Politics of Egypt: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|none}}

{{Politics of Egypt}}

'''Politics of Egypt''' takes place in a framework of a [[semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Egypt]] is de facto both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a party system dominated by the [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the two chambers of parliament, the [[People's Assembly of Egypt|People’s Assembly]] and the [[Shura Council (Egypt)|Shura Council]].

The '''politics of Egypt''' takes place within the framework of a [[republic|republican]] [[semi-presidential system]] of government. The current political system was established following the [[2013 Egyptian coup d'état|2013 Egyptian military coup d'état]], and the takeover of [[President of Egypt|President]] [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]]. In the current system, the President is elected for a six-year term. Furthermore, the President has the power to dissolve Parliament through Article 137.

==Background==

The [[Parliament of Egypt]] is the oldest legislative chamber in Africa and the Middle East. The [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] Parliament has the ability to impeach the President through Article 161. With 2020 elections to the new Senate, the chamber became bicameral.

[[Image:presoffice.jpg|thumb|left|The Office of the [[President of Egypt]] at the [[Presidential Palace]].]]Egypt has been a republic since [[18 June]] [[1953]]. President [[Hosni Mubarak|Mohamed Hosni Mubarak]] has been the [[President of Egypt|President of the Republic]] since [[October 14]] [[1981]], following the assassination of former-President [[Anwar Sadat|Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat]]. Mubarak is currently serving his fifth term in office. He is the leader of the ruling [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]]. [[Heads of government of Egypt|Prime Minister]] Dr. [[Ahmed Nazif]] was sworn in as Prime Minister on [[9 July]] [[2004]], following the resignation of Dr. [[Atef Ebeid]] from his office.

==Presidency==

Egypt is regarded by many as being ruled by a military dictatorship. Although power is ostensibly organised under a [[Multi-party system|multi-party]] [[semi-presidential system]], whereby the executive power is theoretically divided between the President and the Prime Minister, in practice it rests almost solely with the President who traditionally has been elected in single-candidate elections for more than fifty years. So, how can we explain the sustainability of power in the hands of the President for this long period of time? One approach to explain the lack of democracy in Egypt is the famous rentier state theory. Although it is not one of the oil producing countries, Egypt's income largely comes from outside. The Egyptian budget heavily depends on tourism and financial support provided by foreign institutions and governments. "The U.S. has a large assistance program in Egypt and provides funding for a variety of programs in addition to some cash transfers." For example, "in September 2005 [Egypt was] issued $1.25 billion in 10-year bonds that were fully guaranteed by the United States." (US Department of State; Background Note: Egypt; http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm). In addition, tourism plays an important role in providing the country with hard courrency and helps financing the budget. This makes Egypt share a feature of rentier states, which is its relative independence from the national economy as a source of income for the government. Furthermore, there is the identity and colonial history approach. "Foreign influences over national culture and identity are seen as a means for the West to undermine the nation." As a result, people attempt to differentiate themselves from the West by stressing their difference and rejection of certain Western values such as gender equality. "The policing of the nation’s boundaries are conducted both through the construction of consent for the hegemonic culture backed by coercive mechanisms. Consequently, the process of identity construction as a means of resistance to the West contains an anti-democratic logic." (Identity, Culture and Democratisation: The Case of Egypt). These are some of the approaches aimed to explain Egypt's lack of democracy. But this is not say at all that the political life has been frozen in that country. Egypt is witnessing some political changes driven by American influence, some would argue, following the US 'Greater Middle East Initiative'. Although the United States has long advocated the promotion of human rights and political freedom in Egypt, most experts agree that, prior to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, economic reform superseded political reform in the West’s relations with Egypt. However, with the recent push for democracy in the Middle East seen as a counterweight to Islamic militancy and intellectual and social stagnation, U.S. policy regarding Egypt has been reinvigorated, as policymakers seek to balance U.S. security interests with U.S. democracy promotion policies." (CRS Report for Congress; Egypt: Background and U.S. Relations- Updated June 14, 2006-, available online at: http://www.usembassy.at/en/download/pdf/egypt_us.pdf) In late-February 2005, Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election. For the first time since the 1952 movement, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy." However, the new law placed draconian restrictions on the filing for presidential candidacies, designed to prevent well-known candidates such as [[Ayman Nour]] from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory.

{{Main|President of Egypt}}

The position was created after the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1952]]; Mohammed Naguib was the first to hold the position. Before 2005, the Parliament chose a candidate for the presidency and the people voted, in a referendum, whether or not they approved the proposed candidate for president. After the [[Egyptian Revolution of 2011]], a new presidential election was held [[Egyptian presidential election, 2012|2012]], it was the first free and fair elections in Egypt's political history.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/world/la-xpm-2012-jun-30-la-fg-egypt-morsi-20120701-story.html|title=Mohamed Morsi sworn in as Egypt's first Islamist president|date=June 30, 2012|website=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> The [[Muslim Brotherhood]] declared early 18 June 2012, that its candidate, [[Mohamed Morsi]], won the election. After a wave of public discontent with autocratic excesses of the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] government of President [[Mohamed Morsi]];<ref name=morsi-think-again>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/01/28/think-again-the-muslim-brotherhood/|title=Think Again: The Muslim Brotherhood|publisher=Al-Monitor|date=28 January 2013|access-date=2016-12-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202110236/http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/01/28/think-again-the-muslim-brotherhood/|archive-date=2 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> the beginning of July 2013 marked the onset of the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état, following the decision of [[Egyptian Army ranks|General]] [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]], to remove Morsi from office and suspend the constitution of 2012. El-Sisi was then elected head of state in the [[Egyptian presidential election, 2014|2014 presidential election]].<ref name=ao8June>{{cite news|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/103147.aspx|title=El-Sisi sworn in as Egypt president|date=8 June 2014|access-date=8 June 2014|publisher=Ahram Online|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611133848/http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/103147.aspx|archive-date=11 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> On 8 June 2014, Abdel Fatah el-Sisi was officially sworn in as Egypt's new president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt's Sisi sworn in as president |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/08/egypt-sisi-sworn-in-president |work=the Guardian |date=8 June 2014 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Image:parli.gif|thumb|The [[Parliament of Egypt|Egyptian Parliament]].]]Concerns were once again expressed after the 2005 elections about government interference in the election process through fraud and vote-rigging. In addition, violence by pro-Mubarak supporters against opposition demonstrators and police brutality were evident during the elections. This poses major questions about the government's purported commitment to democracy.[[User:Bhuppiace|Bhuppi]] 17:59, 7 March 2007 (UTC)

Article 133 of Egypt's constitution of 2012 determines a 4-year period of presidential mandate, to which the candidate can only be re-elected once. According to the document, to be eligible the candidate “must be Egyptian born to Egyptian parents, must have carried no other citizenship, must have civil and political right, cannot be married to a non-Egyptian,” and not be younger than 40 Gregorian years.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|title=Egypt's Constitution of 2012|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Egypt_2012.pdf?lang=en|publisher=Translated by International IDEA|date=4 February 2020|access-date=14 May 2020|author=Tfceccherini}}</ref>

As a result, most Egyptians are skeptical about the process of democratisation and the role of the elections. A very small proportion of those eligible to vote actually turned out for the 2005 elections. Newspapers, however, have exhibited an increasing degree of freedom in criticizing the president, and the results of the recent parliamentary elections, which saw Islamist parties such as the banned [[Muslim Brotherhood]] winning many seats, genuinely indicate that a change of some sorts is underway.

Article 146 declares the president to be the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. However, to declare war or to send armed forces outside state territory, the president must consult the National Defense Council and have the approval of the majority of the MPs.<ref name="auto"/>

==Constitution==

{{main|History of the Egyptian Constitution}}

[[Image:Egyptian_Supreme_Court.jpg|thumb|The Egyptian Supreme Court in [[Cairo]] .]]The [[Constitution of Egypt]] was approved by referendum in 1970 and amended in 1980 and 2005. The Egyptian constitution declares [[Egypt]] to be a "[[Democracy|democratic]] and [[Socialism|socialist]] republic", operating under a "multiparty system" semi-presidential system.

In April 2019, Egypt's parliament extended presidential terms from four to six years.<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt parliament extends presidential term to six years |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/egypt-parliament-extends-presidential-term-to-six-years/1454194 |work=www.aa.com.tr}}</ref>

The national government of Egypt is divided into an executive branch, a legislative branch and a judiciary branch. The Constitution grants wide powers to the executive. The President of Egypt heads the executive branch. The President’s powers stem from his ability to appoint the powerful prime minister and one or more Vice-Presidents. However, the President’s choice of the prime minister has to yield and maintain the approval the [[People's Assembly of Egypt|People’s Assembly]] ('''Maglis A Sha’ab'''), the lower house of [[Parliament of Egypt|Parliament]].

A [[2019 Egyptian constitutional referendum|constitutional referendum]] was held in Egypt from 20 to 22 April 2019, with overseas voting taking place between 19 and 21 April. The proposed changes allowed President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi to remain in power until 2030; under the previous version of the constitution, he would have been barred from contesting the next elections, set to take place in 2022. The changes were approved by 88.83% of voters who voted, with a 44% turnout.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2019-04-16|title=Egypt constitutional changes could mean Sisi rule until 2030|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-47947035|access-date=2021-06-05}}</ref>

Egypt is a [[unitary state]], meaning that its subdivisions do not have constitutional status. However, the various legal subdivisions, the ''governorates'' ('''Muhafazat'''), ''cities'' ('''Mudun'''), and counties ('''Kofour'''), have various attributions.

==Legislative branch==

Egypt is now a republic.

{{Life in Egypt}}

{{main|History of Parliamentary life in Egypt}}

[[Parliament of Egypt|Parliament]] meets for one eight-month session each year; under special circumstances the President of the Republic can call an additional session. Even though the powers of the Parliament have increased since the 1980 Amendments of the Constitution, the Parliament continues to lack the powers to balance the extensive powers of the President.

===The House of Representatives (Maglis El Nowwab)===

==Executive branch==

{{office-table}}

|[[President of Egypt|President]]

|[[Hosni Mubarak]]

|[[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|NDP]]

|[[14 October]] [[1981]]

|-

|[[Prime Minister of Egypt|Prime Minister]]

|[[Ahmed Nazif]]

|[[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|NDP]]

|[[14 July]] [[2004]]

|}

===President of the Republic===

{{main|President of Egypt}}

In February 2005, [[President of Egypt|President]] [[Hosni Mubarak|Mubarak]] proposed an amendment to article 76 of the constitution that would allow, for the first time, multi-candidate presidential elections. A referendum was held on [[May 25]] [[2005]], as required by the constitution, and the amendment was approved (reportedly, with a majority of over 82% support). However, the terms of the newly adopted amendment make it very difficult, if not impossible, for candidates other than those of Mubarak's National Democratic Party, which holds about 90% of parliament seats, to run for the elections. The hurdles include requiring aspiring presidential candidates to first secure the support of 250 elected officials (including 140 local council members, 65 People's Assembly deputies, and 25 members of the Shura Council), and requiring that the parties they represent to have existed for at least five years. In the event, the referendum was boycotted by some of Egypt's leading opposition parties, including the [[New Wafd Party|Wafd]].

The [[House of Representatives (Egypt)|House of Representatives]] is the principal legislative body. It consists of a maximum 596 representatives with 448 are directly elected through [[FPTP]] and another 120 elected through [[proportional representation]] in 4 nationwide districts while the President can appoint up to 28.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.aswatmasriya.com/news/view.aspx?id=d1c74bd4-fc9f-416d-9507-7c7585506bd4|title=Cabinet preliminarily passes law regulating electoral districts|publisher=Aswat Masriya|date=10 December 2014|access-date=10 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141211105347/http://en.aswatmasriya.com/news/view.aspx?id=d1c74bd4-fc9f-416d-9507-7c7585506bd4|archive-date=11 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> The House sits for a five-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the President.

Under the 1980 amendments of the Egyptian Constitution, the [[President of Egypt|President]] is elected for six years. As of 2005, President [[Hosni Mubarak|Mohamed Hosni Mubarak]] has been the President of the Republic since [[14 October]] [[1981]] and is currently serving his fifth term. President Mubarak was re-elected in 1987, 1993, and 1999, making him the longest serving Egyptian President in the history of the Republic.

The Constitution reserves fifty per cent of the House may force the resignation of the executive cabinet by voting a motion of censure. For this reason, the [[Prime Minister of Egypt|Prime Minister]] and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. In the case of a president and house from opposing parties, this leads to the situation known as [[cohabitation (government)|cohabitation]].

The President of Republic is elected indirectly in a two-stage system unique to Egypt. The People’s Assembly, the lower house of Parliament, nominates one of a number of candidates for presidency. The presidential candidate requires at least a two-thirds majority in the People’s Assembly in order to proceed to the second stage of the elections. The presidential candidate is voted on in a yes-or-no binding public referendum. On achieving a simple majority in the public referendum, the presidential candidate is sworn in as President. However, if the candidate is fails to obtain the required majority, the People’s Assembly nominates a new candidate for presidency, thus returning to the first stage of elections. The President may be re-elected multiple times with no limitation on the number of terms allowed to be served.

The recent elections were held in [[Egyptian parliamentary election, 2015|2015]] and most recently in [[2020 Egyptian parliamentary election|2020]].

The Egyptian system for presidential election is regarded by many as not being fully democratic due to the fact that it is the People’s Assembly and not the populace itself, who retains the upper-hand in choosing the Chief of State. In addition, it allows for whatever party or coalition controlling the People’s Assembly to put forward their candidate as the presidential candidate. This greatly explains how in most of the 1980s and 1990s the [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]] has managed to maintain the office of President and a parliamentary majority.

===Senate (Magles El Shiyoukh)===

The President names the [[Prime Minister of Egypt|prime minister]] and may preside over the cabinet. President Mubarak holds a monthly meeting with the cabinet on which he presides. In addition, the President is the Supreme Commander of the [[Military of Egypt|Egyptian Armed Forces]]. The President concludes treaties and may submit questions to national referenda. The President also possesses the constitutional power to dissolve the People’s Assembly, however, no President has ever done so. In certain emergencies, the President may assume special, comprehensive powers.

The [[Senate (Egypt)|Senate]] was the 264-member upper house of Parliament created in 1980. In the Senate, 176 members were directly elected and 88 members were appointed by the President of the Republic for six-year terms. One half of the Senate was renewed every three years.

The Senate legislative powers were limited. On most matters of legislation, the People's Assembly retained the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses.

Under the system created by the 1980 constitutional amendments, the President is the pre-eminent executive figure, who names the Prime Minister. When the President's political party or supporters control parliament, the President is in effect the ‘dominant’ player in executive action, choosing whoever he wishes for government, and having it follow ‘his’ political agenda. However, when the President's political opponents control parliament, the President's dominance can be severely limited, as he must choose a prime minister and cabinet reflecting the majority in parliament. When parties from opposite ends of the political spectrum control parliament and the presidency, the power-sharing arrangement is known as [[cohabitation (government)|cohabitation]]. By convention, the President controls foreign-affairs and defence related issues of the state, while the Prime Minister manages the day-to-day affairs including the economy.

It was called '''Shura Council''' which was abolished in the [[Constitution of Egypt|2014 constitution]].<ref>{{cite web|title=50 member constitution committee eliminates Shura Council|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/87991/Egypt/Politics-/-member-constitution-committee-eliminates-Shura-Co.aspx|publisher=Ahram Online|date=1 December 2013|access-date=19 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304121653/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/87991/Egypt/Politics-/-member-constitution-committee-eliminates-Shura-Co.aspx|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the late 1970s Egypt had several cohabitation governments which proved to be unstable, due to the struggle arising between the President and the Prime Minister. However, since 1981, the National Democratic Party has maintained a majority in the People’s Assembly and supplied the Egyptian President.

===Parliamentary Elections===

===The government or cabinet ('''Al-Hokouma Al-Misreya''')===

Political parties in Egypt are numerous and exceeds 100 parties. The formation of political parties based on religion, race or gender is prohibited by the Constitution. Before the revolution in 2011, power was concentrated in the hands of the President of the Republic and the [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]] which retained a [[super-majority]] in the People's Assembly.

''Main article: [[Cabinet of Egypt]], [[Prime Minister of Egypt]] <BR>''

The government, or the [[cabinet]], is headed by the [[Prime Minister of Egypt]]. It has at its disposal the [[Egyptian Civil Service|civil service]] the government agencies. The cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister, is responsible only to Parliament, specifically the People’s Assembly. The People’s Assembly may pass a motion of censure, forcing the resignation of the cabinet. Ministers have to answer questions from Members of Parliament, both written and oral; this is known as Inquiries to the Government '''Talebat Ihata'''. In addition, ministers attend meetings of the two houses of Parliament when laws pertaining to their areas of responsibility are being discussed.

Many [[List of political parties in Egypt|new political parties]] that mostly were fragile formed in anticipation of running candidates in the [[2011–12 Egyptian parliamentary election]] that was considered the first free one since the 1952 revolution. However the elected Parliament was dissolved by the constitutional court and new elections were held in [[Egyptian parliamentary election, 2015|2015]].

Traditionally, the cabinet comprises, in decreasing rank:

*''The Prime Minister''

*''Presidential Ministers'', the ministers of Defense, Interior, Foreign Affairs, and Information are appointed by the President himself and report both to the President and the Prime Minister (as opposed to other Ministers who can only report to the Prime Minister).

*''Ministers''

*''Ministers of State'', described as ‘junior ministers’, are assigned specific responsibilities or agencies. The portfolios of ministers of state are considerably more transient, as positions may be created and dissolved to suit specific short-term government priorities or the specific qualifications of candidates without alterations to the departmental structure, e.g. the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs.

*''Ministers without portfolio'', ministers who do not head specific departments and occasionally attend cabinet meetings, e.g. [[Minister without Portfolio]] Omar Suleiman, the current Chief of the Egyptian Intelligence Services.

*''Chairmen of Departments'', who head certain important departments that do not fall under the jurisdiction of any of the ministers and answer directly to the Prime Minister, e.g. The Chairman of the Suez Canal Authority.

*''Ministers-Delegate'', who assist ministers in areas of their duties and rarely attend cabinet meeting

The number of ministries and the splitting of responsibilities and administrations between them vary from government to government, but some positions tend to stay the same, even though the exact title of the position may vary.

*[[Ministry of the Interior (Egypt)|Ministry of the Interior]] (law enforcement, prisons)

*[[Ministry of Defence (Egypt)|Ministry of Defence and Military Production]],

*[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Egypt)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]]

*[[Ministry of Justice (Egypt)|Ministry of Justice]] (running the court system, supervision of the prosecution service)

The government has a leading role in shaping the agenda of the houses of Parliament. It may propose laws to Parliament, as well as amendments during parliamentary meetings. It may make use of some procedures to speed up parliamentary deliberations.

As of [[9 July]] [[2004]], the Prime Minister is [[Ahmed Nazif|Dr. Ahmed Nazif]].

==Legislative branch==

{{main|History of Parliamentary life in Egypt}}

[[Parliament of Egypt|Parliament]] meets for one nine-month session each year: under special circumstances the President of the Republic can call an additional session. Even though the powers of the Parliament have increased since the 1980 Amendments of the Constitution, the Parliament remains to lack the powers to balance the excessive powers of the President.

===The People’s Assembly ('''Majilis Al-Sha’ab''')===

The [[People's Assembly of Egypt|People’s Assembly]] is the principal legislative body. Out of the assembly’s 454 [[Chamber of Deputies|deputies]], 444 are directly elected while no more than 10 may be appointed by the President (article 87 of the Constitution). The Constitution reserves fifty percent of the assembly seats for ‘workers and peasants’. The assembly sits for a five-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the President. All seats are voted on in each election. Four hundred seats are voted on using [[proportional representation]] while the remaining forty-four are elected in local majority votes.

The People’s Assembly may cause the resignation of the executive cabinet by voting a motion of censure. For this reason, the [[Prime Minister of Egypt|Prime Minister]] and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. In the case of a president and assembly from opposing parties, this leads to the situation known as [[cohabitation]]. While motions of censure are periodically proposed by the opposition following government actions that it deems highly inappropriate, they are purely rhetorical; party discipline ensures that, throughout a parliamentary term, the government is never overthrown by the assembly.

===The Shura Council ('''Majilis Al-Shura''')===

The [[Shura Council (Egypt)|Shura Council]] is the 264-member upper house of Parliament created in 1980. The Shura Council roughly translates to the ‘Consultative Council’ in English. In the Shura Council 174 members are directly elected and 88 members are appointed by the President of the Republic for six-year terms. One half of the Shura Council is renewed every three years.

The Shura Council's legislative powers are limited. On most matters of legislation, the People’s Assembly retains the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses.

===Parliamentary elections===

There currently exist eighteen recognized political parties from across the political spectrum. The formation of political parties based on religion is prohibited by the Constitution. The official opposition and political pressure groups, like the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], are active in Egypt and make their views public. They are represented at various levels in the political system. However, power is concentrated in the hands of the President of the Republic and the [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]] which retains a super-majority in the People's Assembly.

The November 2000 Parliamentary Elections are generally regarded to have been more transparent and better executed than past elections. This is due to the new Law put into force establishing universal judicial monitoring of polling stations. On the other hand, opposition parties continue to lodge credible complaints about electoral manipulation by the government. There are significant restrictions on the political process and freedom of expression for non-governmental organizations, including professional syndicates and organizations promoting respect for human rights which have been greatly loosened up in the past five years.

Below the national level, authority is exercised by and through governors and mayors appointed by the central government and by popularly elected local councils.

==Political parties and elections==

==Judicial branch==

{{Main|List of political parties in Egypt|Elections in Egypt}}

{{Main|The Egyptian Judicial System}}

According to the [[Constitution of Egypt|Egyptian Constitution]], political parties are allowed to exist. Religious political parties are not allowed as it would not respect the [[separation of church and state|principle of non-interference of religion in politics]] and that religion has to remain in the private sphere to respect all beliefs. Also forbidden are political parties supporting militia formations or having an agenda that is contradictory to the constitution and its principles, or threatening the country's stability such as national unity between Muslim Egyptians and [[Copts|Christian Egyptians]].

As of 2015, there are more than 100 registered political parties in Egypt. The largest were the [[Free Egyptians Party]], [[New Wafd Party]], [[Conference Party]], and the [[Egyptian Social Democratic Party]].

The Egyptian judicial system is based on European, primarily French, legal concepts and methods. Under the several governments during the presidency of Mubarak, the courts have demonstrated increasing independence, and the principles of due process and judicial review have gained greater respect. The legal code is derived largely from the [[Napoleonic Code]]. Marriage and personal status are primarily based on the religious law of the individual concerned. Thus, there are three forms of Family Law in Egypt, Islamic, Christian, and secular (based on the French Family Laws).

In December 2020, final results of the parliamentary [[2020 Egyptian parliamentary election|election]] confirmed a clear majority of the seats for Egypt's Mostaqbal Watn ([[Nation's Future Party|Nation's Future]]) Party, which strongly supports president El-Sisi. The party even increased its majority, partly because of new electoral rules.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pro-Sisi party wins majority in Egypt's parliamentary polls |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/egypt-election-int-idUSKBN28O2T0 |work=Reuters |date=14 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

The judicial branch plays an important role in the political process in Egypt, the branch is given the responsibility to monitor and run the country's parliamentary and presidential elections.

==Civil society==

===Supreme Constitutional Court===

{{MainSee also|The Supreme ConstitutionalEmergency Courtlaw ofin Egypt}}

[[Egyptians]] had lived under emergency law from 1967 until 31 May 2012 (with one 18-month break starting in 1980).<ref>{{cite web |author= |date=2 June 2012 |title=Egypt lifts unpopular emergency law |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/31/world/africa/egypt-emergency-law/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202172747/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/31/world/africa/egypt-emergency-law/index.html |archive-date=2 February 2014 |access-date=19 January 2014 |website=CNN}}</ref> Emergency laws have been extended every three years since 1981. These laws sharply circumscribed any non-governmental political activity: street demonstrations, non-approved political organizations, and unregistered financial donations were formally banned. However, since 2000, these restrictions have been violated in practice. In 2003, the agenda shifted heavily towards local democratic reforms, opposition to the succession of [[Gamal Mubarak]] as president, and rejection of violence by state security forces. Groups involved in the latest wave include PCSPI, the Egyptian Movement for Change ([[Kefaya]]), and the Association for Egyptian Mothers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shorbagy|first=Manar|date=2007-01-01|title=The Egyptian Movement for Change—Kefaya: Redefining Politics in Egypt|url=https://doi.org/10.1215/08992363-2006-029|journal=Public Culture|volume=19|issue=1|pages=175–196|doi=10.1215/08992363-2006-029|issn=0899-2363|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Substantial peasant activism exists on a variety of issues, especially related to [[Land law|land rights]] and [[land reform]]. A major turning point was the 1997 repeal of [[Land reform in Egypt|Nasser-era land reform policies]] under pressure for [[structural adjustment]]. A pole for this activity is the Land Center for Human Rights.

The '''Supreme Constitutional Court''' is an independent judiciary body in the Arab Republic of Egypt, with its new seat in the [[Cairo]] suburban, [[Maadi]].

The [[2011 Egyptian revolution|Egyptian Revolution of 2011]], inspired by the recent revolution in [[Tunisia]], forced the resignation of President Mubarak and the Military Junta that succeeded him abrogated the Constitution and promised free and fair elections under a new one. On August 15, 2015, President al-Sisi enacted a new Counter-Terrorism Law, which [[Human Rights Watch]] claims "mimics" language "already contained in Egypt's decades-old Emergency Law". In Article 2, one of many references include terrorism as "any use of intimidation for the purpose of disturbing public order; harms national unity, social peace, or national security". Following to Section 2, the President "may issue a decree to take appropriate measures to maintain security and public order", addressed in Article 53.<ref>{{cite web|title=Anti-Terrorism Law|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Egypt_Anti-Terror_Law_Translation.pdf|publisher=Atlantic Council|date=September 2015|access-date=14 May 2020}}</ref> This includes "the power to order six-month curfews or evacuations in defined areas, subject to a majority vote in parliament within seven days, or cabinet approval if parliament is not in session."<ref>{{cite web |title=Egypt: Counterterrorism Law Erodes Basic Rights |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/08/19/egypt-counterterrorism-law-erodes-basic-rights |date=August 19, 2015 |website=Human Rights Watch |access-date=21 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404000432/https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/08/19/egypt-counterterrorism-law-erodes-basic-rights |archive-date=4 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Court is the highest judicial power in [[Egypt]] and it alone undertakes the judicial control in respect of the constitutionality of the laws and regulations and shall undertake the interpretation of the legislative texts in the manner prescribed by law.

==Political pressure==

The chief judge of the Supreme Court was the head of the Presidential Election Commission that supervised and ran the country's first multi-candidate presidential elections in 2005.

Before the revolution, Mubarak tolerated limited political activity by the [[Muslim Brotherhood|Brotherhood]] for his first two terms, then moved more aggressively to block its influence. Trade unions and professional associations are officially sanctioned. In 2014, in Upper Egypt, several newspapers reported that the region of Upper Egypt wants to secede from Egypt to try to improve living standards.<ref name="Is Egypt Breaking Apart?">{{cite web | url=http://www.iar-gwu.org/content/egypt-breaking-apart | title=Is Egypt Breaking Apart? | publisher=International Affairs Review | date=17 February 2014 | access-date=18 February 2014 | author=Gratowski, J. Thomas | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222150816/http://www.iar-gwu.org/content/egypt-breaking-apart | archive-date=22 February 2014 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Foreign relations==

==Political parties and elections==

{{main|Foreign relations of Egypt}}

According to the [[Constitution of Egypt|Egyptian Constitution]], political parties are allowed to exist. Religious political parties that are banned from being formed in Egypt. Also political parties that encourage militia formations or that has an agenda that is contradictory to the constitution or threatening to the country's stability such as the national unity between the Muslims and copts in Egypt.

The permanent headquarters for the [[League of Arab States]] (The Arab League) is located in Cairo. The Secretary-General of the League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Ahmed Abu El Ghet is the present Secretary-General of the Arab League. The Arab League moved out of Egypt to Tunis in 1978 as a protest at the peace treaty with Israel but returned in 1989.

Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with the state of Israel, after the signing of the [[Egypt–Israel peace treaty]] at the [[Camp David Accords (1978)|Camp David Accords]]. Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab nations, and in the Israeli–Palestinian dispute. Most Arab nations still give credence to Egypt playing that role, though its effects are often limited.

Today, there are 18 political parties in Egypt.

{{elect|List of political parties in Egypt|Elections in Egypt}}

{{Egyptian parliamentary election, 2005}}

{{Main|Egyptian parliamentary election, 2005}}

{{Egyptian presidential election, 2005}}

{{Main|Egyptian presidential election, 2005}}

Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]] served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.

==Civil society==

Egyptians have been living under emergency law since [[1967]], except for an 18-month break in [[1980]]. Emergency laws have been continuously extended every three years since [[1981]]. These laws sharply circumscribe any non-governmental political activity: street demonstrations, non-approved political organizations, and un-registered financial donations are formally banned. Nonetheless, since [[2000]], these restrictions have been violated in practice. New non-governmental organizations and activity first emerged around solidarity with the [[Palestinians]] during the [[second Intifada]] and continued with opposition to the invasion of Iraq. The [[Popular Committee in Solidarity with the Palestinian Intifada]] (PCSPI), which operates on a grassroots basis, and has held a variety of unlicensed activities, has formed a model for nongovernmental action. In 2005, the agenda shifted towards democratic reforms, opposition to the succession of Gamal Mubarak as president, and rejection of violence by state security forces. Groups involved in the latest wave include PCSPI, the Egyptian Movement for Change ([[Kifaya]] (Enough)), and the Association for Egyptian Mothers.

A territorial dispute with Sudan over an area known as the [[Hala'ib Triangle]] has meant that diplomatic relations between the two remain strained.

Substantial peasant activism exists on a variety of issues, especially related to [[land rights]] and [[land reform]]. A major flashpoint was the 1997 repeal of [[Egyptian land reform|Nasser-era land reform policies]] under pressure for [[structural adjustment]]. A pole for this activity is the [[Land Center for Human Rights]].

==See also==

==Administrative divisions==

* [[Internet in Egypt#Censorship|Censorship in Egypt]]

Egypt is divided in [[Governorates of Egypt|26 governorates]] ''(muhafazat;'' singular &ndash; ''muhafazah):'' [[Ad Daqahliyah]], [[Al Bahr al Ahmar, Egpyt|Al Bahr al Ahmar]], [[Al Buhayrah]], [[Al Fayyum]], [[Al Gharbiyah]], [[Al Iskandariyah]], [[Al Isma'iliyah]], [[Al Jizah]], [[Al Minufiyah]], [[Al Minya]], [[Al Qahirah Governorate|Al Qahirah]], [[Al Qalyubiyah]], [[Al Wadi al Jadid]], [[Ash Sharqiyah, Egypt|Ash Sharqiyah]], [[As Suways]], [[Aswan]], [[Asyut]], [[Bani Suwayf]], [[Bur Sa'id]], [[Dumyat]], [[Janub Sina']], [[Kafr ash Shaykh]], [[Matruh]], [[Qina]], [[Shamal Sina']], [[Suhaj]].

==References==

==Political pressure groups and leaders==

{{Reflist|30em}}

The [[Muslim Brotherhood]] currently constitutes Mubarak's most significant political opposition; Mubarak tolerated limited political activity by the Brotherhood for his first two terms, but has moved more aggressively in the past six years to block its influence (arguably leading to its recent rise in public support). Trade unions and professional associations are officially sanctioned.

===Bibliography===

==Foreign relations==

* Hatem Elliesie: [http://wikis.fu-berlin.de/download/attachments/17138089/Elliesie+Egypt.pdf ''The Rule of Law in Egypt'']. In: Matthias Koetter / Gunnar Folke Schuppert (Eds.), Understanding of the Rule of Law in various Legal Orders of the World: Working Paper Series Nr. 5 of SFB 700: Governance in Limited Areas of Statehood, Berlin 2010.

{{main|Foreign relations of Egypt}}

{{Refbegin}}

*{{cite book|last=Kassem|first=Maye|title=Egyptian Politics: The Dynamics of Authoritarian Rule|publisher=[[Lynne Rienner Publishers]]|year=2004|___location=Boulder, Colorado|isbn=1-58826-247-2}}

{{Refend}}

==Further reading==

The permanent headquarters for the [[League of Arab States]] (The Arab League) is located in Cairo.The Secretary General of the League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister [[Amr Moussa]] is the present Secretary General of the Arab League. The Arab League briefly moved out of Egypt to Tunis in 1978 as a protest at the peace treaty with Israel, but returned in 1989.

* Nathan J. Brown, Shimaa Hatab, and Amr Adly. 2021. ''[https://cup.columbia.edu/book/lumbering-state-restless-society/9780231201711 Lumbering State, Restless Society: Egypt in the Modern Era]''. Columbia University Press

Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with the state of Israel, after the signing of the [[Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty]] at the [[Camp David Accords (1978)|Camp David Accords]]. Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab nations, and in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute. Most Arab nations still give credence to Egypt playing that role, though its effects are often limited.

==External links==

Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.

* [http://www.aldokkan.com/government/government.htm Comparison Between Ancient And Modern Egyptian Governments] at Aldokkan

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080516160058/http://report.globalintegrity.org/Egypt Egypt] at ''Global Integrity Report''

* [http://documentarystorm.com/politics/a-nation-in-waiting/ Egypt: A Nation in Waiting (Al Jazeera documentary focusing on past trends in Egypt's political history and protests.)]

A territorial dispute with Sudan over an area known as the [[Hala'ib Triangle]], has meant that diplomatic relations between the two remain strained.

==External links==

'''General government sites'''

* [http://www.egypt.gov.eg/ Official Egyptian Government Portal]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040722212059/http://www.investment.gov.eg/ '''E'''gyptian '''I'''nvestment '''P'''ortal] official government site

* [http://www.sis.gov.eg/ Egypt State Information Service] official government site

* [https://web.archive.org/web/19970717103313/http://www.presidency.gov.eg/ The Egyptian Presidency]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051124110233/http://www.parliament.gov.eg/EPA/en/Index.jsp The People Assembly of Egypt]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050930195649/http://www.shoura.gov.eg/ Egyptian Shoura Council]

{{Egypt topics}}

'''Ministries'''

{{Africa in topic|Government of}}

*[http://www.idsc.gov.eg/ Council of Ministers]

{{Asia topic|Government of|TW=Government of the Republic of China}}

*[http://www.agri.gov.eg/ Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation]

{{Politics of Africa}}

*[http://www.mfa.gov.eg/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs]

{{Authority control}}

*[http://www.emigration.gov.eg/ Ministry of Manpower and Emigration]

*[http://www.eeaa.gov.eg/ Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs]

*[http://www.mwri.gov.eg/ Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources]

*[http://www.alshabab.gov.eg/ Ministry of Youth]

*[http://www.mop.gov.eg/ Ministry of Planning]

*[http://www.mfti.gov.eg/ Ministry of Economy]

*[http://www.mof.gov.eg/ Ministry of Finance]

*[http://www.emp.gov.eg/ Ministry of Petroleum]

*[http://www.scc.gov.eg/ Ministry of Culture]

*[http://www.investment.gov.eg/ Ministry of Investment]

*[http://www.emoe.org/ Ministry of Education]

*[http://www.assembly.gov.eg/ Ministry of People's Assembly]

*[http://www.senate.gov.eg/ Ministry of Shura Council Affairs]

*[http://www.egypttourism.org/ Ministry of Tourism]

*[http://www.mohp.gov.eg/ Ministry of Health and Population]

*[http://www.egy-mhe.gov.eg/ Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research]

*[http://www.mld.gov.eg/ Ministry of State for Local Development]

*[http://www.moft.gov.eg/ Ministry of Foreign Trade & Industry]

*[http://www.moee.gov.eg/ Ministry of Electricity and Energy]

*[http://www.mic.gov.eg/ Ministry of International Cooperation]

*[http://www.mcit.gov.eg/ Ministry of Communication and Information Technology (MCIT)]

*[http://www.minfo.gov.eg/ Ministry of Information]

*[http://www.ad.gov.eg/ Ministry of State for Administrative Development]

*[http://www.nuca.com.eg/ Ministry of Housing, Utilities, and Urban Communities]

*[http://www.ngolaw.org.eg/ Ministry of Interior Affairs]

*[http://msht.tripod.com/ Ministry of Supply and Home Trade]

*[http://www.mmc.gov.eg/ Ministry of Defense and Military Production]

'''Political parties'''

*[http://www.ndp.org.eg/ National Democratic Party (NDP)]

*[http://www.elghad.org/ El-Ghad Party]

*[http://www.alwafd.org/front/index.php/ New-Wafd Party (NWP)]

*[http://www.egyptiangreens.com/ Egyptian Greens]

{{Africa in topic|Politics of|African politics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Politics Of Egypt}}

[[Category:Politics of Egypt| ]]

[[Category:Government of Egypt|Government of Egypt]]

[[pt:Política do Egipto]]

[[ro:Preşedinţii Egiptului]]

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