website=www.pbs.org |access-date=2019-08-06}} </ref> However, this toxin is found only in the muscle and is not injected in any form, classifying it as poisonous, not venomous.

===Chromatic cells===

[[File:Cuttlefish color.jpg|thumb|right|This [[broadclub cuttlefish]] (''Ascarosepion latimanus'') can change from camouflage tans and browns (top) to yellow with dark highlights (bottom) in less than one second.|alt=Two cuttlefish with dramatically different coloration]]

Cuttlefish are sometimes referred to as the "[[chameleon#Change of colour|chameleons]] of the sea" because of their ability to rapidly alter their skin color – this can occur within one second. Cuttlefish change color and pattern (including the [[polarization (waves)|polarization]] of the reflected light waves), and the shape of the skin to communicate to other cuttlefish, to [[camouflage]] themselves, and as a [[deimatic display]] to warn off potential predators. Under some circumstances, cuttlefish can be trained to change color in response to stimuli, thereby indicating their color changing is not completely innate.<ref name="Hough2016">{{cite journal |last1=Hough |first1=A. R. |last2=Case |first2=J. |last3=Boal |first3=J. G. |year=2016 |title=Learned control of body patterning in cuttlefish ''Sepia officinalis'' (Cephalopoda)|journal=Journal of Molluscan Studies |doi=10.1093/mollus/eyw006 |volume=82 |issue=3 |pages=427–431 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Cuttlefish can also affect the light's polarization, which can be used to signal to other marine animals, many of which can also sense polarization, as well as being able to influence the color of light as it reflects off their skin.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mäthger |first1=L. M. |last2=Shashar |first2=N. |last3=Hanlon |first3=R. T. |title=Do cephalopods communicate using polarized light reflections from their skin? |doi=10.1242/jeb.020800 |year=2009 |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=212 |issue=14 |pages=2133–2140 |pmid=19561202 |s2cid=10216731 |doi-access=|bibcode=2009JExpB.212.2133M }}</ref> Although cuttlefish (and most other cephalopods) lack color vision, high-resolution polarisation vision may provide an alternative mode of receiving contrast information that is just as defined.<ref name="Temple2012">{{cite journal|last1=Temple |first1=S. E. |last2=Pignatelli |first2=V. |last3=Cook |first3=T. |last4=How |first4=M. J. |last5=Chiou |first5=T. H. |last6=Roberts |first6=N. W. |last7=Marshall |first7=N. J. |year=2012|title=High-resolution polarisation vision in a cuttlefish|journal=Current Biology|volume=22|issue=4|pages=R121–R122|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2012.01.010|pmid=22361145|doi-access=free|bibcode=2012CBio...22.R121T }}</ref> The cuttlefish's wide pupil may accentuate chromatic aberration, allowing it to perceive color by focusing specific wavelengths onto the retina.<ref name="Douglas-2018">{{cite journal | last=Douglas | first=Ronald H. | title=The pupillary light responses of animals; a review of their distribution, dynamics, mechanisms and functions | journal=[[Progress in Retinal and Eye Research]] | publisher=[[Wolters Kluwer]] | volume=66 | year=2018 | issn=1350-9462 | doi=10.1016/j.preteyeres.2018.04.005 | pages=17–48 | pmid=29723580 | s2cid=19936214| url=https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/19785/1/Pupil%20review%20for%20CRO.pdf }}</ref><ref name="StubbsCA">{{cite journal | last1=Stubbs | last2=Stubbs| first2=C. | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | first1=A. | volume=113 | issue=29 |pages=8206–8211 | year=2016 |title=Spectral discrimination in color-blind animals via chromatic aberration and pupil shape | doi=10.1073/pnas.1524578113 | pmid=27382180 | pmc=4961147 | bibcode=2016PNAS..113.8206S| doi-access=free}}</ref>

The three broad categories of color patterns are uniform, mottle, and disruptive.<ref name="Chiao2010">{{cite journal |last1=Chiao |first1=C. C. |last2=Chubb |first2=C. |last3=Buresch |first3=K. C. |last4=Barbosa |first4=A. |last5=Allen |first5=J. J. |last6=Mäthger |first6=L. M. |last7=Hanlon |first7=R. T. |year=2010 |title=Mottle camouflage patterns in cuttlefish: quantitative characterization and visual background stimuli that evoke them |journal=The Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=213 |issue=2 |pages=187–199 |doi=10.1242/jeb.030247 |pmid=20038652|doi-access=free|bibcode=2010JExpB.213..187C }}</ref> Cuttlefish can display as many as 12 to 14 patterns,<ref name="Crook2002">{{cite journal |last1=Crook |first1=A. C. |last2=Baddeley |first2=R. |last3=Osorio |first3=D. |year=2002|title=Identifying the structure in cuttlefish visual signals |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences |volume=357|issue=1427|pages=1617–1624 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2002.1070 |pmid=12495518 |pmc=1693061}}</ref> 13 of which have been categorized as seven "acute" (relatively brief) and six "chronic" (long-lasting) patterns.<ref name="Hanlon1988" >{{cite journal|last1=Hanlon |first1=R. T. |last2=Messenger |first2=J. B.|year=1988|title=Adaptive coloration in young cuttlefish (''Sepia officinalis'' L.): the morphology and development of body patterns and their relation to behaviour |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences|volume=320|issue=1200|doi=10.1098/rstb.1988.0087 |jstor=2396667 |pages=437–487|bibcode=1988RSPTB.320..437H|doi-access=}}</ref> although other researchers suggest the patterns occur on a continuum.<ref name="Chiao2010" />

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Patterns of the common cuttlefish<ref name="Crook2002" />

|-

! Chronic

! Acute

|-

|Uniform light

|Uniform blanching

|-

|Stipple

|Uniform darkening

|-

|Light mottle

|Acute disruptive

|-

|Disruptive

|Deimatic

|-

|Dark mottle

|Flamboyant

|-

|Weak zebra

|Intense zebra

|-

|

|Passing cloud

|}

The color-changing ability of cuttlefish is due to multiple types of cells. These are arranged (from the skin's surface going deeper) as [[pigment]]ed [[chromatophore]]s above a layer of reflective [[iridophore]]s and below them, [[leucophore]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=11762491|last=Messenger |first=J. B.|title=''Cephalopod chromatophores'': neurobiology and natural history|doi=10.1017/S1464793101005772|journal=Biological Reviews|volume =76|issue =4| pages =473–528|year=2001|s2cid=17172396}}</ref><ref>[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/camo/anat-nf.html "NOVA | Kings of Camouflage | Anatomy of a Cuttlefish"]. ''PBS''. Retrieved 19 September 2013.</ref>

====Chromatophores====

[[Chromatophore#Cephalopod chromatophores|Chromatophores]] are sacs containing hundreds of thousands of pigment granules and a large membrane that is folded when retracted. Hundreds of muscles radiate from the chromatophore. These are under neural control and when they expand, they reveal the hue of the pigment contained in the sac. Cuttlefish have three types of chromatophore: yellow/orange (the uppermost layer), red, and brown/black (the deepest layer). The cuttlefish can control the contraction and relaxation of the muscles around individual chromatophores, thereby opening or closing the elastic sacs and allowing different levels of pigment to be exposed.<ref name="Thomas2016" /> Furthermore, the chromatophores contain luminescent protein nanostructures in which tethered pigment granules modify light through absorbance, reflection, and [[fluorescence]] between 650 and 720&nbsp;nm.<ref name="Karoff2014" /><ref name="Deravi2014">{{cite journal|last=Deravi |first=L. F.|year=2014|title=The structure–function relationships of a natural nanoscale photonic device in cuttlefish chromatophores|journal=Journal of the Royal Society Interface|volume=11|issue=93|page=20130942|display-authors=etal|doi=10.1098/rsif.2013.0942|pmid=24478280|pmc=3928930}}</ref>

For cephalopods in general, the hues of the pigment granules are relatively constant within a species, but can vary slightly between species. For example, the common cuttlefish and the opalescent inshore squid (''[[Doryteuthis opalescens]]'') have yellow, red, and brown, the European common squid (''[[Alloteuthis subulata]]'') has yellow and red, and the [[common octopus]] has yellow, orange, red, brown, and black.<ref name="Thomas2016" />

In cuttlefish, activation of a chromatophore can expand its surface area by 500%. Up to 200 chromatophores per mm² of skin may occur. In ''Loligo plei'', an expanded chromatophore may be up to 1.5&nbsp;mm in diameter, but when retracted, it can measure as little as 0.1&nbsp;mm.<ref name="Karoff2014">{{cite web|url=https://www.seas.harvard.edu/news/2014/01/chameleon-of-sea-reveals-its-secrets|publisher=Harvard University|year=2014|access-date=May 26, 2014|last=Karoff |first=P.|title='Chameleon of the sea' reveals its secrets}}</ref><ref name="NatGeo">{{cite web|title=Cuttlefish change color, shape-shift to elude predators|year=2008|work=National Geographic|last=Hansford |first=D.|url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/08/080608-cuttlefish-camouflage-missions.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080809062047/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/08/080608-cuttlefish-camouflage-missions.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 9, 2008}}</ref><ref name="Mathger2009a"/>

====Iridophores ====

Retracting the chromatophores reveals the iridophores and leucophores beneath them, thereby allowing cuttlefish to use another modality of visual signalling brought about by [[structural coloration]].

Iridophores are structures that produce [[Iridescence|iridescent]] colors with a metallic sheen. They reflect light using plates of crystalline chemochromes made from [[guanine]]. When illuminated, they reflect iridescent colors because of the [[diffraction]] of light within the stacked plates. Orientation of the chemochromes determines the nature of the color observed. By using [[Biochrome|biochromes]] as colored filters, iridophores create an optical effect known as [[Tyndall effect|Tyndall]] or [[Rayleigh scattering]], producing bright blue or blue-green colors. Iridophores vary in size, but are generally smaller than 1&nbsp;mm. Squid at least are able to change their iridescence. This takes several seconds or minutes, and the mechanism is not understood.<ref name="Mathger2008" /> However, iridescence can also be altered by expanding and retracting the chromatophores above the iridophores. Because chromatophores are under direct neural control from the brain, this effect can be immediate.

[[File:Kalamar.jpg|thumb|The white spots and bands on this cuttlefish are produced by leucophores.]]

Cephalopod iridophores polarize light. Cephalopods have a [[rhabdomeric]] visual system which means they are visually sensitive to polarized light. Cuttlefish use their polarization vision when hunting for silvery fish (their scales polarize light). Female cuttlefish exhibit a greater number of polarized light displays than males and also alter their behavior when responding to polarized patterns. The use of polarized reflective patterns has led some to suggest that cephalopods may communicate intraspecifically in a mode that is "hidden" or "private" because many of their predators are insensitive to polarized light.<ref name="Mathger2008" /><ref name="Mathger2009b">{{cite journal|last1=Mäthger |first1=L. M. |last2=Shashar |first2=N. |last3=Hanlon |first3=R. T. |year=2009|title=Do cephalopods communicate using polarized light reflections from their skin?|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=212|issue=14|pages=2133–2140|doi=10.1242/jeb.020800|pmid=19561202|s2cid=10216731 |doi-access=|bibcode=2009JExpB.212.2133M }}</ref><ref name="Mathger2009a">{{cite journal|pmid=19091688|pmc=2706477|year=2009|last1=Mäthger|first1=L. M.|title=Mechanisms and behavioural functions of structural coloration in cephalopods|journal=Journal of the Royal Society Interface|volume=6|pages=S149–163|last2=Denton|first2=E. J.|last3=Marshall|first3=N. J.|last4=Hanlon|first4=R. T.|issue=Suppl 2 |doi=10.1098/rsif.2008.0366.focus}}</ref>

====Leucophores====

Leucophores, usually located deeper in the skin than iridophores, are also structural reflectors using crystalline [[Purine|purines]], often guanine, to reflect light. Unlike iridophores, however, leucophores have more organized crystals that reduce diffraction. Given a source of white light, they produce a white shine, in red they produce red, and in blue they produce blue. Leucophores assist in camouflage by providing light areas during background matching (e.g. by resembling light-colored objects in the environment) and disruptive coloration (by making the body appear to be composed of high-contrasting patches).<ref name="Mathger2008" />

The reflectance spectra of cuttlefish patterns and several natural substrates ([[Stippling|stipple]], [[mottle]], [[Disruptive coloration|disruptive]]) can be measured using an optic [[spectrometer]].<ref name="Mathger2008">{{cite journal|last1=Mathger |first1=L. M. |last2=Chiao |first2=C. |last3=Barbosa |first3=A. |last4=Hanlon |first4=R. T. |name-list-style=amp |title=Color matching on natural substrates in cuttlefish, ''Sepia officinalis'' |pmid=18414874 |year=2008|volume=194|issue=6|pages=577–585 |doi=10.1007/s00359-008-0332-4 |journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology A|s2cid=25111630 }}</ref>

== Biology ==

===Behavior===

[[File:Red cuttle hunting.webm|thumb|Video of [[Sepia mestus|''S. mestus'']] in [[Sydney]] waters, hunting and catching prey]]

While the preferred diet of cuttlefish is crabs and fish, they feed on small shrimp shortly after hatching.<ref name=TONMO>[http://www.tonmo.com/articles/basiccuttlefish.php "Cuttlefish Basics"]. ''Tonmo.com'' (12 February 2003). Retrieved 18 September 2011.</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2023}}

====Sleep-like behavior====

[[Sleep]] is a state of immobility characterized by being rapidly reversible, homeostatically controlled, and increasing an organism's arousal threshold.<ref name="Frank2012">{{cite journal|author1=Frank, M.G. |author2=Waldrop, R.H. |author3=Dumoulin, M. |author4=Aton, S. |author5=Boal, J.G. |title=A Preliminary Analysis of Sleep-Like States in the Cuttlefish ''Sepia officinalis'' |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=e38125 |year=2012 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0038125|pmid=22701609 |pmc=3368927 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...738125F |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Iglesias2019">{{cite journal |author1=Iglesias, T.L. |author2=Boal, J.G. |author3=Frank, M.G. |author4=Zeil, J. |author5=Hanlon, R.T. |title=Cyclic nature of the REM sleep-like state in the cuttlefish ''Sepia officinalis'' |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=222 |issue=1 |pages=jeb174862 |year=2019 |doi= 10.1242/jeb.174862 |pmid=30446538 |doi-access=free |hdl=1885/164660 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> To date,{{Needs update|date=May 2025}} one cephalopod species, ''[[Common octopus|Octopus vulgaris]]'', has been shown to satisfy these criteria.<ref name="Meisel2011">{{cite journal |author1=Meisel, D.V. |author2=Byrne, R.A. |author3=Mather, J.A. |author4=Kuba, M. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229150667 |title=Behavioral sleep in Octopus vulgaris |journal=Vie et Milieu Life and Environment |volume=61 |issue=4 |year=2011}}</ref> Another species, ''[[Common cuttlefish|Sepia officinalis]]'', satisfies two of the three criteria but has not yet been tested on the third (arousal threshold).<ref name="Iglesias2019" /><ref name="Frank2012" /> Recent research shows that the sleep-like state in a common species of cuttlefish, ''Sepia officinalis'', shows predictable periods<ref name="Iglesias2019" /> of rapid eye movement, arm twitching and rapid chromatophore changes.<ref name="Frank2012" />

===Communication===

Cephalopods are able to communicate visually using a diverse range of signals. To produce these signals, cephalopods can vary four types of communication element: chromatic (skin coloration), skin texture (e.g. rough or smooth), posture, and locomotion. The common cuttlefish can display 34 chromatic, six textural, eight postural and six locomotor elements, whereas [[flamboyant cuttlefish]] use between 42 and 75 chromatic, 14 postural, and seven textural and locomotor elements.<ref name="Crook2002" /><ref name="Thomas2016">{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=A. |last2=MacDonald |first2=C. |year=2016|title=Investigating body patterning in aquarium-raised flamboyant cuttlefish (Metasepia pfefferi) |journal=PeerJ |volume=4 |pages=e2035 |doi=10.7717/peerj.2035 |pmid=27231657 |pmc=4878381 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Visual signals of the common cuttlefish<ref name="Crook2002" />

|-

! Chromic – light

! Chromic – dark

! Texture

! Posture

! Locomotor

|-

|White posterior triangle

|Anterior transverse mantle line

|Smooth skin

|Raised arms

|Sitting

|-

|White square

|Posterior transverse mantle line

|Coarse skin

|Waving arms

|Bottom suction

|-

|White mantle bar

|Anterior mantle bar

|[[Papillate]] skin

|Splayed arms

|Buried

|-

|White lateral stripe

|Posterior mantle bar

|Wrinkled first arms

|Drooping arms

|Hovering

|-

|White fin spots

|Paired mantle spots

|White square papillae

|Extended fourth arm

|Jetting

|-

|White fin line

|Median mantle stripe

|Major lateral papillae

|Flattened body

|Inking

|-

|White neck spots

|Mantle margin stripe

|

|Raised head

|

|-

|Iridescent ventral mantle

|Mantle margin scalloping

|

|Flanged fin

|

|-

|White zebra bands

|Dark fin line

|

|

|

|-

|White landmark spots

|Black zebra bands

|

|

|

|-

|White splotches

|Mottle

|

|

|

|-

|White major lateral papillae

|Lateroventral patches

|

|

|

|-

|White head bar

|Anterior head bar

|

|

|

|-

|White arm triangle

|Posterior head bar

|

|

|

|-

|Pink iridophore arm stripes

|Pupil

|

|

|

|-

|White arms spots (males only)

|Eye ring

|

|

|

|-

|Dark arm stripes

|

|

|

|

|-

|Dark arms

|

|

|

|

|}

====Intraspecific ====

Cuttlefish sometimes use their color patterns to signal future intent to other cuttlefish. For example, during agonistic encounters, male cuttlefish adopt a pattern called the intense zebra pattern, considered to be an [[Signalling theory#Honest signals|honest signal]]. If a male is intending to attack, it adopts a "dark face" change, otherwise, it remains pale.<ref name="Adamo">{{cite journal|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=52|issue=1|year=1996|pages=73–81|title=Do cuttlefish (Cephalopoda) signal their intentions to conspecifics during agonistic encounters?|last1=Adamo |first1=S. A. |last2=Hanlon |first2=R. T.|doi=10.1006/anbe.1996.0153|s2cid=53186029}}</ref>

In at least one species, female cuttlefish react to their own reflection in a mirror and to other females by displaying a body pattern called "splotch". However, they do not use this display in response to males, inanimate objects, or prey. This indicates they are able to discriminate same-sex [[Biological specificity|conspecifics]], even when human observers are unable to discern the sex of a cuttlefish in the absence of [[sexual dimorphism]].<ref name="Palmer2006">{{cite journal |last1=Palmer |first1=M. E. |last2=Calvé |first2=M. R. |last3=Adamo |first3=S. A.|year=2006|title=Response of female cuttlefish ''Sepia officinalis'' (Cephalopoda) to mirrors and conspecifics: evidence for signaling in female cuttlefish|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=9|issue=2|pages=151–155|doi=10.1007/s10071-005-0009-0|pmid=16408230|s2cid=19047398}}</ref>

Female cuttlefish signal their receptivity to mating using a display called precopulatory grey.<ref name="Palmer2006" /> Male cuttlefish sometimes use deception toward guarding males to mate with females. Small males hide their [[sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]] fourth arms, change their skin pattern to the mottled appearance of females, and change the shape of their arms to mimic those of nonreceptive, egg-laying females.<ref name="Hanlon2005"/>

Displays on one side of a cuttlefish can be independent of the other side of the body; males can display courtship signals to females on one side while simultaneously showing female-like displays with the other side to stop rival males interfering with their courtship.<ref name="Hutton2015">{{cite journal |last1=Hutton |first1=P. |last2=Seymoure |first2=B. M. |last3=McGraw |first3=K. J. |last4=Ligon |first4=R. A. |last5=Simpson |first5=R. K. |year=2015|title=Dynamic color communication |journal=Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences |volume=6 |pages=41–49 |doi=10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.08.007 |s2cid=53195786|doi-access=free }}</ref>

====Interspecific ====

The [[deimatic display]] (a rapid change to black and white with dark 'eyespots' and contour, and spreading of the body and fins) is used to startle small fish that are unlikely to prey on the cuttlefish, but use the flamboyant display towards larger, more dangerous fish,<ref name="Langridge">{{cite journal |last=Langridge |first=K. V. |year=2009|title=Cuttlefish use startle displays, but not against large predators|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=77|issue=4|pages=847–856 |doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.11.023|s2cid=53144246}}</ref> and give no display at all to [[chemosensory]] predators such as crabs and dogfish.<ref name="Stuart-Fox2009" />

One dynamic pattern shown by cuttlefish is dark mottled waves apparently repeatedly moving down the body of the animals. This has been called the passing cloud pattern. In the common cuttlefish, this is primarily observed during hunting, and is thought to communicate to potential prey – "stop and watch me"<ref name="Thomas2016" /> – which some{{Who|date=November 2023}} have interpreted as a type of "hypnosis".{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}}. However, recent research indicates that [[motion camouflage]] is the more likely explanation.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Stealth and deception: Adaptive motion camouflage in hunting broadclub cuttlefish |last1=Santon |first1=Matteo |last2=Troscianko |first2=Jolyon |last3=Heatubun |first3=Charlie |last4=How |first4=Martin |journal=Science Advances |volume=11 |issue=13 |year=2025 |pages=eadr3686 |doi= 10.1126/sciadv.adr3686 |pmid=40138425 |pmc=11939058 |bibcode=2025SciA...11R3686S }}</ref> This pattern is believed to be centrally generated by (or near) chromatophore motoneurons.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Behavioral Analysis of Cuttlefish Traveling Waves and Its Implications for Neural Control |last1=Laan |first1=Andres |last2=Gutnick |first2=Tamar |last3=Kuba |first3=Michael |last4=Laurent |first4=Gilles |journal=Current Biology |volume=24 |issue=15 |pages= 1737–1742 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2014.06.027 |pmid=25042589 |bibcode=2014CBio...24.1737L }}</ref>

===Camouflage===

{{Further|Camouflage|Crypsis|Animal coloration}}

[[File:Camouflage.jpg|thumb|right|Juvenile cuttlefish camouflaged against the seafloor]]

Cuttlefish are able to rapidly change the color of their skin to match their surroundings and create chromatically complex patterns,<ref name="Stuart-Fox2009">{{cite journal |last1=Stuart-Fox |first1=D. |last2=Moussalli |first2=A. |pmid=19000973 |year=2009 |title=Camouflage, communication and thermoregulation: Lessons from color changing organisms|volume=364 |issue=1516 |pages=463–470 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0254 |pmc=2674084 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences}}</ref> despite their inability to perceive color, through some mechanism which is not completely understood.<ref name="Color blindness">{{cite journal|last1=Mäthger |first1=Lydia M. |last2=Barbosa |first2=Alexandra |last3=Miner |first3=Simon |last4=Hanlon |first4=Roger T. |title=Color blindness and contrast perception in cuttlefish (''Sepia officinalis'') determined by a visual sensorimotor assay|journal=Vision Research|date=May 2006|volume=46|issue=11|pages=1746–1753|doi=10.1016/j.visres.2005.09.035|pmid=16376404|s2cid=16247757|doi-access=}}</ref> They have been seen to have the ability to assess their surroundings and match the color, contrast and texture of the substrate even in nearly total darkness.<ref name="NatGeo" />

The color variations in the mimicked substrate and animal skin are similar. Depending on the species, the skin of cuttlefish responds to substrate changes in distinctive ways. By changing naturalistic backgrounds, the camouflage responses of different species can be measured.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shohet |first1=A. |last2=Baddeley |first2=R. |last3=Anderson |first3=J. |last4=Osorio |first4=D. |name-list-style=amp |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2007.00842.x|url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/1771/|title=Cuttlefish camouflage: A quantitative study of patterning|year=2007|journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=92|issue=2|pages=335–345|doi-access=free|url-access=subscription}}</ref> ''Sepia officinalis'' changes color to match the substrate by disruptive patterning (contrast to break up the outline), whereas ''[[Sepia pharaonis|S. pharaonis]]'' matches the substrate by blending in. Although camouflage is achieved in different ways, and in an absence of color vision, both species change their skin colors to match the substrate. Cuttlefish adapt their own camouflage pattern in ways that are specific for a particular habitat. An animal could settle in the sand and appear one way, with another animal a few feet away in a slightly different [[microhabitat]], settled in algae for example, will be camouflaged quite differently.<ref name="NatGeo" />

Cuttlefish are also able to change the texture of their skin. The skin contains bands of circular muscle which as they contract, push fluid up. These can be seen as little spikes, bumps, or flat blades. This can help with camouflage when the cuttlefish becomes texturally as well as chromatically similar to objects in its environment such as kelp or rocks.<ref name="NatGeo" />

===Lifecycle===

The lifespan of a cuttlefish is typically around one to two years, depending on the species. They hatch fully developed at around {{convert |1/4 |in |mm |0 |order=flip |abbr=on}} long from eggs, reaching {{convert|1|in|mm|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} after around the first two months. Before death, cuttlefish go through [[senescence]], when the cephalopod essentially deteriorates or rots in place. Their eyesight begins to fail, which directly impacts their ability to move and hunt efficiently. Once this process begins, cuttlefish tend not to live long due to predation by other organisms.

[[File:Australian Giant Cuttlefish, Australia imported from iNaturalist photo 479494705.jpg|thumb|The [[giant cuttlefish]] (''Ascarosepion apama''). The males compete in groups over females]]

Cuttlefish start to actively mate at around five months of age. Male cuttlefish challenge one another for dominance and the best den during mating season. During this challenge, no direct contact is usually {{nowrap|made{{px2}}{{mdash}}{{px2}}}}‌rather, the animals threaten each other until one of them backs down and swims away. Eventually, the larger male cuttlefish mate with the females by grabbing them with their tentacles, turning the female so that the two animals are face-to-face, then using a specialized tentacle to insert [[Spermatophore|sperm sacs]] into an opening near the female's mouth. As males can also use their funnels to flush others' sperm out of the female's pouch, the male then guards the female until she lays the eggs a few hours later.<ref>Bavendam, Fred (1995) "The Giant Cuttlefish Chameleon of the Reef". ''National Geographic'', pp. 94–107. Print.</ref> After laying her cluster of eggs, the female cuttlefish secretes ink on them, making them look very similar to grapes. The egg case is produced through a complex capsule of the female accessory genital glands and the ink bag.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zatylny-Gaudin |first1=Céline |last2=Corre |first2=Erwan |last3=Corguillé |first3=Gildas Le |last4=Bernay |first4=Benoit |last5=Duval |first5=Emilie |last6=Goux |first6=Didier |last7=Henry |first7=Joël |last8=Cornet |first8=Valérie |date=2015-07-13 |title=How Egg Case Proteins Can Protect Cuttlefish Offspring? |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=e0132836 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1032836C |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0132836 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4500399 |pmid=26168161 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

On occasion, a large competitor arrives to threaten the male cuttlefish. In these instances, the male first attempts to intimidate the other male. If the competitor does not flee, the male eventually attacks it to force it away. The cuttlefish that can paralyze the other first, by forcing it near its mouth, wins the fight and the female. Since typically four or five (and sometimes as many as 10) males are available for every female, this behavior is inevitable.<ref name="Mating_Trick">

[https://web.archive.org/web/20110104024948/http://www.sciencentral.com/articles/view.php3?type=article&article_id=218392737 Mating Trick: Science Videos]. Science News – ScienCentral</ref>

Cuttlefish are [[Indeterminate growth |indeterminate growers]], so smaller cuttlefish always have a chance of finding a mate the next year when they are bigger.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130606112825/http://dsc.discovery.com/tv-shows/life/videos/cuttlefish-wards-off-rivals.htm Life: Cuttlefish Wards Off Rivals : Video : Discovery Channel]. Dsc.discovery.com (2012-03-22). Retrieved on 2013-09-18.</ref> Additionally, cuttlefish unable to win in a direct confrontation with a guard male have been observed employing several other tactics to acquire a mate. The most successful of these methods is camouflage; smaller cuttlefish use their camouflage abilities to disguise themselves as a female cuttlefish. Changing their body color, and even pretending to be holding an [[egg sack]], disguised males are able to swim past the larger guard male and mate with the female.<ref name="Mating_Trick" /><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/news050117-9 |title=Cuttlefish win mates with transvestite antics |last=Ebert |first=Jessica |year=2005 |journal=News@nature }}</ref><ref name="Hanlon2005">{{cite journal |pmid=15662403 |url=http://hermes.mbl.edu/mrc/hanlon/pdfs/Hanlon_et_al_Nature_2005.pdf |year=2005 |last1=Hanlon |first1=R.T. |last2=Naud |first2=M.J. |last3=Shaw |first3=P.W. |last4=Havenhand |first4=J.N. |title=Behavioural ecology: Transient sexual mimicry leads to fertilization |volume=433 |issue=7023 |page=212 |doi=10.1038/433212a |journal=Nature |bibcode=2005Natur.433..212H |s2cid=1128929 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114195350/http://hermes.mbl.edu/mrc/hanlon/pdfs/Hanlon_et_al_Nature_2005.pdf |archive-date=November 14, 2012 }}</ref>

==Range and habitat==

[[File:Cuttlefish.ogv|thumb|Video of a cuttlefish in its natural habitat]]

The family Sepiidae, which contains all cuttlefish, inhabits tropical and temperate ocean waters. They are mostly shallow-water animals, although they are known to go to depths of about {{cvt|600|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>Lu, C. C. and Roper, C. F. E. (1991). "Aspects of the biology of ''Sepia cultrata'' from southeastern Australia", p. 192 in: La Seiche, The Cuttlefish. Boucaud-Camou, E. (Ed). Caen, France; Centre de Publications de l'Université de Caen.</ref> They have an unusual biogeographic pattern; they are present along the coasts of East and South Asia, Western Europe, and the Mediterranean, as well as all coasts of Africa and Australia, but are totally absent from the Americas. By the time the family evolved, ostensibly in the Old World, the North Atlantic possibly had become too cold and deep for these warm-water species to cross.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2989/025776198784126287 |author1=Young, R. E. |author2=Vecchione, M. |author3=Donovan, D. |year=1998 |title=The evolution of coleoid cephalopods and their present biodiversity and ecology |journal=South African Journal of Marine Science |volume=20 |pages=393–420}}</ref> The [[common cuttlefish]] (''Sepia officinalis''), is found in the Mediterranean, North and Baltic seas, although populations may occur as far south as South Africa. They are found in [[sublittoral]] depths, between the low tide line and the edge of the continental shelf, to about {{cvt|180|m|-2|abbr=on}}.<ref>[http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=540 Common Cuttlefishes, ''Sepia officinalis'']. marinebio.org</ref> The cuttlefish is listed under the Red List category of "least concern" by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. This means that while some over-exploitation of the marine animal has occurred in some regions due to large-scale commercial fishing, their wide geographic range prevents them from being too threatened. Ocean acidification, however, caused largely by higher levels of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere, is cited as a potential threat.<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Barratt, I. |author2=Allcock, L. |date=2012 |title=''Sepia officinalis'' |volume=2012 |page=e.T162664A939991 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012-1.RLTS.T162664A939991.en |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> Some studies suggest that ocean acidification&nbsp;does not impair normal embryonic development, survival rates or body size.

==Human uses==

{{More citations needed section|date=July 2021}}

===As food===

Cuttlefish are caught for food in the Mediterranean, Asia, the English Channel, and elsewhere.

In East Asia, [[dried shredded squid|dried, shredded cuttlefish]] is a popular snack food. In the [[Qing Dynasty]] manual of Chinese [[gastronomy]], the ''[[Suiyuan shidan]]'', the [[roe]] of the cuttlefish, is considered a difficult-to-prepare, but sought-after delicacy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seafoods 7: Cuttlefish roe (烏魚蛋) |website=Translating the Suiyuan Shidan|url=https://wayoftheeating.wordpress.com/2014/11/20/seafoods-7-cuttlefish-roe-%E7%83%8F%E9%AD%9A%E8%9B%8B/|year=2014}}</ref> [[Cuttlefish geng|Cuttlefish thick soup]] is a signature dish in [[Taiwan]].

In [[Southeast Asia]], cuttlefish is a regional dish typical of the [[Sundanese people]] in [[west Java]], [[Indonesia]], known as [[balakutak]], The dish is squid stir-fried with various spices and mixed with its ink.

In [[Sri Lanka]], [[hot butter cuttlefish]] (batter fried cuttlefish stir fried with butter, chilli flakes, capsicums, and spring onions) is a popular dish that can be found anywhere in the country, usually served as a starter together with drinks.

Cuttlefish are quite popular in Europe. For example, in northeast Italy, they are used in ''[[risotto]] al nero di seppia'' (risotto with cuttlefish ink), also found in Croatia and Montenegro as ''crni rižot'' (black risotto), and in various recipes (either grilled or stewed) often served together with [[polenta]]. [[Catalan cuisine]], especially that of the coastal regions, uses cuttlefish and squid ink in a variety of ''[[tapas]]'' and dishes such as ''[[arròs negre]]''. Breaded and deep-fried cuttlefish is a popular dish in [[Andalusia]]. In [[Portugal]], cuttlefish is present in many popular dishes. ''Chocos com tinta'' (cuttlefish in black ink), for example, is grilled cuttlefish in a sauce of its own ink. Cuttlefish is also popular in the region of [[Setúbal]], where it is served as deep-fried strips or in a variant of ''[[feijoada]]'', with white beans. Black pasta is often made using cuttlefish ink.

<gallery widths="120px" heights="120px" mode="packed">

File:El Hogar del Pescador Sepia a la Plancha.jpg|Cuttlefish with lemon (Spain)

File:ChopitosFritos.jpg|Fried baby cuttlefish (Spain)

File:Black Risotto.jpg|[[Risotto]] with cuttlefish ink (Italy)

File:Cuttlefish roe soup at Tongheju (20220114173107).jpg|Cuttlefish roe soup (China)

File:Cuttlefish ink sausages (20241026).jpg|Cuttlefish ink sausages (China)

</gallery>

====''Sepia''====

[[File:linguine with cuttlefish.jpg|thumb|[[Linguine]] with cuttlefish and ink sauce served at a Venetian [[osteria]]|alt=Three-sided white plate containing linguini]]

Cuttlefish ink was formerly an important dye, called [[Sepia (color)|sepia]]. To extract the sepia pigment from a cuttlefish (or squid), the ink sac is removed and dried then dissolved in a dilute alkali. The resulting solution is filtered to isolate the pigment, which is then precipitated with dilute [[hydrochloric acid]]. The isolated precipitate is the sepia pigment.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}} It is relatively chemically inert, which contributes to its longevity. Today, artificial dyes have mostly replaced natural sepia.

===Metal casting===

Cuttlebone has been used since antiquity to make casts for metal. A model is pushed into the cuttlebone and removed, leaving an impression. Molten gold, silver or pewter can then be poured into the cast.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hill|first=A. H.|date=Feb 1951|title=Kelantan Silverwork|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41502974|journal=Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume=24|issue=1 (154)|page=101-2|jstor=41502974 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ganoksin.com/borisat/nenam/cuttlefish-casting.htm|title=[Ganoksin] Cuttlefish Casting – Theory and Practice of Goldsmithing|website=www.ganoksin.com|access-date=2016-09-03}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Morris Bywater Limited|title=Cuttlefish Casting: The Making of a Gold Signet Ring|date=2014-02-26|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5V6hiF2LB5s |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/5V6hiF2LB5s |archive-date=2021-12-15 |url-status=live|access-date=2016-09-03}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

===Smart clothing===

Research into replicating biological color-changing has led to engineering artificial chromatophores out of small devices known as [[Dielectric elastomers|dielectric elastomer actuators]]. Engineers at the [[University of Bristol]] have engineered soft materials that mimic the color-changing skin of animals like cuttlefish,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Rossiter, Jonathan |author2=Yap, Bryan |author3=Conn, Andrew |year=2012 |title=Biomimetic chromatophores for camouflage and soft active surfaces |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=7 |page=036009 |bibcode=2012BiBi....7c6009R|pmid=22549047 |issue=3 |doi=10.1088/1748-3182/7/3/036009|s2cid=14392264 }}</ref> paving the way for "smart clothing" and camouflage applications.<ref>{{cite web|last=Anthes|first=Emily|title=Cuttlefish provide smart fashion tips|url=http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20120907-smart-fashion-tips-by-cuttlefish|publisher=BBC.com|date=12 September 2012}}</ref>

<!-- |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1748-3190/3/036009?fromSearchPage=true -->

===Pets===

Though cuttlefish are rarely kept as pets, due in part to their fairly short life spans, the most commonly kept are ''[[Sepia officinalis]]'' and ''[[Sepia bandensis]]''.<ref>[http://www.tonmo.com/community/categories/cephalopod-care-articles.96/ Ceph Care | TONMO.com: The Octopus News Magazine Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512224905/http://www.tonmo.com/community/categories/cephalopod-care-articles.96/ |date=2015-05-12 }}. TONMO.com. Retrieved on 2015-09-25.</ref> Cuttlefish may fight or even eat each other if there is inadequate tank space for multiple individuals.<ref name=":1" />

==See also==

*[[Cephalopod size]]

==References==

{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==

{{Commons category|Sepiida|<br />Sepiida<br />(Cuttlefish)}}

*[http://www.cephbase.dal.ca/spdb/genusgroup.cfm?Genus=Sepia Cephbase entry with full species list]

{{Wiktionary}}

*[http://www.dal.ca/~ceph/TCP/cuttle1.html Cuttlefish Husbandry] - cuttlefish as pets

*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFYX9D2RQUM YouTube video with examples of cuttlefish color and texture modulations]

[[Category:Cuttlefish| ]]

*{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/camo/ |title=Kings of Camouflage: Cuttlefish |work=[[Nova (American TV program)|NOVA]] |publisher=[[PBS]]}} <!--Episode EXPIRES: Wed 20 Jul 2016 -->

*[http://cephbase.eol.org The new CEPHBASE within the Encyclopedia of Life (EOL)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112225313/http://cephbase.eol.org/ |date=2016-01-12 }}

*[https://www.cuttlebase.org/ Cuttlefish brain map and genome]

{{Edible molluscs}}

[[de:Tintenfische]]

[[eo:Sepio]]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q135119}}

[[es:Sepia]]

{{Authority control}}

[[he:%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9F]]

[[ja:&#12452;&#12459;]]

[[Category:Sepiidae| ]]

[[nl:Zeekat (inktvis)]]

[[Category:Cuttlefish| ]]

[[Category:Commercial molluscs]]

[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

[[Category:Cenozoic cephalopods]]