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{{Short description|Theory of developmental psychology}}
'''Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs''' is a theory in [[psychology]] that [[Abraham Maslow]] proposed in his [[1943]] paper ''A Theory of Human Motivation'', which he subsequently extended to include his observations of man's innate curiosity. His theory contends that as [[human]]s meet 'basic needs', they seek to satisfy successively 'higher needs' that occupy a set [[hierarchy]]. Maslow studied exemplary people such as [[Albert Einstein]], [[Jane Addams]], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], and [[Frederick Douglass]] rather than [[mentally ill]] or [[neurotic]] people, writing that "the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a cripple psychology and a cripple philosophy."<ref name = "Motivation">''Motivation and Personality'', 1987.</ref>
{{Psychology sidebar|concepts}}
{{Sociology}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2023}}
[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Diagram.png|alt=Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, based on his original 1943 Paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" and later clarifications. It depicts the five levels as: Level 1: Physiological. Air, Water, Food, Shelter (e.g. Housing, protection from exposure), Clothing, Sleep, Reproduction; Level 2: Safety Needs. Personal Security, Financial Security, Health and Wellbeing, Safety Nets (laws, insurance, emergency services), Stable Environment; Level 3: Love and Belonging. Family, Friendship, Romantic Relationships, Community, Group Membership, Affection and Intimacy; Level 4: Esteem. Self Respect, Respect from Others, Confidence, Recognition of Achievement, Reputation; Level 5: Self Actualisation. Creativity, Personal Growth, Moral Development, Pursuit of Meaning, Purpose Driven Action, Peak Experiences (intense moments of joy, insight, or transcendence)|thumb|333x333px|An interpretation of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Represented as a pyramid, with the most basic needs at the bottom, and the least basic at the top.]]
'''Maslow's hierarchy of needs''' is a conceptualisation of the needs (or goals) that motivate [[human behaviour]], which was proposed by the American psychologist [[Abraham Maslow]].{{sfn|Maslow|1943}}{{sfn|Maslow|1954}} According to Maslow's original formulation, there are five sets of [[basic needs]] that are related to each other in a hierarchy of prepotency (or strength). Typically, the hierarchy is depicted in the form of a pyramid although Maslow himself was not responsible for the iconic diagram.{{sfn|Kaufman|2019}} The pyramid begins at the bottom with physiological needs (the most prepotent of all) and culminates at the top with self-actualization needs. In his later writings, Maslow added a sixth level of "meta-needs" and [[metamotivation]].{{sfn|Maslow|1971}}{{sfn|Goble|1971}}
 
The hierarchy of needs developed by Maslow is one of his most enduring contributions to [[psychology]].{{sfn|Koltko-Rivera|2006}} The hierarchy of needs remains a popular framework and tool in [[higher education]],{{sfn|Steere|1988}}{{sfn|Freitas|Leonard|2011}} business and management training,{{sfn|Kremer|Hammond|2013}} [[sociology]] research, [[Health care|healthcare]],{{sfn|Dames|2021}}{{sfn|Wills|McEwen|2014}} [[Counseling psychology|counselling]]{{sfn|Colledge|2002}} and [[social work]].<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Poston |first1=Bob |date=August 2009 |title=An Exercise in Personal Exploration: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs |url=https://www.ast.org/pdf/308.pdf |journal=The Surgical Technologist |publisher=Association of Surgical Technologists |volume=308 |page=348}}</ref> Although widely used and researched, the hierarchy of needs has been criticized for its lack of conclusive supporting evidence and its validity remains contested.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lester |first=David |date=August 2013 |title=Measuring Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/02.20.pr0.113x16z1 |journal=Psychological Reports |volume=113 |issue=1 |pages=15–17 |doi=10.2466/02.20.pr0.113x16z1 |pmid=24340796 |s2cid=35870176 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Fallatah |first1=Rodwan Hashim Mohammed |title=A Critical Review of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs |date=November 30, 2017 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67741-5_2 |work=Employee Motivation in Saudi Arabia |pages=19–59 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-67740-8 |access-date=April 30, 2022 |last2=Syed |first2=Jawad|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-67741-5_2 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />
[[Image:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|400px|This diagram shows Maslow's hierarchy of needs, represented as a pyramid with the more primitive needs at the bottom.]]
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels: the four lower levels are grouped together as ''deficiency needs'' associated with physiological needs, while the top level is termed ''growth needs'' associated with psychological needs. While ''deficiency needs'' must be met, ''growth needs'' are continually shaping behaviour. The basic concept is that the higher needs in this hierarchy only come into focus once all the needs that are lower down in the pyramid are mainly or entirely satisfied. Growth forces create upward movement in the hierarchy, whereas regressive forces push prepotent needs further down the hierarchy.
 
== DeficiencyHistorical needsdevelopment ==
Maslow proposed his hierarchy of needs in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" in the journal ''[[Psychological Review]]''.{{sfn|Maslow|1943}} The theory is a classification system intended to reflect the universal needs of society as its base, then proceeding to more acquired emotions.{{sfn|Deckers|2018}} The hierarchy is split between deficiency needs and growth needs, with two key themes involved within the theory being [[individualism]] and the prioritization of needs.
The deficiency needs (also termed 'D-needs' by Maslow) are:
 
According to Maslow's original formulation, there are five sets of basic needs: physiological, safety, love, esteem and self-actualization. These needs are related to each other in a hierarchy of prepotency (or strength) beginning with the physiological needs that are the most prepotent of all. If the physiological needs are fulfilled, a new set of safety needs emerges. If both the physiological and safety needs are fairly well gratified, the prepotent (‘higher’) need of love (both its giving and receiving) then emerges. The next need is esteem, and finally [[self-actualization]]. Maslow also coined the term "[[metamotivation]]" to describe the motivation of people who go beyond the scope of basic needs and strive for constant betterment.{{sfn|Goble|1971}}
==== Physiological needs ====
The physiological needs of the [[organism]], those enabling [[homeostasis]], take first precedence. These consist mainly of:
 
The hierarchy suggests a rigid separation of needs, but Maslow stressed that a need does not require being satisfied 100% before the next need emerges. Instead, “a more realistic description of the hierarchy would be in terms of decreasing percentages of satisfaction as we go up the hierarchy of prepotency”.{{sfn|Maslow|1943|p=388}}
* the need to [[breath|breathe]]
* the need to drink water
* the need to regulate [[homeostasis]]
* the need to [[food|eat]]
* the need to [[excretion|dispose of bodily wastes]]
* the need for [[sexual activity]]
 
=== Pyramid ===
If some needs are not fulfilled, a human's physiological needs take the highest priority. Physiological needs can control thoughts and behaviors, and can cause people to feel sickness, pain, and discomfort.
Maslow's hierarchy of [[need]]s is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest, most fundamental needs at the bottom, and the need for [[self-actualization]] and transcendence at the top. However, Maslow himself never created a pyramid to represent the hierarchy of needs.{{sfn|Eaton|2012}}{{sfn|Kaufman|2019}}{{sfn|Bridgman|Cummings|Ballard|2019}}
 
The most fundamental four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "d-needs": esteem, friendship and love, security, and physical needs. If these "deficiency needs" are not met – except for the most fundamental (physiological) need – there may not be a physical indication, but the individual will feel anxious and tense. Deprivation is what causes deficiency, so when one has unmet needs, this motivates them to fulfill what they are being denied.{{sfn|McLeod|2021}}
==== Safety needs ====
When physiological needs are met, the need for safety will emerge. When one stage is fulfilled you naturally move to the next. Safety and security rank above all other desires. These include:
 
The human brain is a complex system and has parallel processes running at the same time, thus many different motivations from various levels of Maslow's hierarchy can occur at the same time. Maslow spoke clearly about these levels and their satisfaction in terms such as "relative", "general", and "primarily". Instead of stating that the individual focuses on a certain need at any given time, Maslow stated that a certain need "dominates" the human organism.{{sfn|Maslow|1954}} Thus Maslow acknowledged the likelihood that the different levels of motivation could occur at any time in the human mind, but he focused on identifying the basic types of motivation and the order in which they would tend to be met.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 6, 2020 |title=Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs in Education |url=https://educationlibrary.org/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-in-education/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206215339/https://educationlibrary.org/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-in-education/ |archive-date=February 6, 2020 |access-date=February 6, 2020 |website=Education Library |language=en-US}}</ref> In addition to his anthropological studies, Maslow drew on animal data that "studied and observed monkeys [...] noticing their unusual pattern of behavior that addressed priorities based on individual needs".<ref name=":1" />
* Physical security — safety from violence, delinquency, aggressions
* Security of employment
* Security of revenues and resources
* Moral and physiological security
* Family security
* Security of health
* Security of personal property against crime an other things like that
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=== Alternative illustrations of hierarchy ===
Sometimes the desire for safety outweighs the requirement to satisfy physiological needs completely. [citation needed]
[[File: Dynamic hierarchy of needs - Maslow.svg|thumb|Alternative illustration of hierarchy of needs with overlapping needs|alt=]]
In contrast to the well-known pyramid, a number of alternative schematic illustrations of the hierarchy of needs have been developed. One of the earliest, in 1962, shows a more dynamic hierarchy in terms of 'waves' of different needs overlapping at the same time.{{sfn|Krech|Crutchfield|Ballachey|1962|p=77}} As illustrated, the peak of an earlier main set of needs must be passed before the next 'higher' need can begin to assume a dominant role.
 
Other schematic illustrations of the hierarchy use overlapping triangles to depict the interaction of the different needs. One such updated hierarchy proposes that self-actualization is removed from its privileged place atop the pyramid because it is largely subsumed within status (esteem) and mating-related motives in the new framework.{{sfn|Kenrick|Griskevicius|Neuberg|Schaller|2010}}
==== Love/Belonging/Social needs ====
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs is social. This involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as:
 
== Needs ==
* [[friendship]]
=== Physiological needs ===
* [[Human sexuality|sexual intimacy]]
Physiological needs are the base of the hierarchy. These needs are the biological component for human survival. According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, physiological needs are factored into internal motivation. According to Maslow's theory, humans are compelled to satisfy physiological needs first to pursue higher levels of intrinsic satisfaction.{{sfn|Maslow|1943}} To advance to higher-level needs in Maslow's hierarchy, physiological needs must be met first. This means that if a person is struggling to meet their physiological needs, they are unwilling to seek safety, belonging, esteem, and self-actualization on their own.
* having a supportive and communicative [[family]]
 
Physiological needs include: [[air]], [[water]], [[food]], [[heat]], [[clothes]], [[reproduction]], [[Shelter (building)|shelter]]{{sfn|McLeod|2021}} and [[sleep]]. Many of these physiological needs must be met for the human body to remain in [[homeostasis]]. Air, for example, is a physiological need; a human being requires air more urgently than higher-level needs, such as a sense of social belonging. Physiological needs are critical to "meet the very basic essentials of life".<ref name=":1" /> This allows for cravings such as hunger and thirst to be satisfied and not disrupt the regulation of the body.
Humans generally need to feel belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group (clubs, office culture, [[Religion|religious groups]], professional organizations, sports teams, [[gangs]]) or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to [[loneliness]], [[social anxiety]], and [[Clinical depression|depression]]. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure. e.g. an anorexic ignores the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of belonging.
 
==== EsteemSafety needs ====
Once a person's physiological needs are satisfied, their safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety – due to war, natural disaster, [[family violence]], [[childhood abuse]], etc. and/or in the absence of economic safety – (due to an economic crisis and lack of work opportunities) these safety needs manifest themselves in ways such as a preference for [[job security]], grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, disability accommodations, etc. This level is more likely to predominate in children as they generally have a greater need to feel safe – especially children who have disabilities.<ref name="MJC">{{Cite book |last1=Dodge |first1=Diane Trister |url=http://fanconij.faculty.mjc.edu/Theoriest.pdf |title=The Creative Curriculum for Preschool |last2=Colker |first2=Laura J. |last3=Heroman |first3=Cate |date=2002 |publisher=Teaching Strategies |isbn=978-1879537439 |edition=4th |___location=Washington, DC |pages=2–3 |chapter=Theory and Research Behind ''The Creative Curriculum'' |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110075759/http://fanconij.faculty.mjc.edu/Theoriest.pdf |archive-date=January 10, 2020 |via=Jeanette Fanconi, Modesto Junior College}}</ref> Adults are also impacted by this, typically in economic matters; "adults are not immune to the need of safety".<ref name=":1" /> It includes shelter, job security, health, and safe environments. If a person does not feel safe in an environment, they will seek safety before attempting to meet any higher level of survival. This is why the "goal of consistently meeting the need for safety is to have stability in one's life",<ref name=":1" /> stability brings back the concept of homeostasis for humans which our bodies need.
According to Maslow, all humans have a need to be [[respect|respected]], to have [[Self-esteem|self-respect]], and to respect others. People need to engage themselves in order to gain [[recognition]] and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-value, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem, [[inferiority complex]]es, an inflated sense of self-importance or [[snob|snobbishness]]. There are two levels to Esteem needs. The lower of the levels relates to elements like fame, respect, and glory. The higher level is contingent to concepts like confidence, competence, and achievement. The lower level is generally considered poor. It is dependent upon other people, or someone who needs to be reassured because of lower esteem. People with low esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again are dependent on others. However confidence, competence and achievement only need one person and everyone else is inconsequential to one's own success. ([[Steven Covey]] has written extensively on this subject.)
 
==== CognitiveSafety needs ====include:
* [[Health]]
Maslow believed that humans have the need to increase their intelligence and thereby chase knowledge. Cognitive needs is the expression of the natural human need to learn, explore, discover, create, and perhaps even dissect in order to get a better understanding of the world around them.
* [[Personal security]]
* [[Emotional security]]
* [[Economic security|Financial security]]
 
==== AestheticLove and social needs ====
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of human needs is interpersonal and involves feelings of [[belongingness]]. According to Maslow, humans possess an effective need for a sense of belonging and acceptance among social groups, regardless of whether [[Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft|these groups are large or small]]; being a part of a group is crucial, regardless if it is work, sports, friends or family.{{sfn|McLeod|2021}} The sense of belongingness is "being comfortable with and connection to others that results from receiving acceptance, respect, and love."<ref name="MJC" /> For example, some large social groups may include clubs, co-workers, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs or online communities. Some examples of small social connections include family members, intimate partners, mentors, colleagues, and confidants. Humans need to love and be loved – both sexually and non-sexually – by others according to Maslow.{{sfn|Maslow|1943}} Many people become susceptible to [[loneliness]], [[social anxiety]], and [[clinical depression]] in the absence of this love or belonging element. This need is especially strong in [[childhood]] and it can override the need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. Deficiencies due to [[hospitalism]], [[neglect]], [[shunning]], [[ostracism]], etc. can adversely affect the individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant [[Interpersonal relationship|relationships]] in general.
Based on Maslow's beliefs, it is stated in the hierarchy that humans need beautiful imagery or something new and aesthetically pleasing in order to continue up towards Self-Actualization. Humans need to refresh themselves in the presence and beauty of nature while carefully absorbing and observing their surroundings to extract the beauty that the world has to offer.
Mental health can be a huge factor when it comes to an individual's needs and development. When an individual's needs are not met, it can cause depression during adolescence. When an individual grows up in a higher-income family, it is much more likely that they will have a lower rate of depression. This is because all of their basic needs are met. Studies have shown that when a family goes through financial stress for a prolonged time, depression rates are higher, not only because their basic needs are not being met, but because this stress strains the parent-child relationship. The parent(s) is stressed about providing for their children, and they are also likely to spend less time at home because they are working more to make more money and provide for their family.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Crandall |first1=Aliceann |last2=Powell |first2=Elizabeth A. |last3=Bradford |first3=Grace C. |last4=Magnusson |first4=Brianna M. |last5=Hanson |first5=Carl L. |last6=Barnes |first6=Michael D. |last7=Novilla |first7=M. Lelinneth B. |last8=Bean |first8=Roy A. |year=2020 |title=Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs as a Framework for Understanding Adolescent Depressive Symptoms over Time |journal=Journal of Child and Family Studies |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=273–281 |doi=10.1007/s10826-019-01577-4 |s2cid=204353035}}</ref>
 
==Social Growthbelonging needs ==include:
* [[Family]]
Though the deficiency needs may be seen as "basic", and can be met and neutralized (i.e. they stop being motivators in one's life), self-actualization and transcendence are "being" or "growth needs" (also termed "B-needs"), i.e. they are enduring motivations or drivers of behaviour.
* [[Friendship]]
* [[Intimacy]]
*[[Trust (social science)|Trust]]
*[[Acceptance]]
*Receiving and giving love and affection
 
In certain situations, the need for belonging may overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure. In contrast, for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for belonging, and for others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic needs.{{sfn|Kenrick|Griskevicius|Neuberg|Schaller|2010}}
==== Self-actualization ====
Self-actualization is the instinctual need of humans to make the most of their abilities and to strive to be the best they can.
 
=== Esteem needs ===
<blockquote>Self Actualization is the intrinsic growth of what is already in the organism, or more accurately, of what the organism is.<ref name = "Review 1949">''Psychological Review'', 1949.</ref></blockquote>
Esteem is the respect, and admiration of a person, but also "self-respect and respect from others".<ref name="MJC" /> Most people need stable esteem, meaning that which is soundly based on real capacity or achievement. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs. The "lower" version of esteem is the need for respect from others and may include a need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The "higher" version of esteem is the need for self-respect, and can include a need for strength, competence,{{sfn|Deckers|2018}} mastery, [[self-confidence]], independence, and freedom. This "higher" version takes guidelines, the "hierarchies are interrelated rather than sharply separated".{{sfn|Maslow|1954}} This means that esteem and the subsequent levels are not strictly separated; instead, the levels are closely related.
 
Esteem comes from day-to-day experiences which provide a learning opportunity that allows us to discover ourselves. This is incredibly important for children, which is why giving them "the opportunity to discover they are competent and capable learners"<ref name="MJC" /> is crucial. To boost this, adults must provide opportunities for children to have successful and positive experiences to give children a greater "sense of self".<ref name="MJC" /> Adults, especially parents and educators must create and ensure an environment for children that is supportive and provides them with opportunities that "helps children see themselves as respectable, capable individuals". It can also be found that "Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children&nbsp;... and precedes real self-esteem or dignity",{{sfn|McLeod|2021}} which reflects the two aspects of esteem: for oneself and others.
Maslow writes the following of self-actualizing people:
 
=== Cognitive needs ===
* They embrace the facts and realities of the world (including themselves) rather than denying or avoiding them.
{{main|Need for cognition}}
* They are spontaneous in their ideas and actions.
* They are [[creativity|creative]].
* They are interested in solving problems; this often includes the problems of others. Solving these problems is often a key focus in their lives.
* They feel a closeness to other people, and generally appreciate life.
* They have a system of [[morality]] that is fully internalized and independent of external authority.
* They have discernment and are able to view all things in an objective manner. Prejudices are absent.
 
It has been suggested that Maslow's hierarchy of needs can be extended after esteem needs into two more categories: cognitive needs and aesthetic needs.{{sfn|Maslow|1954}}{{page needed|date=March 2025}} Cognitive needs crave meaning, information, comprehension and curiosity – this creates a will to learn and attain knowledge.{{sfn|McLeod|2021}} &nbsp;From an educational viewpoint, Maslow wanted humans to have intrinsic motivation to become educated people. People have cognitive needs such as creativity, foresight, curiosity, and meaning. Individuals who enjoy activities that require deliberation and brainstorming have a greater need for cognition. Individuals who are unmotivated to participate in the activity, on the other hand, have a low demand for cognitive abilities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Need for Cognition |url=http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628085814/http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/ |archive-date=June 28, 2021 |access-date=August 1, 2021 |website=Research and custom writing services}}</ref>
In short, self-actualization is reaching one's fullest potential. It can also be regarded as a "self-licking ice cream cone", a term coined by LCmdr Mark Dwinells, a former USNA instructor.
 
==== Self-transcendenceAesthetic needs ====
After reaching one's cognitive needs, it would progress to aesthetic needs to beautify one's life. This would consist of having the ability to appreciate the beauty within the world around one's self, on a day-to-day basis.{{sfn|McLeod|2021}} According to Maslow's theories, to progress toward Self-Actualization, humans require beautiful imagery or novel and aesthetically pleasing experiences. Humans must immerse themselves in nature's splendor while paying close attention to their surroundings and observing them in order to extract the world's beauty. One would accomplish this by making their environment pleasant to look at or be around. They might discover personal style choices that they feel represent them and make their environment a place that they fit well into. This higher level of need to connect with nature results in a sense of intimacy with nature and all that is endearing.{{sfn|McLeod|2021}} Aesthetic needs also relate to beautifying oneself. This would consist of improving one's physical appearance to ensure its beauty to balance the rest of the body.{{sfn|McLeod|2021}} This is done by making and finding ways one wants to dress and express oneself through personal beauty and grooming standards and ideas.
At the top of the triangle, self-transcendence is also sometimes referred to as spiritual needs.
 
=== Self-actualization ===
Maslow believes that we should study and cultivate [[peak experiences]] as a way of providing a route to achieve personal growth, integration, and fulfillment. Peak experiences are unifying, and ego-transcending, bringing a sense of purpose to the individual and a sense of integration. Individuals most likely to have peak experiences are self-actualizing, mature, healthy, and self-fulfilled. All individuals are capable of peak experiences. Those who do not have them somehow depress or deny them.
{{Main|Self-actualization}}
"What a man can be, he must be.”{{sfn|Maslow|1954|p=91}} This quotation forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need refers to the realization of one's full potential. Maslow describes this as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be.{{sfn|Maslow|1954|p=92}} People may have a strong, particular desire to become an ideal parent, succeed athletically, or create paintings, pictures, or inventions.{{sfn|Maslow|1954|p=93}} To understand this level of need, a person must not only succeed in the previous needs but master them. Self-actualization can be described as a value-based system when discussing its role in motivation. Self-actualization is understood as the goal or explicit motive, and the previous stages in Maslow's hierarchy fall in line to become the step-by-step process by which self-actualization is achievable; an explicit motive is the objective of a reward-based system that is used to intrinsically drive the completion of certain values or goals.{{sfn|Deckers|2018}} Individuals who are motivated to pursue this goal seek and understand how their needs, relationships, and sense of self are expressed through their behavior. Self-actualization needs include:{{sfn|Deckers|2018}}
* Partner acquisition
* Parenting
* Utilizing and developing talents and abilities
* Pursuing goals
 
=== Transcendence needs ===
Maslow originally found the occurrence of peak experiences in individuals who were self-actualizing, but later found that peak experiences happened to non-actualizers as well but not as often:
{{Main|Transcendence (philosophy)|Transcendence (religion)|Self-transcendence}}
 
Maslow later subdivided the triangle's top to include self-transcendence, also known as spiritual needs. Spiritual needs differ from other types of needs in that they can be met on multiple levels. When this need is met, it produces feelings of integrity and raises things to a higher plane of existence.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 14, 2007 |first =Sandeep| last = Gautum |format = Blog |title=Maslow's eight basic needs and the eight stage developmental model |url=https://the-mouse-trap.com/2007/12/14/maslows-eight-basic-needs-and-the-eight-stage-devlopmental-model/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801051503/https://the-mouse-trap.com/2007/12/14/maslows-eight-basic-needs-and-the-eight-stage-devlopmental-model/ |archive-date=August 1, 2021 |access-date=August 1, 2021 |website=The Mouse Trap}}</ref> In his later years, Maslow explored a further dimension of motivation, while criticizing his original vision of self-actualization.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maslow |first=Abraham H. |title=Future visions: The unpublished papers of Abraham Maslow |publisher=Sage |year=1996 |isbn=978-0761900511 |editor-last=Hoffman |editor-first=Edward |___location=Thousand Oaks, CA |pages=26–32 |chapter=Critique of self-actualization theory}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maslow |first=Abraham H. |year=1969 |title=The farther reaches of human nature |journal=Journal of Transpersonal Psychology |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–9}}</ref>{{sfn|Maslow|1971}}{{sfn|Koltko-Rivera|2006}} Maslow tells us that by transcending you have a set of roots in your current culture but you are able to look over it as well and see other viewpoints and ideas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maslow |first=Abraham |date=1969 |title=Various Meanings of Transcendence |url=https://www.atpweb.org/jtparchive/trps-01-69-01-056.pdf |journal=Journal of Transpersonal Psychology |pages=56–66}}</ref> By these later ideas, one finds the fullest realization in giving oneself to something beyond oneself—for example, in altruism or spirituality. He equated this with the desire to reach the infinite.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Garcia-Romeu |first=Albert |year=2010 |title=Self-transcendence as a measurable transpersonal construct |url=http://www.atpweb.org/jtparchive/trps-42-10-01-026.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Transpersonal Psychology |volume=421 |pages=26–47 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214135428/http://www.atpweb.org/jtparchive/trps-42-10-01-026.pdf |archive-date=February 14, 2021 |access-date=May 25, 2020}}</ref> "Transcendence refers to the very highest and most inclusive or holistic levels of human consciousness, behaving and relating, as ends rather than means, to oneself, to significant others, to human beings in general, to other species, to nature, and to the [[cosmos]]."{{sfn|Maslow|1971|p=269}}
<blockquote>I have recently found it more and more useful to differentiate between two kinds of self-actualizing people, those who were clearly healthy, but with little or no experiences of transcendence, and those in whom transcendent experiencing was important and even central… It is unfortunate that I can no longer be theoretically neat at this level. I find not only self-actualizing persons who transcend, but also nonhealthy people, non-self-actualizers who have important transcendent experiences. It seems to me that I have found some degree of transcendence in many people other than self-actualizing ones as I have defined this term…<ref name = "Reaches">''[[The Farther Reaches of Human Nature]]'', New York, 1971.</ref></blockquote>
 
Ultimately, through the Hierarchy of Needs Maslow is demonstrating that spiritual values have naturalistic meaning, that they are not the exclusive possession of organized churches. Rather, that they are well within the jurisdiction of a suitably enlarged science.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maslow |first=Abraham Harold |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2LwVtgEACAAJ |title=Religions, Values, and Peak-experiences |date=1964 |publisher=Ohio State University Press |language=en}}</ref>
In 1969, Abraham Maslow, [[Stanislav Grof]] and [[Anthony Sutich]] were the initiators behind the publication of the first issue of the ''[[Journal of Transpersonal Psychology]]''.
 
== CounterpositionsCriticism ==
=== Blackfoot influence ===
While Maslow's theory was regarded as an improvement over previous theories of [[personality]] and [[motivation]], it has its detractors. For example, in their extensive review of research that is dependent on Maslow's theory, Wahba and Bridwell (1976) found little evidence for the ranking of needs that Maslow described, or even for the existence of a definite hierarchy at all. For example, less individualistic forms of society than described by Maslow in this theory, might value their social relationships (e.g. family, clan or group) higher than their own physiological needs.
Maslow's early (1938) anthropological research included a fieldtrip to the Blackfoot people ([[Siksika Nation]]) in southern Alberta, Canada. Based on his observations of their peaceful and cooperative way of life (in contrast to American society), Maslow concluded that human destructiveness and aggression is largely culturally determined and “most probably a secondary, reactive consequence of thwarting of or threat to the basic human needs”.{{sfn|Maslow|1954}} However, claims have been made that Maslow had failed to acknowledge the influence of the Blackfoot philosophy in developing the hierarchy of needs.<ref>Coon, D. (2006) Abraham H. Maslow: Reconnaissance for Eupsychia. In D.A. Dewsbury, L.T. Benjamin Jr. and M. Wertheimer (Eds). Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology, Vol. 6 (pp. 255–273). Washington, D.C. & Mahwah, N.J.: American Psychological Association and Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.</ref><ref>Brown, S (2014) ''Transformation beyond greed: Native self-actualization''. Sidney Stone Brown.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Original Influences {{!}}| website = Psychology Today |last = Taylor |first = Steve |format = Blog | date = March 22, 2019 |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/out-the-darkness/201903/original-influences |url-status=live |archive-url=http://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20230313095915/https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/out%2Dof%2Dthe%2Ddarkness/201903/original%2Dinfluences |archive-date=March 13, 2023 |access-date=August 21, 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
 
According to [[Scott Barry Kaufman|Kaufman]], while acknowledging that Maslow learned much from the Blackfoot people, “there is nothing in these writings to suggest he borrowed or stole ideas for his hierarchy of needs”.{{sfn|Kaufman|2019}} Without wishing to discredit Maslow, Blackfoot elders and scholars have argued that Maslow did not really understand the Blackfoot philosophy. "It is not that Maslow got the hierarchy wrong or upside down, it is rather that he did not understand the circular nature in which all beings in Siksika society are interconnected and integrated. They surround each other and needs are met through these connections".<ref>Bear Chief - Oom Kapisi, E.R. Choate, P. and Lindstrom, G. (2022) [https://anzswjournal.nz/anzsw/article/view/959 Reconsidering Maslow and the hierarchy of needs from a First Nations’ perspective]. Aotearoa New Zealand Social Work, 34(2), 30–41. https://doi.org/10.11157/anzswj-vol34iss2id959.</ref>
The concept of self-actualization is considered vague and [[Psychobabble (jargon)|psychobabble]] by some [[behaviourism|behaviourist]] psychologists. The concept is based on an [[Aristotelian]] notion of human nature that assumes we have an optimum role or purpose.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Self actualization is a difficult construct for researchers to [[operationalize]], and this in turn makes it difficult to test Maslow's theory. Even if self-actualization is a useful concept, there is no proof that every individual has this capacity or even the goal to achieve it.
 
=== Self-actualizing people ===
Other counterpositions suggest that not everyone ultimately seeks the self-actualization that a strict (and possibly naive) reading of Maslow's hierarchy of needs appears to imply:
Maslow studied people such as [[Albert Einstein]], [[Jane Addams]], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], and [[Baruch Spinoza]], rather than [[mentally ill]] or [[neurosis|neurotic]] people, writing that "the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a cripple psychology and a cripple philosophy".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mittelman |first1=Willard |title=Maslow's Study of Self-Actualization: A Reinterpretation |journal=Journal of Humanistic Psychology |date=1991 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=114–135 |doi=10.1177/0022167891311010|s2cid=144849415 }}</ref>{{sfn|Maslow|1954|p=200}}
 
=== Ranking ===
* [[Viktor Frankl]]'s book ''Man's Search for Meaning'' describes his [[psychotherapy|psychotherapeutic]] method ([[logotherapy]]) of finding purpose in life.
==== Global ranking ====
* [[Albert Einstein]] was actually drawn toward the sense of mystery in life. See [[Abraham Pais]]' ''Subtle is the Lord'' (Einstein, however, believed in [[naturalistic pantheism]]).
In a 1976 review of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, little evidence was found for the specific ranking of needs that Maslow described or for the existence of a definite hierarchy at all.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal | last1 = Wahba | first1 = M. A. | last2 = Bridwell | first2 = L. G. | year = 1976 | title = Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory | journal = Organizational Behavior and Human Performance | volume = 15 | issue = 2| pages = 212–240 | doi = 10.1016/0030-5073(76)90038-6 }}</ref> This refutation was claimed to be supported by the majority of longitudinal data and cross-sectional studies at the time, with the limited support for Maslow's hierarchy criticized due to poor measurement criteria and selection of [[Treatment and control groups|control groups]].<ref name=":2" />
* Others seek to perform good works.
* Others are drawn toward the dark side of the [[human condition]].
 
In 1984, the order in which the hierarchy is arranged was criticized as being ethnocentric by [[Geert Hofstede]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hofstede | first1 = G. | year = 1984 | title = The cultural relativity of the quality of life concept | url = http://myweb.usf.edu/~jdorio/Articles/The%20cultural%20relativity%20of%20the%20quality%20of%20life%20concept.pdf | journal = Academy of Management Review | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 389–398 | doi = 10.5465/amr.1984.4279653 | url-status=dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141112000247/http://myweb.usf.edu/~jdorio/Articles/The%20cultural%20relativity%20of%20the%20quality%20of%20life%20concept.pdf | archive-date = November 12, 2014 }}</ref> In turn, Hofstede's work was criticized by others.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Hofstede – Culturally questionable?|url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/commpapers/370/|date=June 28, 2007|journal=Faculty of Commerce – Papers (Archive)|last1=Jones|first1=M.|access-date=May 22, 2020|archive-date=August 3, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803191326/https://ro.uow.edu.au/commpapers/370/|url-status=live}}</ref> Maslow's hierarchy of needs was argued as failing to illustrate and expand upon the difference between the social and intellectual needs of those raised in [[Individualism|individualistic]] societies and those raised in [[Collectivism and individualism|collectivist]] societies. The needs and drives of those in individualistic societies tend to be more self-centered than those in collectivist societies, focusing on the improvement of the self, with self-actualization being the apex of self-improvement. In collectivist societies, the needs of acceptance and community will outweigh the needs for freedom and individuality.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cianci | first1 = R. | last2 = Gambrel | first2 = P. A. | year = 2003 | title = Maslow's hierarchy of needs: Does it apply in a collectivist culture | journal = Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship | volume = 8 | issue = 2| pages = 143–161 }}</ref>
One could counter this argument by citing these as examples of ways people self-actualize. In fact, some of these examples (the attraction to the mysterious, performing good works) are actually specified as qualities of the self actualized individual in Maslow's writing, ''The Third Force.'' The ambiguity of the term lends itself to debate.
 
Criticisms towards the theory have also been expressed on the lack of consideration towards individualism and collectivism in the context of spirituality.<ref name=":5" />
[[Transcendence (philosophy)|Transcendence]] has been discounted by secular psychologists because they feel it belongs to the ___domain of religious belief. But Maslow himself believed that science and religion were both too narrowly conceived, too dichotomized, and too separated from each other. Non-peakers, as he would call them, characteristically think in logical, rational terms and look down on extreme spirituality as "insanity"<ref name = "Transcendent 22">Maslow. "The 'Core-Religious' or 'Transcendent,' Experience", p. 22.</ref> because it entails a loss of control and deviation from what is socially acceptable. They may even try to avoid such experiences because they are not materially productive—they "earn no money, bake no bread, and chop no wood"<ref name = "Transcendent 23">Maslow, Transcendent, p. 23.</ref>. Other non-peakers have the problem of immaturity in spiritual matters, and hence tend to view holy rituals and events in their most crude, external form, not appreciating them for any underlying spiritual implications. Maslow despised such people because they form a sort of idolatry that hinders religions<ref name = "Transcendent 24">Maslow, Transcendent, p. 24.</ref> This creates a divide in every religion and social institution. It is important to note, however, that Maslow considered himself to be an atheist — thus, by his conceptualization of transcendence, any individual can have such experiences<ref name = "Hoffman">Hoffman, E. 1999. The right to be human: A biography of Abraham Maslow.</ref>.
 
==== Sex ranking ====
Psychologist [[Edwin C. Nevis]] has also made charges that Maslow's hierarchy of needs are culturally specific and not universal and, in response, formulated his own hierarchy of needs as an improvement effort.
The position and value of sex within Maslow's hierarchy have been a source of criticism. Maslow's hierarchy places sex in the physiological needs category, alongside food and breathing. Some critics argue that this placement of sex neglects the emotional, familial, and evolutionary implications of sex within the community, although others point out that this critique could apply to all of the basic needs. However, Maslow himself acknowledged that the satisfaction of sexual desire was likely linked to other social motives as well. Furthermore, it is recognized that physiological needs such as sex and hunger can be related to higher-order motivations.{{sfn|Kenrick|Griskevicius|Neuberg|Schaller|2010}}
 
=== Cultural and individual variations ===
Other scholars have sought to contextualize Maslow's work in its socio-political, and historical context. In ''Maslow, Monkeys and Motivation Theory'' (1997), Dallas Cullen revealed the extent to which Maslow's heirarchy relied on his gendered, and factually unfounded assumptions about sexual domination among apes. Cooke, Mills and Kelley's (2005) ''Situating Maslow in Cold War America'' argued that Maslow's theorizing was a direct reflection of his position as an anti- new-left Cold War liberal, and his heirarchy a reflection of these values - a kind of secular religiosity which legitimized the US way of life.
Although recent research appears to validate the existence of universal human needs, as well as shared ordering of the way in which people seek and satisfy needs, the exact hierarchy proposed by Maslow is called into question.<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/life/archive/2011/08/maslow-20-a-new-and-improved-recipe-for-happiness/243486/#.TkvKIRv8USE.facebook|title=Maslow 2.0: A new and improved recipe for happiness|last=Villarica|first=H.|date=August 17, 2011|website=The Atlantic|access-date=March 9, 2017|archive-date=November 21, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121055055/http://www.theatlantic.com/life/archive/2011/08/maslow-20-a-new-and-improved-recipe-for-happiness/243486/#.TkvKIRv8USE.facebook|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite journal|last1=Tay|first1=L.|last2=Diener|first2=E.|year=2011|title=Needs and subjective well-being around the world|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=101|issue=2|pages=354–365|doi=10.1037/a0023779|pmid=21688922}}</ref> The most common criticism is the expectation that different individuals, with similar backgrounds and at similar junctures in their respective lives, when faced with the same situation, would end up taking the same decision. Instead of that, a common observation is that humans are driven by a unique set of motivations, and their behavior cannot be reliably predicted based on the Maslowian principles.
 
The classification of the higher-order (self-esteem and self-actualization) and lower-order (physiological, safety, and love) needs is not universal and may vary across cultures due to individual differences and availability of resources in the region or geopolitical entity/country.{{Citation needed|date=August 2025}}
== See also ==
* [[Human Potential Movement]]
* [[Humanistic psychology]]
* [[Meaning of life]]
* [[Organizational behavior]]
* [[Positive psychology]]
* [[Self (psychology)]]
* [[Spiral Dynamics]]
* [[Self-realization]]
* [[Self-Determination Theory]] - Needs Theory
* [[Transpersonal psychology]]
 
In a 1997 study,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tang | first1 = T. L. | last2 = West | first2 = W. B. | year = 1997 | title = The importance of human needs during peacetime, retrospective peacetime, and the Persian Gulf War | journal = International Journal of Stress Management | publisher=American Psychological Association on behalf of the International Stress Management Association |volume = 4 | issue = 1| pages = 47–62 |doi=10.1007/BF02766072| s2cid = 68311297 }}</ref> [[exploratory factor analysis]] (EFA) of a thirteen-item scale showed there were two particularly important levels of needs in the US during the peacetime of 1993 to 1994: survival (physiological and safety) and psychological (love, self-esteem, and self-actualization). In 1991, a retrospective peacetime measure was established and collected during the Persian Gulf War, and US citizens were asked to recall the importance of needs from the previous year. Once again, only two levels of needs were identified; therefore, people have the ability and competence to recall and estimate the importance of needs. For citizens in the Middle East (Egypt and Saudi Arabia), three levels of needs regarding importance and satisfaction surfaced during the 1990 retrospective peacetime. These three levels were completely different from those of US citizens.
== Notes ==
 
<references />
Changes regarding the importance and satisfaction of needs from the retrospective peacetime to wartime due to stress varied significantly across cultures (the US vs. the Middle East). For the US citizens, there was only one level of needs, since all needs were considered equally important. With regards to satisfaction of needs during the war, in the US there were three levels: physiological needs, safety needs, and psychological needs (social, self-esteem, and self-actualization). During the war, the satisfaction of physiological needs and safety needs were separated into two independent needs, while during peacetime, they were combined as one. For the people of the Middle East, the satisfaction of needs changed from three levels to two during wartime.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tang|first1=T. L.|last2=Ibrahim|first2=A. H.|year=1998|title=Importance of human needs during retrospective peacetime and the Persian Gulf War: Mid-eastern employees|journal=International Journal of Stress Management | publisher=American Psychological Association on behalf of the International Stress Management Association | volume=5|issue=1|pages=25–37|doi=10.1023/A:1022902803386<!-- journal sold, no longer updated --> |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1022902803386|s2cid=141983215|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tang | first1 = T. L. | last2 = Ibrahim | first2 = A. H. | last3 = West | first3 = W. B. | year = 2002 | title = Effects of war-related stress on the satisfaction of human needs: The United States and the Middle East | journal = International Journal of Management Theory and Practices | volume = 3 | issue = 1| pages = 35–53 }}</ref>
 
A study of the ordering of needs in Asia found differences between the ordering of lower and higher order needs. For instance, community (related to belongingness and considered a lower order need in Maslow's hierarchy) was found to be the highest order need across Asia, followed closely by self-acceptance and growth.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Monnot | first1 = M. J. | last2 = Beehr| first2 = T. A. | year = 2022| title = The Good Life Versus the "Goods Life": An Investigation of Goal Contents Theory and Employee Subjective Well-Being Across Asian Countries | journal = Journal of Happiness Studies | volume = 23| issue = 3 | pages = Dec 15, 1244 | doi = 10.1007/s10902-021-00447-5 | s2cid = 239678199 }}</ref>
 
A 1981 study looked at how Maslow's hierarchy might vary across age groups.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Goebel | first1 = B. L. | last2 = Brown | first2 = D. R. | year = 1981 | title = Age differences in motivation related to Maslow's need hierarchy | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 17 | issue = 6| pages = 809–815 | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.17.6.809 }}</ref> A survey asked participants of varying ages to rate a set number of statements from most important to least important. The researchers found that children had higher physical need scores than the other groups, the love need emerged from childhood to young adulthood, the esteem need was highest among the adolescent group, young adults had the highest self-actualization level, and old age had the highest level of security, it was needed across all levels comparably. The authors argued that this suggested Maslow's hierarchy may be limited as a theory for developmental sequence since the sequence of the love need and the self-esteem need should be reversed according to age.
 
The hierarchy of needs has been criticized from an Islamic point of view. The authors conclude that integrating the model into Islamic contexts requires a more nuanced approach that acknowledges the centrality of spirituality in human needs. They also say that the Islamic approach emphasizes balancing material and spiritual needs in all life situations, challenging Maslow's hierarchy for oversimplifying their interaction.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Bouzenita |first1=Anke Iman |last2=Boulanouar |first2=Aisha Wood |date=2016 |title=Maslow's hierarchy of needs: An Islamic critique |journal=Intellectual Discourse |volume=24}}</ref>
 
== See also ==
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[ERG theory]], further expands and explains Maslow's theory
* [[First World problem]] reflects on trivial concerns in the context of more pressing needs
* [[Manfred Max-Neef's Fundamental human needs]], [[Manfred Max-Neef]]'s model
* [[Functional prerequisites]]
* [[Human givens]], a theory in psychotherapy that offers descriptions of the nature, needs, and innate attributes of humans
* [[Need theory]], [[David McClelland]]'s model
* [[Positive disintegration]]
* [[Self-determination theory]], [[Edward L. Deci]]'s and [[Richard Ryan (professor)|Richard Ryan]]'s model
{{div col end}}
 
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
* Cullen, D. (1995) ''Maslow, Monkeys and Motivation Theory''. Organization, 4 (3) 335 - 373.
* Cooke, B., Mills, A., and Kelley E. (2005) ''Situating Maslow in Cold War America: A Recontextualization of Management Theory''. Group and Organization Management, 30, 129 -125.
* Maslow, A. H. (1943). ''A Theory of Human Motivation.'' Psychological Review, 50, 370–96.
* Maslow, A. H. (1965). ''Eupsychian Management''. Note that the Andy Kay featured in this book is the Andy Kay of [[Kaypro]]. Hardcover ISBN 0-87094-056-2, Paperback ISBN 0-256-00353-X.
* Maslow, A. H. (1970). ''Motivation and Personality'', 2nd. ed., New York, Harper & Row. ISBN 0060419873.
* Wahba, M. A., Bridwell, L. G. (1976). ''Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory.'' Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15, 212–40.
*Frankl, V. (1946). ''Man's Search for Meaning.'' Boston: Beacon Press.
 
=== External linksSources == =
* {{cite journal |last1=Bridgman |first1=Todd |last2=Cummings |first2=Stephen |last3=Ballard |first3=John |date=March 2019 |title=Who Built Maslow's Pyramid? A History of the Creation of Management Studies' Most Famous Symbol and Its Implications for Management Education |url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2017.0351 |journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=81–98 |doi=10.5465/amle.2017.0351 |s2cid=150163519|url-access=subscription }}
* [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm A Theory of Human Motivation].
* {{Citation |last=Colledge |first=Ray |title=Maslow's theory of human motivation |date=2002 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-230-62957-8_10 |work=Mastering Counselling Theory |pages=129–138 |place=London |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |doi=10.1007/978-0-230-62957-8_10 |isbn=978-0-333-92243-9 |access-date=April 30, 2022|url-access=subscription }}
* [http://emotionalliteracyeducation.com/abraham-maslow-theory-human-motivation.shtml A Theory of Human Motivation: Annotated].
* {{cite book |last1=Dames |first1=Shannon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BQ1UEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 |title=Root Strength E-Book: A Health and Care Professionals Guide to Minimizing Stress and Maximizing Thriving |date=December 9, 2021 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-0-323-77870-1}}
* [http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/maslow.html Theory and biography] including detailed description and examples of self-actualizers.
* {{Cite book |last=Deckers |first=Lambert |title=Motivation: Biological, Psychological, and Environmental |publisher=Routledge Press|year=2018 |isbn=9781138036338}}
* [http://www.maslow.org maslow.org].
* {{Cite web |last=Eaton |first=Sarah Elaine |date=August 4, 2012 |title=Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Is the Pyramid a Hoax? |url=https://drsaraheaton.wordpress.com/2012/08/04/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522180153/https://drsaraheaton.wordpress.com/2012/08/04/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs/ |archive-date=May 22, 2020 |access-date=May 22, 2020 |website=Learning, Teaching, and Leadership}}
* [http://www.xenodochy.org/ex/lists/maslow.html Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs], Xenodochy.
* {{Cite journal |last1=Freitas |first1=Frances Anne |last2=Leonard |first2=Lora J. |date=January 2011 |title=Maslow's hierarchy of needs and student academic success |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.teln.2010.07.004 |journal=Teaching and Learning in Nursing |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=9–13 |doi=10.1016/j.teln.2010.07.004 |url-access=subscription }}
* [http://www.deepermind.com/20maslow.htm Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs], Deeper Mind.
* {{Cite book |last=Goble |first=Frank G. |title=The third force: the psychology of Abraham Maslow |date=1971 |publisher=Maurice Bassett Publishing |isbn=0671421743 |___location=Richmond, CA |page=62}}
* [http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/regsys/maslow.html Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs], Valdosta.
* {{cite journal|first=Scott Barry|last= Kaufman|year=2019| url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/beautiful-minds/who-created-maslows-iconic-pyramid| title=Who Created Maslow's Iconic Pyramid?|journal= Scientific American}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Kenrick|first1=D. T.|last2=Griskevicius|first2=V.|last3=Neuberg|first3=S. L.|last4=Schaller|first4=M.|year=2010|title=Renovating the pyramid of needs: Contemporary extensions built upon ancient foundations|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=5|issue=3|pages=292–314|doi=10.1177/1745691610369469|pmc=3161123|pmid=21874133}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Koltko-Rivera |first=Mark E. |year=2006 |title=Rediscovering the Later Version of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Self-Transcendence and Opportunities for Theory, Research, and Unification |url=http://academic.udayton.edu/jackbauer/Readings%20595/Koltko-Rivera%2006%20trans%20self-act%20copy.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Review of General Psychology |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=302–317 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.10.4.302 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025142717/http://academic.udayton.edu/jackbauer/Readings%20595/Koltko-Rivera%2006%20trans%20self-act%20copy.pdf |archive-date=October 25, 2016 |access-date=December 24, 2014 |s2cid=16046903}}
* {{cite book |last1=Krech |first1=David |last2=Crutchfield |first2=Richard S. |last3=Ballachey |first3=Egerton L. |title=Individual in Society: A Textbook of Social Psychology |year= 1962 |publisher= McGraw»Hill Kogakusha, Ltd. |isbn= }}
* {{cite news |last1=Kremer |first1=William| department = World Service|last2=Hammond |first2= Claudia |date=August 31, 2013 |title=Abraham Maslow and the pyramid that beguiled business |newspaper=BBC News Magazine |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-23902918 |url-status=live |access-date=September 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716041428/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-23902918 | quote = Abraham Maslow and the Hierarchy of Needs was broadcast on Mind Changers on Radio 4 and Health Check on the BBC World Service |archive-date=July 16, 2018}}
* {{cite journal |last=Maslow |first=Abraham H.|year=1943 |title=A theory of human motivation|journal=Psychological Review| volume=50| issue=4| pages=370–396|via=psychclassics.yorku.ca|url=http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm|doi=10.1037/h0054346|hdl=10983/23610|citeseerx=10.1.1.334.7586 |access-date=March 13, 2007|archive-date=September 14, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914183817/http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |last=Maslow |first=Abraham H. |url=https://archive.org/details/motivationperson00masl_0 |title=Motivation and personality |publisher=Harper |year=1954 |isbn=978-0-06-041987-5 |___location=New York, NY |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Maslow |first=Abraham H. |url=https://archive.org/details/fartherreachesof0000masl |title=The farther reaches of human nature |publisher=The Viking Press |year=1971 |___location=New York |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite journal |last1=McLeod |first1=Saul |title=Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html |website=SimplyPsychology |access-date=January 2, 2022 |date=December 29, 2021 |orig-date=2007}}
* {{Cite book |last=Steere |first= Bob F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2cwd56VvOMC&q=Maslow's+hierarchy+of+needs&pg=PA21 |title=Becoming an effective classroom manager: A resource for teachers. |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-88706-620-7 |___location=Albany, NY |access-date=November 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210626174543/https://books.google.com/books?id=S2cwd56VvOMC&q=Maslow's+hierarchy+of+needs&pg=PA21 |archive-date=June 26, 2021 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Wills |first1= Evelyn |last2= McEwen |first2= Melanie |title=Theoretical basis for nursing |isbn=9781451190311|oclc=857664345 |year=2014 |publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins }}
 
== Further reading ==
[[Category:Consumer behaviour]]
* {{cite journal|last=Heylighen|first=Francis|title=A cognitive-systemic reconstruction of Maslow's theory of self-actualization|journal=Behavioral Science|year=1992|volume=37|issue=1|pages=39–58|doi=10.1002/bs.3830370105|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120724170247/http://cleamc11.vub.ac.be/Papers/Maslow.pdf | archive-date=July 24, 2012 | url=http://cleamc11.vub.ac.be/Papers/Maslow.pdf|author-link=Francis Heylighen}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Kress | first1 = Oliver | year = 1993 | title = A new approach to cognitive development: ontogenesis and the process of initiation | url = https://www.academia.edu/663726 | journal = Evolution and Cognition | volume = 2 | issue = 4| pages = 319–332 }}
 
== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
 
[[Category:Abraham Maslow]]
[[Category:Developmental psychology]]
[[Category:Happiness]]
[[Category:Human development]]
[[Category:Interpersonal relationships]]
[[Category:OrganizationalMotivational studies and human resource managementtheories]]
[[Category:Organizational behavior]]
[[Category:Personal development]]
[[Category:Personal life]]
[[Category:MotivationPositive psychology]]
[[Category:Psychological concepts]]
 
[[Category:1943 introductions]]
[[de:Maslowsche Bedürfnispyramide]]
[[et:Inimvajaduste hierarhia]]
[[es:Pirámide de Maslow]]
[[fr:Pyramide des besoins]]
[[hr:Humanistička psihologija]]
[[he:תאוריית הצרכים]]
[[nl:Piramide van Maslow]]
[[ja:自己実現理論]]
[[no:Maslows behovspyramide]]
[[pl:Hierarchia potrzeb]]
[[pt:Hierarquia de necessidades de Maslow]]
[[sk:Maslowova pyramída]]
[[fi:Maslow'n tarvehierarkia]]
[[sv:Behovshierarki]]
[[tr:Maslow teorisi]]
[[uk:Теорія мотивації Абрахама Маслоу]]
[[zh:需求层次理论]]
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