Judeo-Christian: Difference between revisions

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{{short description|Term grouping Judaism and Christianity together}}

{{Other uses}}

The term '''''Judeo-Christian''''' is used to group [[Christianity and Judaism]] together, either in reference to [[Split of early Christianity and Judaism|Christianity's derivation from Judaism]], Christianity's recognition of [[Jewish scripture]] to constitute the "[[Old Testament]]" of the Christian [[Bible]], or due to the parallels or commonalities in [[JudaeoJudeo-Christian ethics|values supposed to be shared]] shared by the two religions. The term "''Judæo Christian"'' first appeared in the 19th century as a word for Jewish converts to Christianity. The term has received criticism, largely from Jewish thinkers, as relying on and perpetuating notions of [[supersessionism]], as well as glossing over fundamental differences between Jewish and Christian thought, theology, culture and practice.

In the [[United States]], the term was widely used during the [[Cold War]] in an attempt to suggest that the United States hadinvoke a unified American identity which was opposed to [[communism]].

The use of the more inclusive term "[[Abrahamic religions]] religions" to refer to the common grouping of faiths which are attributed to [[Abraham]] (the [[Baháʼí FaithIslam]], the [[IslamBaháʼí Faith]], [[Samaritanism]], [[Druze|Druzism]], and other faiths in addition to Judaism and Christianity) is also sometimes seen as problematic.<ref>{{cite book|author=Aaron W. Hughes|title=Abrahamic Religions: On the Uses and Abuses of History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0K3Ia1rQCZEC&pg=PA71|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=71–75|isbn=9780199934645}}</ref>

==History==

The term "Judæo Christian" first appears in a letter by [[Alexander McCaul]] which is dated October 17, 1821.{{efn|"From all I can see there is but one way to bring about the object of the Society, that is by erecting a Judæo Christian community, a city of refuge, where all who wish to be baptized could be supplied with the means of earning their bread."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=M'Caul |first1=Alexander |year=1820–1821 |title=Extract of a Letter From Mr. M'Caul |journal=The Jewish Expositor, and Friend of Israel |volume=V |pages=478 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSYbAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>}} The term in this case referred to [[JewishApostasy in ChristiansJudaism|Jewish converts to Christianity]].<ref>Judæo-, Judeo- in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], Second Edition. Accessed online 2008-07-21</ref> The term was similarly used by [[Joseph Wolff]] in 1829, in reference to a type of church that would observe some Jewish traditions in order to convert Jews.<ref>{{cite book |title=Missionary Journal of the Rev. Joseph Wolff, Missionary to the Jews |last=Wolff |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Wolff |year=1829 |volume=III |publisher=James Duncan |___location=London |page=314 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd8_AAAAcAAJ&q=Judeo-Christian&pg=PA314}}</ref> Mark Silk states in the early 19th century the term was "most widely used (in French as well as English) to refer to the early followers of Jesus who opposed" the wishes of [[Paul the Apostle]] and wanted "to restrict the message of Jesus to Jews and who insisted on maintaining Jewish law and ritual".<ref name="Silk-NCR-2019">{{cite web |last1=Silk |first1=Mark |title=Mark Silk on the history of the term 'Judeo-Christian' |url=https://www.ncronline.org/news/opinion/distinctly-catholic/mark-silk-history-term-judeo-christian |website=National Catholic Reporter |access-date=18 March 2020 |date=15 April 2019 |archive-date=14 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014180104/https://www.ncronline.org/news/opinion/distinctly-catholic/mark-silk-history-term-judeo-christian |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Friedrich Nietzsche]] used the German term {{lang|de|"Judenchristlich"}} ("Jewish-Christian") to describe and emphasize what he believed were neglected aspects of the continuity which exists between the Jewish and Christian worldviews. The expression appears in ''[[The Antichrist (book)|The Antichrist]]'', published in 1895 but written several years earlier; a fuller development of Nietzsche's argument can be found in the prior work, ''[[On the Genealogy of Morality]]''.

The concept of [[Judeo-Christian ethics]] or Judeo-Christian values in an [[ethics|ethical]] (rather than a theological or liturgical) sense was used by [[George Orwell]] in 1939, along with the phrase "the Judaeo-Christian scheme of morals".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0j2qODEJkdoC&pg=PA401|title=George Orwell: An age like this, 1920-1940|last=Orwell|first=George|date=2017-02-04|publisher=David R. Godine Publisher|isbn=9781567921335|pages=401|language=en}}</ref> TheologianAccording to theologian [[Richard L. Rubenstein]] wrote that, the "normative Judaeo-Christian interpretation of history" is to treat human suffering, such as a plague, as punishment for human guilt.<ref>{{cite book |title=After Auschwitz: Radical Theology and Contemporary Judaism |first=Richard L. |last=Rubenstein |author-link=Richard L. Rubenstein |publisher=The Bobbs-Merrill Company |year=1966 |oclc=2118249 }}</ref>

HistorianAccording to historian K. Healan Gaston has stated that, the term emerged asbecame a descriptor of the United StatesU.S. in the 1930s, when the UScountry sought to forge a unified cultural identity in an attempt to distinguish itself from [[fascism]] and [[communism]] in Europe. TheBecoming part of the [[American civil religion]] by the 1940s, the term rose to greater prominence during the [[Cold War]], especially when it was used to express opposition to [[Marxism and religion|communist atheism]]. In the 1970s, the term became particularly associated with the American [[Christian right]],. and itIt is oftensometimes employed in a separate context in political attempts to restrict [[immigration]] and [[LGBT rights]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Loeffler |first=James |date=August 1, 2020 |title=The Problem With the 'Judeo-Christian Tradition' |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/08/the-judeo-christian-tradition-is-over/614812/ |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |access-date=August 5, 2020 |archive-date=May 14, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240514230155/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/08/the-judeo-christian-tradition-is-over/614812/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Jewish concept of [[atonement]] is a major aspect of Christian theology, i.e. atonement through the crucifixion of Jesus Christ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2012/09/20/161486339/atonement-in-judaism-christianity-and-islam|title=Atonement in Judaism, Christianity and Islam|website=NPR.org }}</ref> [[Circumcision]] is a Jewish tradition kept by some modern [[Evangelicalism|evangelical Christians]], despite its rejection by Paul in the New Testament.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://amp.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2011/feb/17/evangelical-christians-jewish-customs-judaism|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160513145017/https://amp.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2011/feb/17/evangelical-christians-jewish-customs-judaism|archive-date = 2016-05-13|title = Evangelicals turning to Jewish customs? It's complicated &#124; Judaism: the Guardian}}</ref>

==Inter-group relations==

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===In the United States===

{{Main|Israel lobby in the United States}}

The rise of [[antisemitism]] in the 1930s led concerned Protestants, Catholics, and Jews to take steps to increase mutual understanding and lessen the level of [[antisemitism in the United States]].<ref>Sarna, Jonathan. ''American Judaism, A History'' (Yale University Press, 2004. p. 266)</ref> In this effort, precursors of the [[National Conference of Christians and Jews]] created teams consisting of a priest, a rabbi, and a minister, to run programs across the country, and fashion a more pluralistic America, no longer defined as a Christian land, but "one nurtured by three ennobling traditions: [[Protestantism]], [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] and [[Judaism]]....The phrase 'Judeo-Christian' entered the contemporary lexicon as the standard liberal term for the idea that Western values rest on a religious consensus that included Jews."<ref name="autogenerated2">Sarna, p. 267</ref>

The rise of [[antisemitism]] in the 1930s led concerned Protestants, Catholics, and Jews to take steps to increase mutual understanding and lessen the level of [[antisemitism in the United States]].<ref>{{sfn|Sarna, Jonathan. ''American Judaism, A History'' (Yale University Press, |2004. |p. =266)</ref>}} In this effort, precursors of the [[National Conference of Christians and Jews]] created teams consisting of a priest, a rabbi, and a minister, to run programs across the country, and fashion a more pluralistic America, no longer defined as a Christian land, but "one nurtured by three ennobling traditions: [[Protestantism]], [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] and [[Judaism]]....The phrase 'Judeo-Christian' entered the contemporary lexicon as the standard liberal term for the idea that Western values rest on a religious consensus that included Jews."<ref name="autogenerated2">{{sfn|Sarna, |2004|p. =267</ref>}}

In the aftermath of World War 2 and the [[Holocaust]], "there was a revolution in Christian theology in America. […] The greatest shift in Christian attitudes towards the Jewish people since [[Constantine I and Christianity|Constantine converted the Roman Empire]]."<ref>Brog, David. Standing With Israel. 2006.p.13</ref> The rise of [[Christian Zionism]], religiously motivated Christian interest, and support for the state of [[Israel]] increased interest in Judaism among [[Evangelicalism in the United States|American evangelicals]]. This interest is especially focused on areas of commonality between the teachings of Judaism and their own beliefs.

In the aftermath of World War 2II and the [[Holocaust]], "there was a revolution in Christian theology in America. […] The greatest shift in Christian attitudes towards the Jewish people since [[Constantine I and Christianity|Constantine converted the Roman Empire]]."<ref>Brog, David. Standing With Israel. 2006.p.13</ref> The rise of [[Christian Zionism]], religiously motivated Christian interest, and support for the state of [[Israel]] increased interest in Judaism among [[Evangelicalism in the United States|American evangelicals]]. This interest is especially focused on areas of commonality between the teachings of Judaism and their own beliefs.

During the late 1940s, evangelical proponents of the new Judeo-Christian approach lobbied Washington for diplomatic support of the new state of Israel. From the 1990s, continuing through the first two decades of the 21st century, interest in and a positive attitude towards America's Judeo-Christian tradition has become mainstream among [[evangelicalism|evangelicals]] and (to some extent) the political conservative movement in the United States.<ref>Paul Charles Merkley, ''Christian Attitudes Towards the State of Israel'' (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2007)</ref>

During the late 1940s, evangelical proponents of the new Judeo-Christian approach lobbied Washington for diplomatic support of the new state of Israel. From the 1990s, continuing through the first two decades of the 21st century, interest in and a positive attitude towards America's Judeo-Christian tradition has become mainstream among [[evangelicalism|evangelicals]] and (to some extent) the political conservative movement in the United States.<ref>{{cite book |last=Merkley |first=Paul Charles Merkley, ''|title=Christian Attitudes Towards the State of Israel'' (|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press, |year=2007) }}</ref>

In contrast, by the 1970s, [[mainline Protestant]] denominations and the [[National Council of Churches]] were more supportive of Palestinians than Israel.<ref>Caitlyn Carenen, ''The Fervent Embrace: Liberal Protestants, Evangelicals, and Israel'' (2012)</ref> [[Natan Sharansky]] observed in 2019, that for the first time, he was encountering the situation of nations with ample governmental support for Israel but disinterest and even overt hostility by the Jewish populace.

American Christians, particularly those aligned with the Christian Right, have historically extended strong support to the State of Israel. This support is rooted in conservative Protestant theology, which views Jews as God's chosen people with a special biblical status and role. However, this perspective is paradoxical, as it also considers Jews in need of conversion to Christianity for salvation. Beyond theological reasons, liberal Christian and secular organizations have also played significant roles in advocating for Jewish migration to Palestine and the establishment of Israel, often citing humanitarian concerns. This multifaceted support has influenced U.S. foreign policy towards Israel, reflecting the complex interplay between religious beliefs and political activism within the American Christian community.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Salleh |first1=Mohd Afandi |last2=Abu-Hussin |first2=Mohd Fauzi |title=The American Christians and the State of Israel |journal=Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies |volume=12 |issue=34 |pages=152–172 |date=Spring 2013 |issn=1583-0039 |publisher=SACRI |language=en}}</ref>

The scriptural basis for this new positive attitude towards Jews among evangelicals is found in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 12:3, in which God promises that he will bless those who bless [[Abraham]] and his descendants, and curse those who curse them. Other factors in the new [[philo-Semitism]] include gratitude to the Jews for contributing to the theological foundations of Christianity and being the source of the prophets and [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]]; remorse for the [[Antisemitism in Christianity|Church's history of antisemitism]]; and fear that God will judge the nations at the end of time based on how they treated the Jewish people.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} Moreover, for many evangelicals Israel is seen as the instrument through which prophecies of the [[Eschatology|end times]] are fulfilled.<ref>Evangelicals and Israel: The Story of Christian Zionism by Stephen Spector, 2008</ref>

In contrast, by the 1970s, [[mainline Protestant]] denominations and the [[National Council of Churches]] were more supportive of Palestinians than Israel.<ref>Caitlyn{{cite book |last=Carenen, ''|first=Caitlyn |title=The Fervent Embrace: Liberal Protestants, Evangelicals, and Israel'' (|publisher=NYU Press |year=2012) |isbn=9780814741047 |language=en }}</ref> [[Natan Sharansky]] observed in 2019, that, for the first time, he was encountering the situation of nations with ample governmental support for Israel but disinterest and even overt hostility by the Jewish populace.

The use of the term "Judeo-Christian" in 21st century discourse has been criticized for equating two different faiths and being a vector for [[Islamophobia]] by exclusion.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/155735/rights-judeo-christian-fixation |title=The Right's "Judeo-Christian" Fixation |author=Udi Greenberg |date=November 14, 2019 |publisher=The New Republic |access-date=July 10, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://religiondispatches.org/what-do-we-mean-by-judeo-christian/ |title=What Do We Mean by 'Judeo-Christian'? |last=Goldman |first=Shalom |date=February 15, 2011 |publisher=Religious Dispatches.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://theconversation.com/the-term-judeo-christian-has-been-misused-for-political-ends-a-new-abrahamic-identity-offers-an-alternative-125523 |title=The term 'Judeo-Christian' has been misused for political ends – a new 'Abrahamic' identity offers an alternative |author=Toby Greene |date=December 24, 2020 |publisher=The Conversation}}</ref>

The scriptural basis for this new positive attitude towards Jews among evangelicals is found in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 12:3, in which God promises that he will bless those who bless [[Abraham]] and his descendants, and curse those who curse them. In the evangelical interpretation this promise includes the descendants of Abraham. Other factors in the new [[philo-Semitism]] include gratitude to the Jews for contributing to the theological foundations of Christianity and being the source of the prophets and [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]]; remorse for the [[Antisemitism in Christianity|Church's history of antisemitism]]; and fear that God will judge the nations at the end of time based on how they treated the Jewish people.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} Moreover, for many evangelicals Israel is seen as the instrument through which prophecies of the [[Eschatology|end times]] are fulfilled.<ref>Evangelicals and Israel: The Story of Christian Zionism by Stephen Spector, 2008</ref>

The use of the term "Judeo-Christian" in 21st century discourse has been criticized for equating two different faiths and being a vector for [[Islamophobia]] by exclusion.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/155735/rights-judeo-christian-fixation |title=The Right's "Judeo-Christian" Fixation |author=Udi Greenberg |date=November 14, 2019 |publisher=The New Republic |access-date=July 10, 2023 |archive-date=May 10, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510180637/https://newrepublic.com/article/155735/rights-judeo-christian-fixation |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://religiondispatches.org/what-do-we-mean-by-judeo-christian/ |title=What Do We Mean by 'Judeo-Christian'? |last=Goldman |first=Shalom |date=February 15, 2011 |publisher=Religious Dispatches. |access-date=July 10, 2023 |archive-date=May 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529221059/https://religiondispatches.org/what-do-we-mean-by-judeo-christian/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://theconversation.com/the-term-judeo-christian-has-been-misused-for-political-ends-a-new-abrahamic-identity-offers-an-alternative-125523 |title=The term 'Judeo-Christian' has been misused for political ends – a new 'Abrahamic' identity offers an alternative |author=Toby Greene |date=December 24, 2020 |publisher=The Conversation |access-date=July 10, 2023 |archive-date=May 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529221124/https://theconversation.com/the-term-judeo-christian-has-been-misused-for-political-ends-a-new-abrahamic-identity-offers-an-alternative-125523 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===In Europe===

See [[{{Main|philosemitism]].}}

==Jewish responses==

The Jewish community's attitude towards the concept has been mixed. In the 1930s, "In the face of worldwide anti-semitic efforts to stigmatize and destroy Judaism, influential Christians and Jews in America labored to uphold it, pushing Judaism from the margins of American religious life towards its very center."<ref>({{sfn|Sarna, |2004|p.=267)</ref>}} During [[World War II]], Jewish chaplains worked with Catholic priests and Protestant ministers in order to promote goodwill, addressing servicemen who, "in many cases had never seen, much less heard a [[Rabbi]] speak before.".{{citation neededSfn|dateSarna|2004|p=June 2019267}} At funerals for the unknown soldier, rabbis stood alongside the other chaplains and recited prayers in Hebrew. In a much-publicized wartime tragedy, the sinking of the {{SS|Dorchester||2}}, the ship's multi-faith chaplains gave up their lifebelts to evacuate seamen and stood together "arm in arm in prayer" as the ship sank. A 1948 postage stamp commemorated their heroism with the words: "interfaith in action."<ref name.{{sfn|Sarna|2004|p="autogenerated2"/>267}}

In the 1950s, "a spiritual and cultural revival washed over American Jewry" in response to the trauma of the Holocaust.<ref name{{sfn|Sarna|2004|p=autogenerated2 /> 267}} American Jews became more confident in their desire to be identified as different.

Two notable books addressed the relationship between contemporary Judaism and Christianity, [[Abba Hillel Silver]]'s ''Where Judaism Differs'' and [[Leo Baeck]]'s ''Judaism and Christianity'', both motivated by an impulse to clarify Judaism's distinctiveness "in a world where the term Judeo-Christian had obscured critical differences between the two faiths."<ref>.{{sfn|Sarna, p281</ref>|2004|p=281}} Reacting against the blurring of theological distinctions, Rabbi [[Eliezer Berkovits]] wrote that "Judaism is Judaism because it rejects Christianity, and Christianity is Christianity because it rejects Judaism."<ref>Disputation and Dialogue: Readings in the Jewish Christian Encounter, Ed. F. E. Talmage, Ktav, 1975, p. 291.</ref> Theologian and author [[Arthur A. Cohen]], in ''The Myth of the Judeo-Christian Tradition'', questioned the theological validity of the Judeo-Christian concept and suggested that it was essentially an invention of [[Politics of the United States|American politics]], while [[Jacob Neusner]], in ''Jews and Christians: The Myth of a Common Tradition'', writes, "The two faiths stand for different people talking about different things to different people."<ref>Jacob Neusner (1990), ''Jews and Christians: The Myth of a Common Tradition''. New York and London: Trinity Press International and SCM Press. p. 28</ref>

Law professor Stephen M. Feldman looking at the period before 1950, chiefly in Europe, sees invocation of a "Judeo-Christian tradition" as [[supersessionism]]:

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* [[J. H. Hexter|Hexter, J. H.]] ''The Judaeo-Christian Tradition'' (Second Edition). [[Yale University Press]], 1995; {{ISBN|978-0300045727}}

* McGrath, Alister. ''In the Beginning: The Story of the King James Bible and How It Changed a Nation, a Language, and a Culture''. Anchor Books, 2002. {{ISBN|0385722168}}.

* {{cite book |last=Sarna |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Sarna |title=American Judaism, A History |publisher=Yale University Press |date=2004}}

==External links==

* [https://dennisprager.com/column/what-does-judeo-christian-mean/ What does Judeo-Christian mean?], [[Dennis Prager]] (30 March 2004)

{{Wikiquote}}

{{wiktionary|Judeo-Christian}}