Practice (learning method): Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Act of rehearsing a behaviour repeatedly}}

{{EngvarB|date=June 2021}}

{{Distinguish|Praxis (process)}}

'''Practice''' is the act of rehearsing a behavior repeatedly, to help [[Learning|learn]] and eventually master a [[skill]]. Sessions scheduled for the purpose of rehearsing and performance improvement are called '''practices'''. They are engaged in by sports teams, bands, individuals, etc., as in, "He went to football practice every day after school".

In [[British English]], ''practice'' is the [[noun]] and ''practise'' is the [[verb]], but in [[American English]] it is now common for ''practice'' to be used both as a noun and a verb (see [[American and British English spelling differences#-ce, -se|American and British English spelling differences]]; this article follows the BritishAmerican distinctionconventions).

'''Practice''' is the act of rehearsing a behaviour repeatedly, to help [[Learning|learn]] and eventually master a [[skill]]. The word derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] "πρακτική" (''praktike''), feminine of "πρακτικός" (''praktikos''), "fit for or concerned with action, practical",<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpraktiko%2Fs πρακτικός], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from the verb "πράσσω" (''prasso''), "to achieve, bring about, effect, accomplish".<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpra%2Fssw πράσσω], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>

==Etymology==

In [[British English]], ''practice'' is the [[noun]] and ''practise'' is the verb, but in [[American English]] it is now common for ''practice'' to be used both as a noun and a verb (see [[American and British English spelling differences#-ce, -se|American and British English spelling differences]]; this article follows the British distinction).

The word "''practice'Practice''' is the act of rehearsing a behaviour repeatedly, to help [[Learning|learn]] and eventually master a [[skill]]. The word" derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] "πρακτική" (''praktike''), feminine of "πρακτικός" (''praktikos''), "fit for or concerned with action, practical",<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpraktiko%2Fs πρακτικός], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from the verb "πράσσω" (''prasso''), "to achieve, bring about, effect, accomplish".<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpra%2Fssw πράσσω], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>

Sessions scheduled for the purpose of rehearsing and performance improvement are called '''practices'''. They are engaged in by sports teams, bands, individuals, etc., as in, "He went to football practice every day after school".

==Common types==

[[File:Eduardo Martín from Diez Negritos.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[musician]] practisingpracticing his instrument.]]

{{More citations needed section|date=July 2011}}

[[File:ANCOP officers.jpg|thumb|ANCOP officer cadets practisepractice detaining an armed insurgent at the Mazar-e Sharif Regional Training Center on December 12, 2010.]]

[[File:Eduardo Martín from Diez Negritos.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[musician]] practising his instrument.]]

[[File:ANCOP officers.jpg|thumb|ANCOP officer cadets practise detaining an armed insurgent at the Mazar-e Sharif Regional Training Center on December 12, 2010.]]

Some common ways practice is applied:

*To learn how to play a [[musical instrument]] ([[musical technique]])<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ericsson |first1=K. Anders |last2=Krampe |first2=Ralf T. |last3=Tesch-Römer |first3=Clemens |date=1993 |title=The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. |url=https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295x.100.3.363 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=363–406 |doi=10.1037/0033-295x.100.3.363 |issn=0033-295X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

*To learn how to play a [[musical instrument]] ([[musical technique]])

*To improve athletic or team performance<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9780511816796/type/book |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance |date=2006-06-26 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-84097-2 |editor-last=Ericsson |editor-first=K. Anders |edition=1 |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511816796 |editor-last2=Charness |editor-first2=Neil |editor-last3=Feltovich |editor-first3=Paul J. |editor-last4=Hoffman |editor-first4=Robert R.}}</ref>

*To improve athletic or team performance

*To prepare for a public performance within the performing arts

*To improve [[Reading (activity)|reading]], [[writing]], [[interpersonal communication]], [[typing]], [[grammar]], and [[spelling]]

*To enhance or refine a newly acquired skill<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Ericsson |first1=K. A. |last2=Lehmann |first2=A. C. |date=1996 |title=EXPERT AND EXCEPTIONAL PERFORMANCE: Evidence of Maximal Adaptation to Task Constraints |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.273 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=273–305 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.273 |pmid=15012483 |issn=0066-4308|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

*To enhance or refine a newly acquired skill

*To maintain skill<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anders Ericsson |first=K. |date=2008 |title=Deliberate Practice and Acquisition of Expert Performance: A General Overview |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1553-2712.2008.00227.x |journal=Academic Emergency Medicine |language=en |volume=15 |issue=11 |pages=988–994 |doi=10.1111/j.1553-2712.2008.00227.x |issn=1069-6563|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

*To maintain skill

*To learn martial arts; [[kata]] and [[sparring]] are common forms of practice

*To master tasks associated with one's occupation (e.g. a cashier using a [[Point of sale system|POS system]])

How well one improves with practice depends on several factors, such as the frequency it is engaged in, and the type of feedback that is available for improvement.<ref name=":3" /> If feedback is not appropriate (either from an instructor or from self-reference to an information source), then the practice tends to be ineffective or even detrimental to learning.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Rousmaniere |first=Tony |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781003400622 |title=Deliberate Practice for Psychotherapists: A Guide to Improving Clinical Effectiveness |date=2024-07-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-003-40062-2 |edition=2 |___location=New York |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781003400622}}</ref> If a student does not practisepractice often enough, reinforcement fades, and he or she is likely to forget what was learned. Therefore, practice is often scheduled, to ensure enough of it is performed to reach one's training objectives. How much practice is required depends upon the nature of the activity, and upon each individual. Some people improve on a particular activity faster than others. Practice in an instructional setting may be effective if repeated only 1 time (for some simple verbal information) or 3 times (for concepts), or it may be practisedpracticed many times before evaluation (a dance movement).<ref name=":4" />

==Deliberate practice==

Psychologist [[K. Anders Ericsson]], a professor of Psychology at [[Florida State University]], was a pioneer in researching deliberate practice and what it means.<ref name=":5" /> According to Ericsson:

<blockquote>People believe that because expert performance is qualitatively different from a normal performance the expert performer must be endowed with characteristics qualitatively different from those of normal adults. [...] We agree that expert performance is qualitatively different from normal performance and even that expert performers have characteristics and abilities that are qualitatively different from or at least outside the range of those of normal adults. However, we deny that these differences are immutable, that is, due to innate talent. Only a few exceptions, most notably height, are genetically prescribed. Instead, we argue that the differences between expert performers and normal adults reflect a life-long period of deliberate effort to improve performance in a specific ___domain.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Ericsson |first1=K. Anders |last2=Krampe |first2=Ralf T. |last3=Tesch-Römer |first3=Clemens |title=The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. |journal=Psychological Review |date=July 1993 |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=363–406 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363 |citeseerx=10.1.1.169.9712 |s2cid=11187529 }}</ref></blockquote>

One of Ericsson's core findings was that how expert one becomes at a skill has more to do with how one practisespractices than with merely performing a skill a large number of times. An expert breaks down the skills that are required to be expert and focuses on improving those skill chunks during practice or day-to-day activities, often paired with immediate coaching feedback. Another important feature of deliberate practice lies in continually practisingpracticing a skill at more challenging levels with the intention of mastering it.<ref name="Mayer, R. E. 2008">Mayer, R. E. (2008). ''Learning and Instruction.'' Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.{{pn|date=January 2023}}</ref> Deliberate practice is also discussed in the books ''Talent is Overrated'' by [[Geoff Colvin]],<ref>Geoff Colvin, ''Talent is Overrated: What Really Separates World-Class Performers from Everybody Else''</ref> and ''The Talent Code'' by Daniel Coyle,<ref>Daniel Coyle, ''The Talent Code: Greatness Isn't Born. It's Grown. Here's How''</ref> among others. This includes, ''Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance,'' by [[Angela Duckworth]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Grit : the power of passion and perseverance|last=Angela|first=Duckworth|date=3 May 2016|publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1501111105|oclc=953827740}}</ref> and ''[[Outliers: The Story of Success]],'' by [[Malcolm Gladwell]].,<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Gladwell, Malcolm |url=https://archive.org/details/outliersstoryofs00glad |title=Featured book review : Outliers.|author1=Gladwell, Malcolm|last2=Summaries. |first2=Soundview Executive Book |date=2009-01-01 |publisher=[Soundview Executive Book Summaries] |isbn=978-0316017923 |oclc=605428328 |url-access=registration}}</ref> and ''Deliberate Practice for Psychotherapists'', by Tony Rousmaniere.<ref name=":6" />

Ericsson also believes that some anatomical characteristics were believed to be fixed traits in the past. Genes rarely dictate what traits will be. However, his study has proven that the characteristics have the ability to change and adapt in response to intense practice over multiple years. Ericsson's statements on practice also support the 10 year rule. Ericsson believes that elite performance is the product of maximal effort over at least a decade. The maximal effort is described as using deliberate practice in order to improve performance.<ref name=":0" />

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Duckworth describes how deliberate practice affects education, motivation, and learning outcomes.<ref name=":1" /> In a presentation she gave at the American Educational Research Conference in 2014,<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aera.net/Events-Meetings/Annual-Meeting/Previous-Annual-Meetings/2014-Annual-Meeting/2014-Annual-Meeting-Webcasts/-Noncognitive-Factors-Affecting-Student-Success|title=Noncognitive Factors Affecting Student Success|website=www.aera.net|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-25}}</ref> she spoke about the importance of grit – of students' focusing on material with which they struggle. In her view, grit allows a student to persevere and succeed in the face of adversity. Duckworth says that if a student can apply grit in their academic work, their effort will increase. Duckworth says that effort is equally important as talent in achieving academic goals. In a study she conducted at the National Spelling Bee in Washington, D.C, she found that the students who used the grit tactic tended to advance to the finals.<ref name=":2" />

Two recent articles in ''[[Current Directions in Psychological Science]]'' criticisecriticize deliberate practice and argue that, while it is necessary for reaching high levels of performance, it is not sufficient, with other factors such as talent being important as well.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Campitelli |first1=Guillermo |last2=Gobet |first2=Fernand |title=Deliberate Practice: Necessary But Not Sufficient |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |date=October 2011 |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=280–285 |doi=10.1177/0963721411421922 |s2cid=145572294 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hambrick |first1=David Z. |last2=Meinz |first2=Elizabeth J. |title=Limits on the Predictive Power of Domain-Specific Experience and Knowledge in Skilled Performance |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |date=October 2011 |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=275–279 |doi=10.1177/0963721411422061 |s2cid=16690524 }}</ref> More recently, a meta-analysis found the correlation coefficient between deliberate practice and performance was 0.40, the size of which is large compared to other predictor variables (e.g. obesity, excessive drinking, smoking, intelligence, adherence to effective medication).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Scott D. |last2=Chow |first2=Daryl |last3=Wampold |first3=Bruce E. |last4=Hubble |first4=Mark A. |last5=Del Re |first5=A. C. |last6=Maeschalck |first6=Cynthia |last7=Bargmann |first7=Susanne |title=To be or not to be (an expert)? Revisiting the role of deliberate practice in improving performance |journal=High Ability Studies |date=2 January 2020 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=5–15 |doi=10.1080/13598139.2018.1519410 |s2cid=149904631 }}</ref> In addition, Malcolm Gladwell's point-of-view about deliberate practice is different from Ericsson's view. Gladwell, staff writer at ''The New Yorker'' magazine and author of five books on The New York Times Best Seller list including ''Outliers: The Story of Success'' said in a May 2016 [[Freakonomics]] podcast interview, thathe said, "He's [Ericsson] a hard practice guy, and I'm a soft practice guy." Gladwell claims that talent is important with an intentional dedication to practice and having a support system is vital to produce superior outcomes. It is not all about methodical effort as Ericsson claims. In Malcolm Gladwell's book, one chapter is called "The Matthew Effect."

This effect describes how different biases can affect an individual's performance. When someone is practicingpractising a skill, especially with deliberate practice, coaches play an important role in how their practices go. If a coach sets high expectations and encourages their learners, the individual is more likely to take more from practice and perform better. The role of coaches is important during deliberate practice. Coaches can strengthen desired behaviors through encouragement, positive reinforcement, and technical instruction. Fostering a positive learning environment through deliberate practice is key for all individuals involved. It is also important for coaches to lay out their practices with specific skill training, variable practice, and training of open and closed skills. These factors lead to an intentional, deliberate practice, which ultimately leads to better learning and performance.{{or|date=July 2025}}

According to the American Psychological Association, the purpose of deliberate practice is to achieve high levels of expert performance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brabeck |first1=Mary |last2=Jeffrey |first2=Jill |last3=Fry |first3=Sara |title=Practice for Knowledge Acquisition (Not Drill and Kill): (501912017-001) |doi=10.1037/e501912017-001 }}</ref> Studies also show that due to deliberate practice, an individual will experience high achievement. This is due to memory, cognition, practice, persistence, and muscle response that all improves through deliberate practice.

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Practice changes the human body physically and psychologically as it increases in skill level. Skills that are learned through deliberate practice are specific and time spent practicing is crucial for the individual. If an individual spent a short amount of time with high intensity during practice, they are not as likely to succeed as an individual with a long-term commitment to the practice and skill.

According to Ericsson, a practice session needs to follow these criteria in order to be considered "deliberate":

To be considered deliberate practice, the individual should be engaging in full concentration, authorities and coaches are giving feedback, the individual is analyzing the feedback, and then the individual repeats the skill and practice over and over. During the repetition, the individual is making refinements to what they need to correct according to their feedback.

# The task should be well defined, with a clear goal, and should be completely understood by the student.

# The student should be able to do the task by himself.

# The student should be able to access immediate feedback about his performance, so they can make the changes needed to improve.

# The student should be able to replicate the tasks or similar tasks repeatedly.

# The task must be designed by a teacher and must be performed following a clear instruction by the teacher.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ericsson |first=K. Anders |date=2021-04-01 |title=Given that the detailed original criteria for deliberate practice have not changed, could the understanding of this complex concept have improved over time? A response to Macnamara and Hambrick (2020) |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-020-01368-3 |journal=Psychological Research |language=en |volume=85 |issue=3 |pages=1114–1120 |doi=10.1007/s00426-020-01368-3 |issn=1430-2772 |pmc=8049893 |pmid=32583127}}</ref>

If the practice session follows all the criteria except for the last one, then, according to Ericsson, should be called "purposeful practice".

== Rebuttal to the 10,000 hour rule ==

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==Behavioral versus cognitive theories of deliberate practice==

Behavioral theory would argue that deliberate practice is facilitated by feedback from an expert that allows for successful approximation of the target performance. Feedback from an expert allows the learner to minimiseminimize errors and frustration that results from trial-and-error attempts. Behavioral theory does not require delivery of rewards for accurate performance; the expert feedback in combination with the accurate performance serve as the consequences that establish and maintain the new performance.

In cognitive theory, excellent performance results from practisingpracticing complex tasks that produce errors. Such errors provide the learner with rich feedback that results in scaffolding for future performance. Cognitive theory explains how a learner can become an expert (or someone who has mastered a ___domain).<ref name="Mayer, R. E. 2008"/>

==Motivation==

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==Deliberate practice in medical education==

Deliberate practice is used in medical education.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McGaghie |first=William C. |date=2017-04-11 |chapter=Advances in Medical Education from Mastery Learning and Deliberate Practice |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119165590.ch12 |journal=The Cycle of Excellence |pages=249–264 |doi=10.1002/9781119165590.ch12|isbn=978-1-119-16556-9 |chapter-url-access=subscription }}</ref> Duvivier et al. reconstructed the concept of deliberate practice into practical principles to describe the process as it relates to clinical skill acquisition. They defined deliberate practice as:

#repetitive performance of intended cognitive or psychomotor skills.

#rigorous skills assessment

#specific information feedback

#better skills performance''<ref name="Duvivier_2011">{{cite journal |last1=Duvivier |first1=Robbert J |last2=van Dalen |first2=Jan |last3=Muijtjens |first3=Arno M |last4=Moulaert |first4=Véronique RMP |last5=van der Vleuten |first5=Cees PM |last6=Scherpbier |first6=Albert JJA |title=The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of clinical skills |journal=BMC Medical Education |date=December 2011 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=101 |doi=10.1186/1472-6920-11-101 |pmid=22141427 |pmc=3293754 |s2cid=684799 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

They further described the personal skills learners need to exhibit at various stages of skill development in order to be successful in developing their clinical skills. This includes:

#planning (organiseorganize work in a structured way).

#concentration/dedication (higher attention span)

#repetition/revision (strong tendency to practisepractice)

#study style/self reflection (tendency to self-regulate learning)''<ref name="Duvivier_2011"/>

While the study only included medical students, the authors found that repetitious practice may only help the novice learner (year 1) because as expertise is developed, the learner must focus and plan their learning around specific deficiencies. Curriculum must be designed to develop students' ability to plan their learning as they progress in their careers.

Finally, the findings in the study also have implications for developing self-regulated behavioursbehaviors in students. Initially, a medical student may need focused feedback from instructors; however, as they progress, they must develop the ability to self-assess.

In an article by Susan Howick, the idea of using mixed method practice in the medical field could be proven to be beneficial for practitioners and researchers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Howick |first1=Susan |last2=Ackermann |first2=Fran |last3=Walls |first3=Lesley |last4=Quigley |first4=John |last5=Houghton |first5=Tom |title=Learning from mixed OR method practice: The NINES case study |journal=Omega |date=June 2017 |volume=69 |pages=70–81 |doi=10.1016/j.omega.2016.08.003 |url=https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/57316/1/Howick_etal_Omega2016_Learning_from_mixed_OR_method_practice.pdf }}</ref>

==Deliberate practice in mental health education==

Deliberate practice is used in mental health education. More than 20 peer-reviewed empirical [https://sentio.org/dpresearch studies] and two literature reviews have investigated the process and outcomes of deliberate practice in supervision.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nurse |first1=Karina |last2=O’Shea |first2=Melissa |last3=Ling |first3=Mathew |last4=Castle |first4=Nathan |last5=Sheen |first5=Jade |date=2025-04-03 |title=The influence of deliberate practice on skill performance in therapeutic practice: A systematic review of early studies |journal=Psychotherapy Research |language=en |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=353–367 |doi=10.1080/10503307.2024.2308159 |issn=1050-3307|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mahon |first=Daryl |date=2023 |title=A scoping review of deliberate practice in the acquisition of therapeutic skills and practices |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/capr.12601 |journal=Counselling and Psychotherapy Research |language=en |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=965–981 |doi=10.1002/capr.12601 |issn=1473-3145|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A 2024 review outlined two principal models of deliberate practice training for mental health professionals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clements-Hickman |first1=Alyssa L. |last2=Harris |first2=Kevin R. |date=2024 |title=Deliberate practice for psychotherapy skills: Recommendations and implications based on the state of the science. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/pro0000592 |journal=Professional Psychology: Research and Practice |language=en |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=563–572 |doi=10.1037/pro0000592 |issn=1939-1323|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The Better Results model, developed by Scott Miller, Mark Hubble, and Daryl Chow, leverages data from [[Feedback Informed Treatment]] to steer deliberate practice efforts.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Scott D. |url=https://content.apa.org/books/16160-000 |title=Better results: Using deliberate practice to improve therapeutic effectiveness. |last2=Hubble |first2=Mark A. |last3=Chow |first3=Daryl |date=2020 |publisher=American Psychological Association |isbn=978-1-4338-3190-4 |___location=Washington |language=en |doi=10.1037/0000191-000}}</ref> The [https://sentio.org/innovation Sentio Supervision Model], created by the Sentio University Marriage and Family Therapy program in California, combines psychotherapy skill rehearsal with clinical videos and outcome data.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vaz |first=Alexandre |date=2024 |title=Time to Rethink Psychotherapy Training and Supervision: Deliberate Practice as a Missing Ingredient in our Field |url=https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.sepiweb.org/resource/resmgr/integrative_therapist/integrative_therapist-v10-1.pdf |journal=The Integrative Therapist |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=17–24}}</ref>

== Deliberate practice versus physical preparation ==