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{{Short description|Physical hypothesis}}
'''Redshift quantization''', also referred to as '''redshift periodicity''',<ref>
{{cite journal |last=Tifft |first=W. G. |date=2006 |title=Redshift periodicities, The Galaxy-Quasar Connection |journal=[[Astrophysics and Space Science]] |volume=285 |issue=2 |pages=429–449 |bibcode=2003Ap&SS.285..429T |doi=10.1023/A:1025457030279|s2cid=120143840 }}</ref> '''redshift discretization''',<ref name=Karlsson>{{cite journal |last=Karlsson |first=K. G. |date=1970 |title=Possible Discretization of Quasar Redshifts |journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] |volume=13 |pages=333 |bibcode=1971A&A....13..333K }}</ref> '''preferred redshifts'''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arp |first1=H. |last2=Russel |first2=D. |date=2001 |title=A Possible Relationship between Quasars and Clusters of Galaxies |journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]] |volume=549 |issue=2 |pages=802 |bibcode=2001ApJ...549..802A |doi=10.1086/319438|s2cid=120014695 |quote=The clusters and the galaxies in them tend to be strong X-ray and radio emitters, and their redshifts occur at preferred redshift values.|doi-access=free }}</ref> and '''redshift-magnitude bands''',<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tifft |first=W. G. |date=1973 |title=Properties of the redshift-magnitude bands in the Coma cluster |journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]] |volume=179 |pages=29 |bibcode=1973ApJ...179...29T |doi=10.1086/151844}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nanni |first1=D. |last2=Pittella |first2=G. |last3=Trevese |first3=D. |last4=Vignato |first4=A. |date=1981 |title=An analysis of the redshift-magnitude band phenomenon in the Coma Cluster |journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] |volume=95 |issue=1 |pages=188 |bibcode=1981A&A....95..188N }}</ref> is the [[hypothesis]] that the [[redshift]]s of cosmologically distant objects (in particular [[galaxies]] and [[quasars]]) tend to cluster around multiples of some particular value
In [[inflation (cosmology)|standard inflationary cosmological models]], the redshift of cosmological bodies is ascribed to the expansion of the universe, with greater redshift indicating greater [[cosmic distance ladder|cosmic distance]] from the Earth (see [[Hubble's law]]). This is referred to as [[cosmological redshift]] and is one of the main pieces of evidence for the [[Big Bang]]. Quantized redshifts of objects would indicate, under Hubble's law, that astronomical objects are arranged in a quantized pattern around the Earth. It is more widely posited that the redshift is unrelated to cosmic expansion and is the outcome of some other physical mechanism, referred to as "intrinsic redshift" or "non-cosmological redshift".
In 1973, astronomer [[William G. Tifft]] was the first to report evidence of this pattern. Subsequent discourse focused upon whether [[redshift survey]]s of [[quasar]]s (QSOs) have produced evidence of quantization in excess of what is expected due to [[selection effect]] or [[galaxy cluster|galactic clustering]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Trimble |first1=V. |last2=Aschwanden |first2=M. J. |last3=Hansen |first3=C. J. |date=2007 |title=Astrophysics in 2006 |journal=[[Space Science Reviews]] |volume=132 |issue=1 |pages=1–182 |doi=10.1007/s11214-007-9224-0 |arxiv=0705.1730|bibcode = 2007SSRv..132....1T |s2cid=119570960 }}</ref><ref name="adsabs.harvard.edu">{{cite journal |last1= Bell |first1=M. B. |last2=McDiarmid |first2=D. |date=2006 |title=Six Peaks Visible in the Redshift Distribution of 46,400 SDSS Quasars Agree with the Preferred Redshifts Predicted by the Decreasing Intrinsic Redshift Model|journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]] |volume=648 |issue=1 |pages=140–147 |bibcode=2006ApJ...648..140B |doi=10.1086/503792|arxiv = astro-ph/0603169 |s2cid=17057129 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Godłowski |first1=W. |last2=Bajan |first2=K. |last3=Flin |first3=P.|date=2006 |title=Weak redshift discretisation in the Local Group of galaxies? |journal=[[Astronomische Nachrichten]] |volume=387 |issue=1 |pages=103 |bibcode=2006AN....327..103G |doi=10.1002/asna.200510477|arxiv = astro-ph/0511260 |s2cid=119388085 }}</ref><ref name=Tang>{{cite journal |last1=Tang |first1=S. M. |last2=Zhang |first2=S. N. |date=2005 |title=Critical Examinations of QSO Redshift Periodicities and Associations with Galaxies in Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data |journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]]|volume=633 |issue=1 |pages=41–51 |bibcode=2005ApJ...633...41T |doi=10.1086/432754 |arxiv=astro-ph/0506366|s2cid=119052857 }}</ref> The idea has been on the fringes of astronomy since the mid-1990s and is now discounted by the vast majority of astronomers, but a few scientists who espouse [[nonstandard cosmology|nonstandard cosmological models]], including those who reject the [[Big Bang]] theory, have referred to evidence of redshift quantization as reason to reject conventional accounts of the origin and evolution of the [[universe]].<ref>For examples, see references by nonstandard cosmology proponents▼
▲In 1973, astronomer [[William G. Tifft]] was the first to report evidence of this pattern. Subsequent discourse focused upon whether [[redshift survey]]s of [[quasar]]s (QSOs) have produced evidence of quantization in excess of what is expected due to [[selection effect]] or [[galaxy cluster|galactic clustering]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Trimble |first1=V. |last2=Aschwanden |first2=M. J. |last3=Hansen |first3=C. J. |date=2007 |title=Astrophysics in 2006 |journal=[[Space Science Reviews]] |volume=132 |issue=1 |pages=1–182 |doi=10.1007/s11214-007-9224-0 |arxiv=0705.1730|bibcode = 2007SSRv..132....1T |s2cid=119570960 }}</ref><ref name="adsabs.harvard.edu">{{cite journal |last1= Bell |first1=M. B. |last2=McDiarmid |first2=D. |date=2006 |title=Six Peaks Visible in the Redshift Distribution of 46,400 SDSS Quasars Agree with the Preferred Redshifts Predicted by the Decreasing Intrinsic Redshift Model|journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]] |volume=648 |issue=1 |pages=140–147 |bibcode=2006ApJ...648..140B |doi=10.1086/503792|arxiv = astro-ph/0603169 |s2cid=17057129 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Godłowski |first1=W. |last2=Bajan |first2=K. |last3=Flin |first3=P.|date=2006 |title=Weak redshift discretisation in the Local Group of galaxies? |journal=[[Astronomische Nachrichten]] |volume=387 |issue=1 |pages=103 |bibcode=2006AN....327..103G |doi=10.1002/asna.200510477|arxiv = astro-ph/0511260 |s2cid=119388085 }}</ref><ref name=Tang>{{cite journal |last1=Tang |first1=S. M. |last2=Zhang |first2=S. N. |date=2005 |title=Critical Examinations of QSO Redshift Periodicities and Associations with Galaxies in Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data |journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]]|volume=633 |issue=1 |pages=41–51 |bibcode=2005ApJ...633...41T |doi=10.1086/432754 |arxiv=astro-ph/0506366|s2cid=119052857 }}</ref> The idea has been on the fringes of astronomy since the mid-1990s and is now discounted by the vast majority of astronomers, but a few scientists who espouse [[nonstandard cosmology|nonstandard cosmological models]], including those who reject the
*{{cite journal | last1 = Ratcliffe| first1 = Hilton| date=2009| title = A Review of Anomalous Redshift Data| journal = 2nd Crisis in Cosmology Conference, CCC-2 ASP Conference Series | volume = 413| pages = 109| bibcode = 2009ASPC..413..109R}}
*{{cite journal|bibcode=1973ApJ...186....1B|doi = 10.1086/152474 | title=A Quantitative Alternative to the Cosmological Hypothesis for Quasars | journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=1973|volume=186|pages=1–21|first=Moley B.|last=Bell|doi-access=free}}
*{{cite journal|bibcode=1979AZh....56..232K| title=periodicity of quasar redshifts ln /1 + z/ | journal=Astronomicheskii Zhurnal|date=1979|volume=56|pages=232–236|first=A. Ia.|last=Kipper}}
*{{cite journal|bibcode=1986ApJ...301..544L|doi = 10.1086/163922 | title=Is the universe really expanding? | journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=1986|volume=301|pages=544|first=P. A.|last=Laviolette}}
*{{cite journal|bibcode=1980BAAS...12..852B| title=The Redshift Periodicity of QSO's and the Origin of Cosmic Radiation | journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society|date=1980|volume=12|pages=852|first1=J. M.|last1=Barnothy|first2=M. F.|last2=Barnothy |author-link2=Madeleine Barnothy Forro}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Arp |first1=H. |date=1998 |chapter=Quantization of Redshifts |chapter-url=http://redshift.vif.com/BookBlurbs/SeeingRedBlurb.htm |title=Seeing Red |publisher=C. Roy Keys Incorporated |isbn=978-0-9683689-0-9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061020112037/http://redshift.vif.com/BookBlurbs/SeeingRedBlurb.htm |archive-date=2006-10-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arp |first1=H. |date=1987 |title=Additional members of the Local Group of galaxies and quantized redshifts within the two nearest groups |journal=Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy |volume=8 |issue= 3|pages=241–255 |bibcode=1987JApA....8..241A
|doi=10.1007/BF02715046|s2cid=119819755 }}</ref>
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:"Using more than 200 redshifts in Coma, Perseus, and A2199, the presence of a distinct band-related periodicity in redshifts is indicated. Finally, a new sample of accurate redshifts of bright [[Coma cluster of galaxies|Coma galaxies]] on a single band is presented, which shows a strong redshift periodicity of 220 km s<sup>−1</sup>. An upper limit of 20 km s<sup>−1</sup> is placed on the internal Doppler redshift component of motion in the Coma cluster".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tifft |first=W. G. |title=Fine Structure Within the Redshift-Magnitude Correlation for Galaxies |editor-last=Shakeshaft |editor-first=J. R |journal=Proceedings of the 58th IAU Symposium: The Formation and Dynamics of Galaxies |volume=58 |pages=255–256 |bibcode=1974IAUS...58..243T |year=1974 }}</ref>
Tifft
:"Throughout the development of the program it has seemed increasingly clear that the redshift has properties inconsistent with a simple velocity and/or cosmic scale change interpretation. Various implications have been pointed out from time to time, but basically the work is observationally driven."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tifft |first=W .G. |date=1995 |title=Redshift Quantization - A Review |journal=[[Astrophysics and Space Science]] |volume=227 |issue=1–2 |pages=25–39 |bibcode=1995Ap&SS.227...25T |doi=10.1007/BF00678064|s2cid=189849264 }}</ref>
Line 46 ⟶ 48:
Studies performed in the 1980s and early 1990s produced confirmatory results:
#In 1989, Martin R. Croasdale reported finding a quantization of redshifts using a different sample of galaxies in increments of 72 km/s or Δ''z'' = {{val|2.4|e=-4}} (where Δ''z'' denotes shift in frequency expressed as a proportion of initial frequency).<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1989ApJ...345...72C|doi = 10.1086/167882 | title=Periodicities in galaxy redshifts | journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=1989 |volume=345 |pages=72 |first=Martin R. |last=Croasdale|doi-access=free }}</ref>
#In 1990, Bruce Guthrie and William Napier reported finding a "possible periodicity" of the same magnitude for a slightly larger data set limited to bright [[spiral galaxy|spiral galaxies]] and excluding other types.<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1990MNRAS.243..431G| title=The Virgo cluster as a test for quantization of extragalactic redshifts | journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |date=1990 |volume=243 |pages=431–442 |first1=B. N. G.|last1=Guthrie|first2=W. M.|last2=Napier}}</ref>
#In 1992, Guthrie and Napier proposed the observation of a different periodicity in increments of Δ''z'' = {{val|1.24|e=-4}} in a sample of 89 galaxies.<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1991MNRAS.253..533G|doi = 10.1093/mnras/253.3.533| title=Evidence for redshift periodicity in nearby field galaxies | journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |date=1991 |volume=253 |issue = 3|pages=533–544 |first1=B. N. G.|last1=Guthrie|first2=W. M.|last2=Napier|doi-access=free}}</ref>
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===Karlsson's formula===
Historically, K. G. Karlsson and G. R. Burbidge were first to note that quasar redshifts were quantized in accordance with the empirical formula<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Burbidge | first1 = G | year = 1968 | title = The Distribution of Redshifts in Quasi-Stellar Objects, N-Systems and Some Radio and Compact Galaxies | journal = [[Astrophysical Journal]] | volume = 154 | pages = L41–L48 | doi = 10.1086/180265 | bibcode=1968ApJ...154L..41B| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Karlsson | first1 = K. G. | year = 1990 | title=Quasar redshifts and nearby galaxies | journal = Astron Astrophys | volume = 239| pages = 50 | bibcode=1990A&A...239...50K}}</ref>
:<math>\log_{10}(1 + z) = 0.089n - 0.0632</math>
Line 75 ⟶ 77:
In 2002, Hawkins ''et al.'' found no evidence for redshift quantization in a sample of 1647 galaxy-quasar pairs from the [[2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey]]:
:"Given that there are almost eight times as many data points in this sample as in the previous analysis by Burbidge & Napier (2001), we must conclude that the previous detection of a periodic signal arose from the combination of noise and the effects of the window function."<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Hawkins|author2=Maddox|author3=Merrifield|title=No Periodicities in 2dF Redshift Survey Data|doi=10.1046/j.1365-8711.2002.05940.x|date=2002|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|volume=336|pages=L13–L16|issue=13|doi-access=free |arxiv=astro-ph/0208117|bibcode = 2002MNRAS.336L..13H |s2cid=6832490}}</ref>
In response, Napier and Burbidge (2003) argue that the methods employed by Hawkins ''et al.'' to remove noise from their samples amount to "excessive data smoothing" which could hide a true periodicity. They publish an alternate methodology for this that preserves the periodicity observed in earlier studies.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Napier|first1=W. M.|last2=Burbidge|first2=G. R.|title=The detection of periodicity in QSO data sets|date=2003|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|volume=342|pages=601–604|issue= 2|doi=10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06567.x |bibcode = 2003MNRAS.342..601N |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Line 85 ⟶ 87:
:"... fit very closely the long standing Karlsson formula and strongly suggest the existence of preferred values in the distribution of quasar redshifts."<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Arp| first1=H.| last2=Fulton| first2=C.| last3=Roscoe| first3=D.| title=Periodicities of Quasar Redshifts in Large Area Surveys|date=2005|arxiv=astro-ph/0501090 |bibcode = 2005astro.ph..1090A }}</ref>
A 2006 study of 46,400 quasars in the [[Sloan Digital Sky Survey|SDSS]] by Bell and McDiarmid discovered 6 peaks in the redshift distribution consistent with the decreasing intrinsic redshift (DIR) model.<ref name="adsabs.harvard.edu"/> However, Schneider ''et al.'' (2007) and Richards ''et al.'' (2006)
▲Schneider ''et al.'' (2007) and Richards ''et al.'' (2006) report that the periodicity reported by Bell and McDiarmid disappears after correcting for selection effects.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schneider | display-authors =etal | date=2007| title = The Sloan Digital Sky Survey Quasar Catalog. IV. Fifth Data Release| bibcode=2007AJ....134..102S | journal = The Astronomical Journal | volume = 134 | issue = 1| pages = 102–117 |doi = 10.1086/518474 |arxiv = 0704.0806 | s2cid =14359163 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Richards | first1 = G. T. | display-authors =etal | date=2006| title = The Sloan Digital Sky Survey Quasar Survey: Quasar Luminosity Function from Data Release 3| journal = The Astronomical Journal | volume = 131 | issue = 6 | pages = 2766–2787 |doi = 10.1086/503559 |arxiv = astro-ph/0601434 | bibcode=2006AJ....131.2766R| s2cid = 55346862 }}</ref> However, Bell and Comeau (2010) have since argued that this correction removes nearly half of the sample and does not explain how selection effects give rise to redshift peaks. The same study also concludes that a "filter gap footprint" renders it impossible to verify or falsify the presence of a true redshift peak at Δ''z'' = 0.60.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bell| first1 = M. B. | last2 = Comeau | first2 = S. P. | date=2010| title = Selection Effects in the SDSS Quasar Sample: The Filter Gap Footprint| journal = Astrophys Space Sci | volume = 326 | issue = 1| pages = 11–17 |doi = 10.1007/s10509-009-0232-2 |arxiv = 0911.5700 |bibcode = 2010Ap&SS.326...11B | s2cid = 118655062 }}</ref>
A 2006 review by Bajan ''et al.'' discovered weak effects of redshift periodization in data from the [[Local Group]] of galaxies and the [[Hercules Supercluster]]. They conclude that "galaxy redshift periodization is an effect which can really exist", but that the evidence is not well established pending study of larger databases.<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=2007PPNL....4....5B|arxiv=astro-ph/0606294 | title=On the Investigations of Galaxy Redshift Periodicity | journal=Physics of Particles and Nuclei Letters |date=2007 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=5–10 |first1=K. |last1=Bajan |first2=P. |last2=Flin |first3=W. |last3=Godlowski |first4=V. N. |last4=Pervushin |doi=10.1134/s1547477107010025|s2cid=15364493 }}</ref>
A 2007 [[absorption spectroscopy|absorption spectroscopic]] analysis of quasars by Ryabinkov ''et al.'' observed a pattern of statistically significant alternating peaks and dips in the redshift range Δ''z'' = 0.0 − 3.7, though they noted no statistical correlation between their findings and Karlsson's formula.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ryabinkov| first1 = A. I. | last2 = Kaminker| first2 = A. D. | last3 = Varshalovich| first3 = D. A. | date=2007| title = The redshift distribution of absorption-line systems in QSO spectra| journal = Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. | volume = 376| issue = 4 | pages = 1838–18481 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11567.x | doi-access = free | bibcode=2007MNRAS.376.1838R|arxiv = astro-ph/0703277 | s2cid = 16270925 }}</ref>
==References==
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