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In [[cognitive neuroscience]], '''visual modularity''' is an organizational concept concerning how [[Visual perception|vision]] works. The way in which the [[primate]] [[visual system]] operates is currently under intense scientific scrutiny. One dominant thesis is that different properties of the visual world ([[color]], [[Motion (physics)|motion]], [[shape|form]] and so forth) require different computational solutions which are implemented in anatomically/functionally distinct regions that operate independently – that is, in a modular fashion.<ref name="calpar1">{{cite
==Motion processing==
[[Akinetopsia]], a term coined by Semir Zeki,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=ZEKI|first=S.|title=Cerebral Akinetopsia (Visual Motion Blindness)|date=1991-04-01|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/114.2.811|journal=Brain|volume=114|issue=2|pages=811–824|doi=10.1093/brain/114.2.811|pmid=2043951|issn=0006-8950|url-access=subscription}}</ref> refers to an intriguing condition brought about by damage to the [[Extrastriate cortex]] MT+ (also known as area V5) that renders [[humans]] and [[monkeys]] unable to perceive motion, seeing the world in a series of static "frames" instead<ref name="zihl1">{{cite journal|vauthors=Zihl J, von Cramon D, Mai N, Schmid C |year=1991|title=Disturbance of movement vision after bilateral posterior brain damage|journal=Brain|issue=144|doi=10.1093/brain/114.5.2235|pages=2235–2252|volume=114|pmid=1933243}}</ref><ref name="zihl2">{{cite journal|last=Zihl|first=J. |author2=von Cramon, D.Y. |author3=Mai, N.|year=1983|title=Selective disturbances of movement vision after bilateral brain damage|journal=Brain|issue=2|doi=10.1093/brain/106.2.525-a|pages=313–340|volume=106}}</ref><ref name=Hess1989>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hess RH, Baker CL, Zihl J |title=The "motion-blind" patient: low-level spatial and temporal filters |journal=J. Neurosci. |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=1628–40 |year=1989 |pmid=2723744 |doi= 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.09-05-01628.1989|doi-access=free |pmc=6569833 }}</ref><ref name=Baker1991>{{cite journal | title=Residual motion perception in a" motion-blind" patient, assessed with limited-lifetime random dot stimuli | vauthors=Baker CL, Hess RF, Zihl J | journal=Journal of Neuroscience | year=1991 | volume=11 | issue=2 | pages=454–461 | pmid=1992012| doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.11-02-00454.1991 | doi-access=free | pmc=6575225 }}</ref> and indicates that there might be a "motion centre" in the brain. Of course, such data can only indicate that this area is at least necessary to motion perception, not that it is sufficient; however, other evidence has shown the importance of this area to primate motion perception. Specifically, physiological, neuroimaging, perceptual, electrical- and [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] evidence (Table 1) all come together on the area V5/hMT+. Converging evidence of this type is supportive of a module for motion processing. However, this view is likely to be incomplete: other areas are involved with [[motion perception]], including V1,<ref name="orban1">{{cite journal|last=Orban|first=G.A.|author2=Kennedy, H. |author3=Bullier, J. |year=1986|title=Velocity sensitivity and direction selectivity of neurons in areas V1 and V2 of the monkey: influence of eccentricity|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|volume=56|issue=2|doi=10.1016/j.jphysparis.2004.03.004|pages=462–480|pmid=3760931|s2cid=26116687 }}</ref><ref name="mov1">{{cite journal|last=Movshon|first=J.A.|author2=Newsome, W.T. |year=1996|title=Visual response properties of striate cortical neurons projecting to area MT in macaque monkeys|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=16|issue=23|pages=7733–7741|pmid=8922429|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.16-23-07733.1996|pmc=6579106|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Born|first=R.T.|author2=Bradley, D.C. |year=2005|title=Structure and function of visual area MT|journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience|volume=28|pages=157–189|pmid=16022593|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131052}}</ref> V2 and V3a <ref>{{cite journal|last=Grill-Spector|first=K.|author2=Malach, R. |year=2004|title=The Human Visual Cortex|journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience|volume=27|pages=649–677|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144220|pmid=15217346}}</ref> and areas surrounding V5/hMT+ (Table 2). A recent fMRI study put the number of motion areas at twenty-one.<ref name="stiers">{{cite journal|vauthors=Stiers P, Peeters R, Lagae L, Van Hecke P, Sunaert S |title=Mapping multiple visual areas in the human brain with a short fMRI sequence|journal=NeuroImage|date=Jan 1, 2006|volume=29|issue=1|pages=74–89|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.07.033|pmid=16154766|s2cid=24485857 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Clearly, this constitutes a stream of diverse anatomical areas. The extent to which this is ‘pure’ is in question: with Akinetopsia come severe difficulties in obtaining structure from motion.<ref name=rizzo>{{cite journal|last=Rizzo|first=Matthew|author2-link=Mark Nawrot|author2=Nawrot, Mark |author3=Zihl, Josef |title=Motion and shape perception in cerebral akinetopsia|journal=Brain|date=1 January 1995|volume=118|issue=5|pages=1105–1127|doi=10.1093/brain/118.5.1105|pmid=7496774}}</ref> [[V5/hMT+]] has since been implicated in this function<ref name=grunewald>{{cite journal|last=Grunewald|first=A|author2=Bradley, DC |author3=Andersen, RA |title=Neural correlates of structure-from-motion perception in macaque V1 and MT|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|date=Jul 15, 2002|volume=22|issue=14|pages=6195–207|pmid=12122078|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.22-14-06195.2002|pmc=6757912|doi-access=free}}</ref> as well as determining depth.<ref name=angelis>{{cite journal|last=DeAngelis|first=GC|author2=Cumming, BG |author3=Newsome, WT |title=Cortical area MT and the perception of stereoscopic depth|journal=Nature|date=Aug 13, 1998|volume=394|issue=6694|pages=677–80|doi=10.1038/29299|pmid=9716130|bibcode=1998Natur.394..677D |s2cid=4419753 }}</ref> Thus the current evidence suggests that motion processing occurs in a modular stream, although with a role in form and depth perception at higher levels.
{| class="wikitable"
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| [[Psychophysics]]
| [[Perceptual asynchrony]] among motion, color and orientation.
| <ref name=moutoussis1>{{cite journal|last=Moutoussis|first=K.|author2=Zeki, S. |title=A direct demonstration of perceptual asynchrony in vision|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|date=22 March 1997|volume=264|issue=1380|pages=393–399|doi=10.1098/rspb.1997.0056|pmid=9107055|pmc=1688275}}</ref><ref name=viviani>{{cite journal|last=Viviani|first=Paolo|author2=Aymoz, Christelle |title=Colour, form, and movement are not perceived simultaneously|journal=Vision Research|date=1 October 2001|volume=41|issue=22|pages=2909–2918|doi=10.1016/S0042-6989(01)00160-2|pmid=11701183|doi-access=
|}
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| posterior parts of the superior temporal sulcus (PITd)
| <ref name=conway>{{cite journal|last=Conway|first=B. R.|author2=Tsao, DY |title=Color Architecture in Alert Macaque Cortex Revealed by fMRI|journal=Cerebral Cortex|date=22 December 2005|volume=16|issue=11|pages=1604–1613|doi=10.1093/cercor/bhj099|pmid=16400160|pmc=9100861 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
|-
| Area in or near TEO
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| Link between [[Visual perception|vision]], [[attention]] and [[cognition]]
| <ref name=chelazzi>{{cite journal|last=Chelazzi|first=L|author2=Miller, EK |author3=Duncan, J |author4= Desimone, R |title=Responses of neurons in macaque area V4 during memory-guided visual search|journal=Cerebral Cortex|date=Aug 2001|volume=11|issue=8|pages=761–72|doi=10.1093/cercor/11.8.761|pmid=11459766|doi-access=
|}
== Form processing ==
Another clinical case that would a priori suggest a module for modularity in visual processing is [[visual agnosia]]. The well studied patient DF is unable to recognize or discriminate objects<ref name=mishkin>{{cite journal|last=Mishkin|first=Mortimer|author2=Ungerleider, Leslie G. |author3=Macko, Kathleen A. |title=Object vision and spatial vision: two cortical pathways|journal=Trends in Neurosciences|year=1983|volume=6|pages=414–417|doi=10.1016/0166-2236(83)90190-X|s2cid=15565609 }}</ref> owing to damage in areas of the lateral occipital cortex although she can see scenes without problem – she can literally see the forest but not the trees.<ref name=steeves>{{cite journal|last=Steeves|first=Jennifer K.E.|author2=Culham, Jody C. |author3=Duchaine, Bradley C. |author4=Pratesi, Cristiana Cavina |author5=Valyear, Kenneth F. |author6=Schindler, Igor |author7=Humphrey, G. Keith |author8=Milner, A. David |author9= Goodale, Melvyn A. |title=The fusiform face area is not sufficient for face recognition: Evidence from a patient with dense prosopagnosia and no occipital face area|journal=Neuropsychologia|year=2006|volume=44|issue=4|pages=594–609|doi=10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.06.013|pmid=16125741|s2cid=460887 |url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6186/1/6186.pdf}}</ref> [[Neuroimaging]] of intact individuals reveals strong occipito-temporal activation during object presentation and greater activation still for object recognition.<ref name=grillspector>{{cite journal|last=Grill-Spector|first=Kalanit|author2=Ungerleider, Leslie G. |author3=Macko, Kathleen A. |title=The neural basis of object perception|journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology|year=2003|volume=13|issue=3|pages=159–166|doi=10.1016/S0959-4388(03)00060-6|pmid=12744968|s2cid=54383849 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Of course, such activation could be due to other processes, such as visual attention. However, other evidence that shows a tight coupling of [[perceptual]] and [[physiological]] changes<ref name=sheinberg>{{cite journal|last=Sheinberg|first=DL|author2=Logothetis, NK |title=Noticing familiar objects in real world scenes: the role of temporal cortical neurons in natural vision|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|date=Feb 15, 2001|volume=21|issue=4|pages=1340–50|pmid=11160405|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-04-01340.2001|pmc=6762229|doi-access=free}}</ref> suggests activation in this area does underpin object recognition. Within these regions are more specialized areas for face or fine grained analysis,<ref name=gauthier>{{cite journal|last=Gauthier|first=I|author2=Skudlarski, P |author3=Gore, JC |author4= Anderson, AW |title=Expertise for cars and birds recruits brain areas involved in face recognition|journal=Nature Neuroscience|date=Feb 2000|volume=3|issue=2|pages=191–7|doi=10.1038/72140|pmid=10649576|s2cid=15752722}}</ref> place perception<ref name=epstein>{{cite journal|last=Epstein|first=R|author2=Kanwisher, N |title=A cortical representation of the local visual environment|journal=Nature|date=Apr 9, 1998|volume=392|issue=6676|pages=598–601|doi=10.1038/33402|pmid=9560155|bibcode=1998Natur.392..598E|s2cid=920141}}</ref> and human body perception.<ref name=downing>{{cite journal|last=Downing|first=PE|author2=Jiang, Y |author3=Shuman, M |author4= Kanwisher, N |title=A cortical area selective for visual processing of the human body|journal=Science|date=Sep 28, 2001|volume=293|issue=5539|pages=2470–3|doi=10.1126/science.1063414|pmid=11577239|bibcode=2001Sci...293.2470D |citeseerx=10.1.1.70.6526|s2cid=1564641 }}</ref> Perhaps some of the strongest evidence for the modular nature of these processing systems is the [[double dissociation]] between object- and face (prosop-) agnosia. However, as with color and motion, early areas (see <ref name=pasupathy/> for a comprehensive review) are implicated too, lending support to the idea of a multistage stream terminating in the inferotemporal cortex rather than an isolated module.
== Functional modularity ==
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