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{{Short description|1941 Japanese surprise attack on the United States}}
{{Redirect|December 7, 1941|the date|December 1941#December 7, 1941 (Sunday)}}
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{{Use American English|date=April 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Attack on Pearl Harbor
| partof = the [[Asiatic-Pacific Theater]] of [[World War II]]
| image = File:Attack on Pearl Harbor Japanese planes view.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = Photograph of [[Battleship Row]] taken from a Japanese plane at the beginning of the attack. The explosion in the center is a torpedo strike on {{USS|West Virginia|BB-48|6}}.<!--see image at commons--> Two attacking Japanese planes can be seen: one over {{USS|Neosho|AO-23|6}} and one over the [[Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard|Naval Yard]].
| date = {{start date and age|1941|12|7}}
| place = [[Oahu]], [[Territory of Hawaii]], US
| coordinates = {{Coord|21.365|-157.950|format=dms|type:event_region:US-HI|display=inline,title}}
| result = Japanese victory
* United States joins the [[United States declaration of war on Japan|Allied Forces]]
| map_type = Hawaii#Pacific Ocean
| map_size = 300
| combatant1 = {{flag|United States|1912}}
| combatant2 = {{flagcountry|Empire of Japan}}
| commander1 = {{indented plainlist|
*[[Husband E. Kimmel]]
*[[Walter Short]]
}}
| commander2 = {{indented plainlist|
*[[Isoroku Yamamoto]]
*[[Chūichi Nagumo]]
}}
| units1 = {{indented plainlist|
*{{flagdeco|USA|1912}} [[United States Pacific Fleet|U.S. Pacific Fleet]]}}
| units2 = {{indented plainlist|
*{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|naval}} [[1st Air Fleet]]}}
| strength1 = {{indented plainlist|
*8 [[battleship]]s
*8 [[cruiser]]s
*30 [[destroyer]]s
*4 [[submarine]]s
*73 other ships<ref>{{Citation |date=November 13, 2020 |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/s/ships-present-at-pearl-harbor.html |title=Ships and District Craft Present at Pearl Harbor, 0800 7 December 1941 |website=The Navy Department Library |publisher=[[Naval History and Heritage Command]] |access-date=December 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118145021/https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/s/ships-present-at-pearl-harbor.html |archive-date=November 18, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{refn|Total includes {{USCGC|Taney|WHEC-37}}, {{USCGC|Reliance|WSC-150}}, and {{USCGC|Tiger|WSC-152}}.<ref>{{Citation |last=Thiesen |first=William H. |date=December 7, 2017 |title=The Long Blue Line: The Attack on Pearl Harbor – "a date that will live in infamy" |url=http://coastguard.dodlive.mil/2017/12/the-long-blue-line-the-attack-on-pearl-harbor-a-date-that-will-live-in-infamy/ |website=Coast Guard Compass |access-date=December 8, 2017 |archive-date=December 9, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209100049/http://coastguard.dodlive.mil/2017/12/the-long-blue-line-the-attack-on-pearl-harbor-a-date-that-will-live-in-infamy/}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |date=2017 |title=U.S. Coast Guard Units in Hawaii: December 7, 1941 |url=https://media.defense.gov/2017/Jul/01/2001772263/-1/-1/0/PEARLHARBOR.PDF |website=media.defense.gov |access-date=December 8, 2017 |archive-date=December 9, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209100100/https://media.defense.gov/2017/Jul/01/2001772263/-1/-1/0/PEARLHARBOR.PDF |url-status=live}}</ref>|group=nb}}
*390 aircraft
}}
| strength2 = {{indented plainlist|
*6 [[aircraft carrier]]s
*2 battleships
*2 [[heavy cruiser]]s
*1 [[light cruiser]]
*9 destroyers
*8 tankers
*23 [[fleet submarine]]s
*5 [[midget submarine]]s
*414 [[Carrier-based aircraft|aircraft]] (353 took part in the raid)
}}
| casualties1 = {{indented plainlist|
*4 battleships sunk
*4 battleships damaged
*1 ex-battleship sunk
*1 harbor [[tug]] sunk
*3 [[light cruiser]]s damaged{{refn|Unless otherwise stated, all vessels listed were salvageable.{{sfn|Nimitz|1942}}|group=nb}}
*3 destroyers damaged
*3 other ships damaged
*188 aircraft destroyed
*159 aircraft damaged
*2,008 [[Personnel of the United States Navy|sailors]] killed
*109 [[United States Marine Corps|Marines]] killed
*218 soldiers killed<ref name=USN>{{Citation |date=December 2, 2020 |title=Overview of The Pearl Harbor Attack, 7 December 1941 |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/p/the-pearl-harbor-attack-7-december-1941.html |access-date=December 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602043203/https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/p/the-pearl-harbor-attack-7-december-1941.html |archive-date=June 2, 2021 |url-status=live |website=The Navy Department Library |publisher=[[Naval History and Heritage Command]]}}</ref>
*68 civilians killed<ref name=censusfactsheet /><ref name=USN />
*2,403 total killed<ref name=censusfactsheet>[https://www.census.gov/history/pdf/pearl-harbor-fact-sheet-1.pdf "A Pearl Harbor Fact Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516060130/https://www.census.gov/history/pdf/pearl-harbor-fact-sheet-1.pdf |date=May 16, 2023 }} [[United States Census Bureau]]</ref><ref name=USN />
*1,178 military and civilians wounded<ref name=USN />
}}
| casualties2 = {{indented plainlist|
*4 [[midget submarine]]s sunk
*1 midget submarine grounded
*29 aircraft destroyed
*74 aircraft damaged
*129 killed<ref name=PHFS>{{Cite web |title=Remembering Pearl Harbor: A Pearl Harbor Fact Sheet |url=https://www.census.gov/history/pdf/pearl-harbor-fact-sheet-1.pdf |website=www.census.gov |publisher=[[The National WWII Museum]] |via=[[United States Census Bureau]]}}</ref><ref name=Kimberly>{{Cite book |last=Sarmiento |first=Kimberly |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AsvqDQAAQBAJ |title=Events That Changed the Course of History: The Story of the Attack on Pearl Harbor 75 Years Later |date=2017-01-17 |publisher=Atlantic Publishing Company |isbn=978-1-62023-149-4 |language=en |quote=Only 129 Japanese soldiers were killed during that attack, and one was taken prisoner.}}</ref>
*[[Kazuo Sakamaki|1 sailor]] captured{{sfn|Gilbert|2004|p=272}}
}}
| notes = <div style="text-align: center;">'''Civilian casualties'''</div>{{indented plainlist|
*68 killed<ref>{{Harvnb|Gailey|1997|p=96}}: "There were 103 civilian casualties, including 68 dead."</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Full Pearl Harbor Casualty List |publisher=USSWestVirginia.org |url=http://www.usswestvirginia.org/ph/phresults.php |access-date=December 8, 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=January 17, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117104216/http://www.usswestvirginia.org/ph/phresults.php}}</ref>
*35 wounded{{sfn|Conn|Engelman|Fairchild|2000|p=194}}
*3 aircraft shot down }}
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Hawaiian Islands Campaign}}
{{Campaignbox Pacific 1941}}
{{Campaignbox Pacific Ocean}}
}}
{{History of Hawaii}}
The '''attack on Pearl Harbor'''<ref group=nb>Also known as the '''Battle of Pearl Harbor'''</ref> was a surprise [[military strike]] by the [[Empire of Japan]] on the [[United States Pacific Fleet]] at [[Naval Station Pearl Harbor|its naval base]] at [[Pearl Harbor]] on [[Oahu]], [[Territory of Hawaii|Hawaii]], on December 7, 1941. At the time, the U.S. was a [[Neutral powers during World War II|neutral country]] in [[World War II]]. The air raid on Pearl Harbor, which was launched from [[Aircraft carrier|aircraft carriers]], resulted in the U.S. declaring war on Japan the next day. The [[Imperial General Headquarters|Japanese military leadership]] referred to the attack as the '''Hawaii Operation''' and '''Operation AI''',{{refn|For the Japanese designator of Oahu.{{sfn|Wilford|2002|p=32 fn. 81}}|group=nb}} and as '''Operation Z''' during its planning.{{sfn|Fukudome|1955b}}{{sfn|Goldstein|Dillon|2000|pp=17ff}}{{sfn|Morison|2001|pp=101, 120, 250}}
The attack on Pearl Harbor was preceded by months of negotiations between the U.S. and Japan over the future of the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]]. Japanese demands included that the U.S. [[ABCD line|end its sanctions against Japan]], cease aiding [[Republic of China (1912-1949)|China]] in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], and allow Japan to access the resources of the [[Dutch East Indies]]. Japan sent out its naval attack group on November 26, 1941, just prior to receiving the [[Hull note]], which stated the U.S. desire that Japan withdraw from China and [[French Indochina]]. [[Isoroku Yamamoto]], commander of the Japanese [[Combined Fleet]], planned the attack as a pre-emptive strike on the Pacific Fleet, based at Pearl Harbor since 1940 in order to prevent it from interfering with Japan's planned actions in [[Southeast Asia]]. Yamamoto hoped that the strike would enable Japan to make quick territorial gains and negotiate a peace. In addition to Pearl Harbor, over seven hours Japan launched coordinated attacks on the U.S.-held [[Philippines campaign (1941–1942)|Philippines]], [[Battle of Guam (1941)|Guam]], and [[Battle of Wake Island|Wake Island]]; and on the [[British Empire]] in [[Japanese invasion of Malaya|Malaya]], [[Battle of Singapore#Outbreak of war|Singapore]], and [[Battle of Hong Kong|Hong Kong]].<ref name="Gill85">{{Harvnb|Gill|1957|p=485}}</ref>
The attack force, commanded by [[Chūichi Nagumo]], began its attacks at 7:48{{spaces}}a.m. Hawaiian time (6:18{{spaces}}p.m. GMT) on December 7, 1941.{{refn|name=Hawaii time|In 1941, Hawaii was half an hour different from the majority of other time zones. See [[UTC−10:30]].|group=nb}} The base was attacked by 353 [[fighter aircraft|fighter]]s, [[Bomber|level and dive bomber]]s, and [[torpedo bomber]]s in two waves launched from six aircraft carriers.<ref name="parillo288">{{Harvnb|Parillo|2006|p=288}}</ref> Of the eight U.S. [[battleship]]s present, all were damaged and four were sunk. All but {{USS|Arizona|BB-39|2}} were later raised, and six were returned to service during the war. The Japanese also sank or damaged three [[cruiser]]s, three [[destroyer]]s, an anti-aircraft training ship,{{refn|{{USS|Utah|BB-31|6}}; the former battleship ''Utah'' was moored in the space intended to have been occupied by the aircraft carrier ''Enterprise'' which, returning with a task force, had been expected to enter the channel at 0730 on December 7; delayed by weather, the task force did not reach Pearl Harbor until dusk the following day.<ref>{{Harvnb|Thomas|2007|pp=57–59}}.</ref>|group=nb}} and a [[minelayer]]. More than 180 U.S. aircraft were destroyed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pearl Harbor attack | Date, History, Map, Casualties, Timeline, & Facts | Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Pearl-Harbor-attack |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408061328/https://www.britannica.com/event/Pearl-Harbor-attack |archive-date=April 8, 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022 |website=www.britannica.com}}</ref> A total of 2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded, while the Japanese lost a total of 29 aircraft, five [[Midget submarine|midget submarines]], and 130 men. The three U.S. carriers stationed at Pearl Harbor were at sea at the time, and important base installations, including its oil storage and naval repair facilities, were not attacked.
[[Japanese declaration of war on the United States and the British Empire|Japan declared war]] on the U.S. and the British Empire later that day (December 8 in [[Tokyo]]), but the declarations were not delivered until the next day. On December 8, both the [[United Kingdom declaration of war on Japan|United Kingdom]] and [[United States declaration of war on Japan|U.S. declared war on Japan]]. On December 11, though they had no formal obligation to do so under the [[Tripartite Pact]] with Japan, [[German declaration of war against the United States (1941)|Germany]] and [[Italian declaration of war on the United States|Italy]] each declared war on the United States, which responded with a declaration of war against [[1941 United States declaration of war upon Germany|Germany]] and [[United States declaration of war upon Italy|Italy]]. While there were historical precedents for unannounced military action by Japan, the lack of a formal warning and perception that the attack had been unprovoked led U.S. president [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] to famously label December 7, 1941, "[[Day of Infamy speech|a date which will live in infamy]]". The attack was the deadliest event ever in Hawaii,<ref>{{cite web |title=The deadliest disaster to ever happen in each state |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/travel/news/the-deadliest-disaster-to-ever-happen-in-each-state/ss-AA15iVyW?ocid=msedgntp&cvid=b852eb5146d44c5497c7b7a63e1e26f8&ei=70#image=12 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425014953/https://www.msn.com/en-us/travel/news/the-deadliest-disaster-to-ever-happen-in-each-state/ss-AA15iVyW?ocid=msedgntp&cvid=b852eb5146d44c5497c7b7a63e1e26f8&ei=70#image=12 |archive-date=April 25, 2023 |access-date=25 April 2023 |website=MSN}}</ref> and the deadliest foreign attack on the U.S. until the [[September 11 attacks]] of 2001.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Robertson |first1=Albert |title=Attacks on American Soil: Pearl Harbor and September 11 |url=https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/attacks-on-american-soil-pearl-harbor-and-september-11 |website=Digital Public Library of America |publisher=DPLA}}</ref>
{{TOC limit|limit=3}}
==Background==
{{Main|Prelude to the attack on Pearl Harbor}}
===
[[File:Pearl Harbor looking southwest-Oct41.jpg|thumb|[[Pearl Harbor]] on October 30, 1941, a month prior to the attack, with [[Ford Island]] visible (in the center)]]
War between the [[Empire of Japan]] and the [[United States]] was seen as a possibility since the 1920s. Japan had been wary of American territorial and military expansion in the Pacific and Asia since the late 1890s, followed by the annexation of islands, such as [[Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom|Hawaii]] and the [[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands|Philippines]], which were close to or within Japan's perceived [[sphere of influence]].{{sfn|Worth|2014}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}{{sfn|Bailey|Farber|2019}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}<ref>{{Cite news |mode=cs2 |last=Burress |first=Charles |date=July 19, 2001 |title=Biased history helps feed U.S. fascination with Pearl Harbor |work=The Japan Times |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2001/07/19/commentary/world-commentary/biased-history-helps-feed-u-s-fascination-with-pearl-harbor/ |access-date=2021-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812140356/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2001/07/19/commentary/world-commentary/biased-history-helps-feed-u-s-fascination-with-pearl-harbor/ |archive-date=August 12, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |mode=cs2 |title=United States Maritime Expansion across the Pacific during the 19th Century |website=Milestones: 1830–1860 |publisher=United States Department of State, Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/pacific-expansion |access-date=2021-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321022956/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/pacific-expansion |archive-date=March 21, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>
At the same time, Japanese strategic thinkers believed that Japan needed economic self-sufficiency in order to wage modern war. The experiences of World War I had taught the Japanese that modern wars would be protracted, require total mobilization, and create vulnerabilities for [[trade embargo]]es and encirclement. As a consequence, Japan needed access to strategically important resources (e.g., iron, oil) that could not be extracted at sufficient levels in the home islands.{{sfn|Barnhart|1987|pp=17–49}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Iriye |first=Akira |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Origins-of-the-Second-World-War-in-Asia-and-the-Pacific/Iriye/p/book/9780582493490 |title=The Origins of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific |date=1987 |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-0-582-49349-0 |pages=168–177 |language=en |access-date=July 21, 2023 |archive-date=July 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721172204/https://www.routledge.com/The-Origins-of-the-Second-World-War-in-Asia-and-the-Pacific/Iriye/p/book/9780582493490 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Although Japan had begun to take a hostile stance against the United States after the rejection of the [[Racial Equality Proposal]],<ref>{{Cite news |mode=cs2 |last1=Axelrod |first1=Josh |date=August 11, 2019 |title=A Century Later: The Treaty Of Versailles And Its Rejection Of Racial Equality |website=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2019/08/11/742293305/a-century-later-the-treaty-of-versailles-and-its-rejection-of-racial-equality |access-date=2021-02-28 |archive-date=April 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413202236/https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2019/08/11/742293305/a-century-later-the-treaty-of-versailles-and-its-rejection-of-racial-equality |url-status=live}}</ref> their relationship was cordial enough to remain trading partners.{{sfn|Lauren|1978}}<ref name="PaW-94,96">{{Harvnb|Department of State|1943|pp=94, 96}}</ref> Tensions did not seriously grow until [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria|Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931]]. Over the next decade, Japan expanded into [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|China]], leading to the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and endeavored to secure enough independent resources to attain victory on the mainland. The "[[Nanshin-ron|Southern Operation]]" was designed to assist these efforts.{{sfn|Bailey|Farber|2019}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}{{sfn|Barnhart|1987}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}} Nevertheless, Japan would still rely heavily on U.S. oil imports, including to Japanese forces in [[Manchukuo|Japan-occupied Manchuria]].<ref name=teaglejapan>{{cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1934v03/d649|title=Memorandum by the Chief of the Division of Far Eastern Affairs (Hornbeck) of a Conversation With the President of the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey (Walter C. Teagle)|author=Office of the Historian|publisher=U.S State Department|date=October 24, 1934|accessdate=January 18, 2025}}</ref> In a memorandum dated October 24, 1934, Chief of the Division of Far Eastern Affairs [[Stanley K. Hornbeck]] discussed his meeting with [[ExxonMobil|Standard Oil New Jersey]] head [[Walter C. Teagle]] to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The memo described that Teagle was uncooperative with U.S. recommendations and how Standard Oil was given special treatment by the Japanese government, which made the company less subject to Japan's national business regulation policies than other companies.<ref name=teaglejapan /> Hornbeck noted in the memorandum that as a result of Teagle's business dealings with Japan, "the major portion of the petroleum and petroleum products now imported into Japan is of American origin."<ref name=teaglejapan />
Starting in December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on [[USS Panay incident|USS ''Panay'']], the [[John Moore Allison|Allison incident]], and the [[Nanking Massacre]] swung Western public opinion sharply against Japan. The United States unsuccessfully proposed a joint action with the United Kingdom to blockade Japan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gruhl|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5Wlmu9MPQC&pg=PA39 39]}}</ref> In 1938, following an appeal by President Roosevelt, American companies stopped providing Japan with implements of war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gruhl|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5Wlmu9MPQC&pg=PA40 40]}}</ref>
In 1940, [[Japanese invasion of French Indochina|Japan invaded French Indochina]], attempting to stymie the flow of supplies reaching China. The United States halted shipments of airplanes, parts, [[machine tool]]s, and [[Avgas|aviation gasoline]] to Japan, which the latter perceived as an unfriendly act.{{refn|After it was announced in September that iron and steel scrap export would also be prohibited, Japanese Ambassador Horinouchi protested to Secretary Hull on October 8, 1940, warning this might be considered an "unfriendly act".<ref name="PaW-96">{{Harvnb|Department of State|1943|p=96}}</ref>|group=nb}} The United States did not stop oil exports, however, partly because of the prevailing sentiment in Washington that given Japanese dependence on American oil, such an action was likely to be considered an extreme provocation.{{sfn|Worth|2014}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}<ref name="PaW-94">{{Harvnb|Department of State|1943|p=94}}</ref>
In mid-1940, President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] moved the Pacific Fleet from [[San Diego]] to Hawaii.<ref>{{cite news |mode=cs2 |last=Belair |first=Felix Jr. |date=June 23, 1940 |title=Shift of Our Fleet to Atlantic Studied |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1940/06/23/113094328.pdf |url-access=subscription |access-date=March 28, 2018 }}. "Except for the Atlantic Battle Squadron, the entire fleet is now in the Pacific, based at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii."</ref> He also ordered a military buildup in the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Philippines]], taking both actions in the hope of discouraging Japanese aggression in the Far East. Because the Japanese high command was mistakenly certain any attack on the [[List of former European colonies#Asia-Pacific|United Kingdom's Southeast Asian colonies]], including Singapore,<ref>{{Cite news |mode=cs2 |last=Harper |first=Tim |date=August 7, 2009 |title=Japan's Gigantic Second World War Gamble |newspaper=The Guardian |issn=0261-3077 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/sep/07/japan-imperialism-militarism |access-date=December 7, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-date=August 24, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824111258/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/sep/07/japan-imperialism-militarism}}</ref> would bring the United States into the war, a devastating preventive strike appeared to be the only way to prevent American naval interference.{{sfn|Evans|Peattie|1997}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}} An [[Philippines campaign (1941–1942)|invasion of the Philippines]] was also considered necessary by Japanese war planners. The American [[War Plan Orange]] had envisioned defending the Philippines with an elite force of 40,000 men; this option was never implemented due to opposition from [[Douglas MacArthur#Field Marshal of the Philippine Army|Douglas MacArthur]], who felt he would need a force ten times that size.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}} By 1941, American planners expected to have to abandon the Philippines at the outbreak of war. Late that year, Admiral [[Thomas C. Hart]], commander of the [[United States Asiatic Fleet]], was given orders to that effect.{{sfn|Miller|2007|p=63}}
The United States finally ceased oil exports to Japan in July 1941, following the seizure of French Indochina<ref>[https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-5.html Chapter V: The Decision for War] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525064812/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-5.html|date=May 25, 2013}} Morton, Louis. ''Strategy and Command: The First Two Years'' 1961</ref> after the [[Fall of France]], in part because of new American restrictions on domestic oil consumption.<ref name="PaW-125">{{Harvnb|Department of State|1943|p=125}}</ref> Because of this decision, Japan proceeded with [[Dutch East Indies campaign|plans to take the oil-rich Dutch East Indies]].{{refn|This was mainly a Japanese Navy preference; the Japanese Army would have chosen to attack the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Evans|Peattie|1997}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}{{sfn|Hayashi|1959}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}|group=nb}} On August 17, Roosevelt warned Japan that America was prepared to take opposing steps if "neighboring countries" were attacked.{{sfn|Matloff|Snell|1980|p=69}}
Japan and the United States engaged in negotiations during 1941, attempting to improve relations. In the course of these negotiations, Japan offered to withdraw from most of China and Indochina after making peace with the Nationalist government. It also proposed to adopt an independent interpretation of the [[Tripartite Pact]] and to refrain from trade discrimination, provided all other nations reciprocated. Washington rejected these proposals. Japanese Prime Minister [[Fumimaro Konoe|Konoe]] then offered to meet with Roosevelt, but Roosevelt insisted on reaching an agreement before any meeting.{{sfn|Matloff|Snell|1980}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Morton|1962|loc=[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-4.html ch. IV: The Fatal Turn]}}</ref> The American ambassador to Japan repeatedly urged Roosevelt to accept the meeting, warning that it was the only way to preserve the conciliatory Konoe government and peace in the Pacific.{{sfn|Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack – "Review of the Diplomatic Conversations"|1946|p=[http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pha/congress/app-d.html#314 314]}} However, his recommendation was not acted upon. The Konoe government collapsed the following month when the Japanese military rejected a withdrawal of all troops from China.<ref name="Chapter V: The Decision for War">{{Harvnb|Morton|1962|loc=[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-5.html ch. V: The Decision for War]}}</ref>
Japan's final proposal, delivered on November 20, offered to withdraw from southern Indochina and to refrain from attacks in Southeast Asia, so long as the United States, United Kingdom, and Netherlands supplied {{convert|1|e6USgal|e6L|abbr=off|sp=us|spell=in}} of aviation fuel, lifted their sanctions against Japan, and ceased aid to China.<ref>{{Cite web |website=www.cv6.org |title=Battle Order Number One: Nov. 28, 1941 |url=http://www.cv6.org/1941/btlord1/btlord1.htm |access-date=March 2, 2020 |archive-date=March 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302183032/http://www.cv6.org/1941/btlord1/btlord1.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Chapter V: The Decision for War"/> The American counter-proposal of November 26 (November 27 in Japan), the [[Hull note]], required Japan to completely evacuate China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with Pacific powers. On November 26 in Japan, the day before the note's delivery, the Japanese task force left port for [[Pearl Harbor]].<ref>{{cite book | title=Beyond Pearl Harbor: A Pacific History | publisher=University Press of Kansas | author=Bailey, Beth L. | year=2019 | pages=74 | isbn=9780700628131}}</ref>
The Japanese intended the attack as a [[Preventive war|preventive action]] to keep the [[United States Pacific Fleet]] from interfering with their planned military actions in [[Southeast Asia]] against overseas territories of the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Netherlands]], and the United States. Over the course of seven hours, there were coordinated Japanese attacks on the American-held [[Philippines campaign (1941–1942)|Philippines]], [[Battle of Guam (1941)|Guam]], and [[Battle of Wake Island|Wake Island]] and on the [[British Empire]] in [[Japanese invasion of Malaya|Malaya]], [[Battle of Singapore#Outbreak of war|Singapore]], and [[Battle of Hong Kong|Hong Kong]].<ref name=Gill85/> From the Japanese point of view, it was seen as a preemptive strike "before the oil gauge ran empty."{{sfn|Worth|2014}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}
===Military planning===
[[File:Japanese attack plan at Pearl Harbor, Japan, 1941.jpg|thumb|The [[Empire of Japan]]'s 1941 attack plan on [[Pearl Harbor]]]]
Preliminary planning for an attack on Pearl Harbor to protect the move into the "Southern Resource Area", the Japanese term for the Dutch East Indies and Southeast Asia generally, began early in 1941 under the auspices of Admiral [[Isoroku Yamamoto]], then commanding Japan's [[Combined Fleet]].<ref name=Gailey1997p68>{{Harvnb|Gailey|1997|p=68}}</ref><ref>[https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/japanese-announcement-attack-pearl-harbor-1941 ''Japanese announcement of the attack at Pearl Harbor, 1941.''], "History Resources", The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, New York (USA), retrieved 18. Dezember 2023.</ref> He won assent to formal planning and training for an attack from the [[Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff]] only after much contention with Naval Headquarters, including a threat to resign his command.<ref name=Gailey1997p70>{{Harvnb|Gailey|1997|p=70}}</ref> Full-scale planning was underway by early spring 1941, primarily by Rear Admiral [[Ryūnosuke Kusaka]], with assistance from Commander [[Minoru Genda]] and Yamamoto's Deputy Chief of Staff, Captain Kameto Kuroshima.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lord|1957|pp=12–14}}</ref> The planners studied the [[Battle of Taranto|1940 British air attack on the Italian fleet]] at [[Taranto]] intensively.{{refn|"The Dorn report did not state with certainty that Kimmel and Short knew about Taranto. There is, however, no doubt that they did know, as did the Japanese. Lieutenant Commander Takeshi Naito, the assistant [[Military attaché|naval attaché]] to Berlin, flew to Taranto to investigate the attack first hand, and Naito subsequently had a lengthy conversation with Commander [[Mitsuo Fuchida]] about his observations. Fuchida led the Japanese attack on December 7, 1941."<ref>{{Harvnb|Borch|Martinez|2005|pp=53–54}}.</ref>|group=nb}}{{refn|"A [[torpedo bomber]] needed a long, level flight, and when released, its conventional torpedo would plunge nearly a hundred feet deep before swerving upward to strike a hull. Pearl Harbor deep averages 42 feet. But the Japanese borrowed an idea from the British carrier-based torpedo raid on the Italian naval base of Taranto. They fashioned auxiliary wooden tail fins to keep the torpedoes horizontal, so they would dive to only 35 feet, and they added a breakaway "nosecone" of soft wood to cushion the impact with the surface of the water."<ref>{{Harvnb|Gannon|1996|p=49}}</ref>|group=nb}}
Over the next several months, pilots were trained, equipment was adapted, and intelligence was collected. Despite these preparations, Emperor [[Hirohito]] did not approve the attack plan until November 5, after the third of four [[Gozen Kaigi|Imperial Conferences]] called to consider the matter.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wetzler|1998|p=39}}.</ref> At first, he hesitated to engage in war but eventually authorized the Pearl Harbor strike despite dissent from certain advisors.<ref name = "nuclearm">{{cite web | url=https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/profile/emperor-hirohito/#:~:text=The%20emperor%27s%20office%20signed%20off,his%20ability%20to%20do%20so | title=Emperor Hirohito - Nuclear Museum }}</ref> Final authorization was not given by the emperor until December 1, after a majority of Japanese leaders advised him the Hull note would "destroy the fruits of the China incident, endanger Manchukuo and undermine Japanese control of Korea".<ref>{{Harvnb|Bix|2000|p=417}}, citing the Sugiyama memo</ref> Before the attack, he became more involved in military matters, even joining the Conference of Military Councillors, which was considered unusual for him.<ref name="nuclearm"/> Additionally, he actively sought more information about the war plans.<ref name="nuclearm"/> According to an aide, he openly displayed happiness upon hearing about the success of the surprise attacks.<ref name="nuclearm"/>
By late 1941, many observers believed that hostilities between the United States and Japan were imminent. A [[Gallup poll]] just before the attack on Pearl Harbor found that 52% of Americans expected war with Japan, 27% did not, and 21% had no opinion.<ref name="cipo19411208">{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=RPcuAAAAIBAJ&pg=5721%2C1471377 |title=Gallup Poll Found 52 p.c. of Americans Expected War |work=Ottawa Citizen |date=December 8, 1941 |access-date=November 28, 2011 |author=The Canadian Institute of Public Opinion |page=1 |url-status=live |archive-date=August 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812143117/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=RPcuAAAAIBAJ&pg=5721%2C1471377}}</ref> While American Pacific bases and facilities had been placed on alert on many occasions, officials doubted Pearl Harbor would be the first target; instead, they expected the Philippines to be attacked first. This presumption was due to the threat that the air bases throughout the country and the naval base at Manila posed to sea lanes, as well as to the shipment of supplies to Japan from territory to the south.{{refn|Noted by [[Arthur MacArthur Jr.|Arthur MacArthur]] in the 1890s.{{sfn|Manchester|1978|p={{page needed|date=December 2021}}}}|group=nb}} They also incorrectly believed that Japan was not capable of mounting more than one major naval operation at a time.{{sfn|Evans|Peattie|1997}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}
===Objectives===
[[File:PearlHarborCarrierChart.jpg|thumb|The route followed by the Japanese fleet to Pearl Harbor and back]]
[[File:A6M2 on carrier Akagi 1941.jpeg|thumb|An Imperial Japanese Navy [[Mitsubishi A6M Zero]] fighter on the aircraft carrier ''[[Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi|Akagi]]'']]
The Japanese attack had several major aims. First, it intended to destroy important American fleet units, thereby preventing the Pacific Fleet from interfering with the Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies and Malaya and enabling Japan to conquer Southeast Asia without interference. The leaders of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] (IJN) subscribed to [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]]'s "[[decisive battle]]" doctrine, especially that of destroying the maximum number of battleships. Second, it was hoped to buy time for Japan to consolidate its position and increase its naval strength before shipbuilding authorized by the 1940 [[Two-Ocean Navy Act|Vinson-Walsh Act]] erased any chance of victory.<ref name=Willmott14>{{Harvnb|Willmott|1983|p=14}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Fukudome|1955|p=150}}</ref> Third, to deliver a blow to America's ability to mobilize its forces in the Pacific, battleships were chosen as the main targets, since they were the prestige ships of navies at the time.<ref name=Willmott14/> Finally, it was hoped that the attack would undermine American morale to such an extent that the American government would drop its demands contrary to Japanese interests and seek a peace compromise.{{sfn|Prange|Goldstein|Dillon|1981}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}{{sfn|Zimm|2011}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}
Striking the Pacific Fleet at anchor in Pearl Harbor had two distinct disadvantages: the targeted ships would be in very shallow water, so it would be relatively easy to salvage and possibly repair them, and most of the crews would survive the attack since many would be on [[shore leave]] or would be rescued from the harbor. A further important disadvantage was the absence of all three Pacific Fleet aircraft carriers ({{USS|Enterprise|CV-6|2}}, {{USS|Lexington|CV-2|2}}, and {{USS|Saratoga|CV-3|2}}). Despite these concerns, Yamamoto decided to press ahead.{{sfn|Evans|Peattie|1997}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}{{sfn|Willmott|1983}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}{{sfn|Blair|1975}}{{page needed|date=October 2015}}
Japanese confidence in their ability to win a short war meant that other targets in the harbor, especially the navy yard, oil tank farms and submarine base, were left unscathed<!--not exactly ignored: commanders debated another attack to get them, but it was seen as being too risky-->, since by their thinking the war would be over before the influence of these facilities would be felt.{{sfn|Willmott|1983}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}
==Approach and attack==
{{See also|Order of battle of the Attack on Pearl Harbor}}
[[File:Kirishima Kaga and Hiei at Hitokappu.jpg|thumb|Part of the Japanese task force on November 22, 1941, prior to its departure]]
On November 26, 1941, a Japanese task force (the [[Kido Butai|Striking Force]]) of six aircraft carriers{{snd}}{{ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Akagi||2}}, {{ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Kaga||2}}, {{ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Sōryū||2}}, {{ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Hiryū||2}}, {{ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Shōkaku||2}}, and {{ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Zuikaku||2}}{{snd}}departed [[Kasatka Bay|Hittokapu Bay]] on [[Iturup|Etorofu]] (now Iterup) Island in the [[Kuril Islands]], ''en route'' to a position northwest of Hawaii, intending to launch its 408 aircraft to attack Pearl Harbor: 360 for the two attack waves and 48 on defensive [[combat air patrol]] (CAP), including nine fighters from the first wave.
The first wave was to be the primary attack, while the second wave was to attack carriers as its first objective and cruisers as its second, with battleships as the third target.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zimm|2011|p=132}}</ref> The first wave carried most of the weapons designed to attack capital ships, mainly specially adapted [[Type 91 torpedo|Type 91]] [[aerial torpedo]]es which were designed with an anti-roll mechanism and a rudder extension that let them operate in shallow water.<ref>{{Harvnb|Peattie|2001|p=145}}</ref> The aircrews were ordered to select the highest-value targets (battleships and [[aircraft carrier]]s) or, if these were not present, any other high-value ships (cruisers and destroyers). First-wave [[dive bomber]]s were to attack ground targets. Fighters were ordered to strafe and destroy as many parked aircraft as possible to ensure they did not intercept the bombers, especially in the first wave. When the fighters' fuel got low, they were to refuel aboard the aircraft carriers and return to combat. Fighters were to assume CAP duties where needed, especially over American airfields.{{citation needed|date = September 2014}}
Before the attack commenced, the Imperial Japanese Navy launched reconnaissance [[floatplanes]] from [[heavy cruiser]]s {{ship|Japanese cruiser|Chikuma|1938|2}} and {{ship|Japanese cruiser|Tone|1937|2}}, to scout Oahu and Lahaina Roads, Maui, respectively, with orders to report on American fleet composition and ___location.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/usar/scrs/scrs2t.htm | title=Japanese Naval Aircraft at Pearl Harbor | publisher=National Park Service | work=21 April 2001 | accessdate=13 April 2024}}</ref> Reconnaissance aircraft flights risked alerting the Americans,<ref>{{Harvnb|Zimm|2011|pp=173, 174}}</ref> and were not necessary. Fleet composition and preparedness information in Pearl Harbor were already known from the reports of the Japanese spy [[Takeo Yoshikawa]]. A report of the absence of the American fleet at Lahaina anchorage off Maui was received from the ''Tone''{{'}}s floatplane and the fleet submarine {{Nowrap|{{Jsub|I-72||2}}}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zimm|2011|p=153}}</ref> Another four scout planes patrolled the area between the Japanese carrier force (the [[Kidō Butai]]) and [[Niihau]], to detect any counterattack.<ref name="DiGiulian OOB">{{Harvnb|DiGiulian|2021}}</ref>
===Submarines===
Fleet submarines {{Jsub|I-16||2}}, {{Jsub|I-18||2}}, {{Jsub|I-20||2}}, {{Jsub|I-22|1938|2}}, and {{Jsub|I-24|1939|2}} each embarked a [[Ko-hyoteki class submarine|Type A]] [[midget submarine]] for transport to the waters off Oahu.<ref name="Stewart1974p56">{{harvnb|Stewart|1974|p=56}}</ref> The five I-boats left [[Kure Naval District]] on November 25, 1941.<ref name="Stewart1974p56"/> On December 6, they came to within {{cvt|10|nmi|km mi}} of the mouth of Pearl Harbor<ref>{{Harvnb|Goldstein|Dillon|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q2pFnALHfykC&pg=PA146 146]}}</ref> and launched their midget subs at about 01:00 local time on December 7.<ref name="Stewart1974p57">{{harvnb|Stewart|1974|p=57}}</ref> At 03:42 Hawaiian time, the [[Minesweeper (ship)|minesweeper]] {{USS|Condor|AMc-14|2}} spotted a midget submarine periscope southwest of the Pearl Harbor entrance buoy and alerted the destroyer {{USS|Ward|DD-139|2}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Smith|1999|p=36}}</ref><ref name="Stewart1974p58">{{harvnb|Stewart|1974|p=58}}</ref> The midget may have entered Pearl Harbor. However, ''Ward'' sank another midget submarine at 06:37<ref name="Stewart1974p58"/>{{refn|She was located by a [[University of Hawaiʻi]] research submersible on August 28, 2002, in {{cvt|400|m|ft}} of water, {{cvt|6|nmi|km}} outside the harbor.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/HURL/gallery/archaeology/midget.html |title=Japanese Midget Submarine |access-date=January 20, 2014 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212152317/http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/HURL/gallery/archaeology/midget.html |archive-date=December 12, 2012 }}</ref>|group=nb}} in the first American shots in the Pacific Theater. A midget submarine on the north side of [[Ford Island]] missed the [[seaplane tender]] {{USS|Curtiss|AV-4|2}} with her first torpedo and missed the attacking destroyer {{USS|Monaghan|DD-354|2}} with her other one before being sunk by ''Monaghan'' at 08:43.<ref name="Stewart1974p58"/>
A third midget submarine, ''[[HA. 19 (Japanese Midget Submarine)|Ha-19]]'', grounded twice, once outside the harbor entrance and again on the east side of Oahu, where it was captured on December 8.<ref>{{harvnb|Stewart|1974|pp=59–61}}</ref> Ensign [[Kazuo Sakamaki]] swam ashore and was captured by [[Hawaii National Guard]] Corporal [[David Akui]], becoming the first Japanese [[prisoner of war]].{{refn|While the nine sailors who died in the attack were quickly lionized by the Japanese government as ''Kyūgunshin'' ("The Nine War Heroes"), the news of Sakamaki's capture, which had been publicized in American news broadcasts, was kept secret. Even after the war, however, he received recriminating correspondence from those who despised him for not sacrificing his own life.|group=nb}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Goldstein |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Goldstein (writer, born 1942) |date=December 21, 1999 |title=Kazuo Sakamaki, 81, Pacific P.O.W. No. 1 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/12/21/world/kazuo-sakamaki-81-pacific-pow-no-1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200911011213/https://www.nytimes.com/1999/12/21/world/kazuo-sakamaki-81-pacific-pow-no-1.html |archive-date=September 11, 2020 |access-date=March 5, 2020 |newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref> A fourth had been damaged by a [[depth charge]] attack and was abandoned by its crew before it could fire its torpedoes.<ref>{{harvnb|Stewart|1974|pp=61–62}}</ref> It was found outside the harbor in 1960. Japanese forces received a radio message from a midget submarine at 00:41 on December 8 claiming to have damaged one or more large warships inside Pearl Harbor.<ref name="USSBSp19">{{harvnb|United States Strategic Bombing Survey|1946|p=19}}</ref>
In 1992, 2000, and 2001, [[Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory]]'s submersibles found the wreck of the fifth midget submarine lying in three parts outside Pearl Harbor. The wreck was in the debris field where much surplus American equipment had been dumped after the war, including vehicles and landing craft. Both of its torpedoes were missing. This correlates with reports of two torpedoes fired at the [[light cruiser]] {{USS|St. Louis|CL-49|2}} at 10:04 at the entrance of Pearl Harbor, and a possible torpedo fired at destroyer {{USS|Helm|DD-388|2}} at 08:21.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zimm|2011|pp=330–341}}</ref> There is dispute over this official chain of events though. The "torpedo" that ''St. Louis'' saw was also reportedly a porpoising minesweeping float being towed by the destroyer {{USS|Boggs|DD-136|2}}.<ref>Owen, RAdm USN, Thomas B. (1989). Memories of the War Years. Vol. I. Washington: Unpublished memoir.</ref> Some historians and naval architects theorize that a photo of Battleship Row, taken by a Japanese naval aviator during the attack on Pearl Harbor, which was declassified in the 1990s and publicized in the 2000s,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.okhistory.org/learn/ussok2|title=Pearl Harbor | Oklahoma Historical Society|website=Oklahoma Historical Society | OHS}}</ref> shows the fifth midget submarine firing a torpedo at ''West Virginia'' and another at ''Oklahoma''. These torpedoes were twice the size of the aerial torpedoes so it was possible that both torpedoes heavily contributed to the sinkings of both ships and especially helped to capsize ''Oklahoma'' as ''Oklahoma'' was the only battleship that day to suffer catastrophic damage to her [[belt armor]] at the waterline from a torpedo. Admiral Chester Nimitz, in a report to Congress, confirmed that one midget submarine's torpedo (possibly from the other midget submarine that fired torpedoes but failed to hit a target) which was fired but did not explode was recovered in Pearl Harbor and was much larger than the aerial torpedoes.<ref>[https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2004/december/pearl-harbor-midget-sub-picture Pearl Harbor: A Midget Sub in the Picture?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323042049/https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2004/december/pearl-harbor-midget-sub-picture |date=March 23, 2023 }}, Retrieved 22 March 2023</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCaTpn6F_Ik PBS Pearl Harbor USS Oklahoma The Final Story 2016 Documentary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323042048/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCaTpn6F_Ik |date=March 23, 2023 }} (Timestamp: 25:10). Retrieved 22 March 2023.</ref>
<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5rhbN9NOSag Pearl Harbor midget sub attack: Photographic Evidence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323042109/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5rhbN9NOSag |date=March 23, 2023 }}. Retrieved 22 March 2023.</ref> Others dispute this theory.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Zimm|2011|pp=350}}</ref>
===Japanese declaration of war===
{{See also|Japanese war crimes}}
The attack took place before any formal declaration of war was made by Japan, but this was not Admiral Yamamoto's intention. He originally stipulated that the attack should not commence until thirty minutes after Japan had informed the United States that peace negotiations were at an end.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.historyonthenet.com/when-was-pearl-harbor/ |title=When was Pearl Harbor? |date=2014-11-26 |work=History |access-date=2018-08-17 |archive-date=August 17, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817161358/https://www.historyonthenet.com/when-was-pearl-harbor/ |url-status=live}}</ref> However, the attack began before the notice could be delivered. Tokyo transmitted the 5000-word notification (commonly called the "14-Part Message") in two blocks to the Japanese Embassy in Washington. Transcribing the message took too long for the Japanese ambassador to deliver it at 1:00{{spaces}}p.m. Washington time, as ordered, and consequently the message was not presented until more than one hour after the attack had {{nowrap|begun{{hsp}}{{mdash}}}}{{hsp}} but American code breakers had [[Purple cipher|already deciphered]] and translated most of the message hours before it was scheduled to be delivered.{{sfn|Toland|1983}}<ref name=codebreakers>{{cite book |last1=Kahn |first1=David |title=The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet |date=1996 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-4391-0355-5}}</ref>{{rp|pp.2ff}} The final part of the message is sometimes described as a declaration of war. While it was viewed by a number of senior American government and military officials as a very strong indicator negotiations were likely to be terminated{{sfn|Prange|Goldstein|Dillon|1981|pp=424, 475}} and that war might break out at any moment,{{sfn|Prange|Goldstein|Dillon|1981|pp=493–494}} it neither declared war nor severed diplomatic relations. [[Japanese declaration of war on the United States and the British Empire|A declaration of war]] was printed on the front page of Japan's newspapers in the evening edition of December 8 (late December 7 in the United States),<ref>{{cite web |mode=cs2 |author=Emperor of Japan Hirohito |date=December 8, 1941 |title=Declaration of War against the United States and Britain |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/sites/default/files/inline-pdfs/T-01415_0.pdf |access-date=December 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715210137/https://www.gilderlehrman.org/sites/default/files/inline-pdfs/T-01415_0.pdf |archive-date=July 15, 2021 |url-status=live |via=[[Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History]]}}</ref> but not delivered to the American government until the day after the attack.
For decades, [[conventional wisdom]] held that Japan attacked without first formally breaking diplomatic relations only because of accidents and bumbling that delayed the delivery of a document hinting at war to Washington.<ref>{{Cite news |mode=cs2 |last=Sterngold |first=James |date=November 21, 1994 |title=Japan Admits It Bungled Notice of War in '41 (Published 1994) |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/21/world/japan-admits-it-bungled-notice-of-war-in-41.html |access-date=December 1, 2020 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=December 10, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210000317/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/21/world/japan-admits-it-bungled-notice-of-war-in-41.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1999, however, Takeo Iguchi, a professor of law and international relations at [[International Christian University]] in Tokyo, discovered documents that pointed to a vigorous debate inside the government over how, and indeed whether, to notify Washington of Japan's intention to break off negotiations and start a war, including a December 7 entry in the war diary saying, "[O]ur deceptive diplomacy is steadily proceeding toward success." Of this, Iguchi said, "The diary shows that the army and navy did not want to give any proper declaration of war, or indeed prior notice even of the termination of negotiations{{spaces}}... and they clearly prevailed."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/12/09/world/pearl-harbor-truly-a-sneak-attack-papers-show.html |title=Pearl Harbor Truly a Sneak Attack, Papers Show |author=Howard W. French |newspaper=The New York Times |date=December 9, 1999 |access-date=February 14, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=December 5, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205202932/http://www.nytimes.com/1999/12/09/world/pearl-harbor-truly-a-sneak-attack-papers-show.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |mode=cs2 |last=Kawabata |first=Tai |date=December 9, 2014 |title=Historian seeks to clear embassy of Pearl Harbor 'sneak attack' infamy |newspaper=[[The Japan Times]] |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/12/09/national/history/historian-seeks-to-clear-embassy-of-pearl-harbor-sneak-attack-infamy/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516225555/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/12/09/national/history/historian-seeks-to-clear-embassy-of-pearl-harbor-sneak-attack-infamy/ |archive-date=May 16, 2021}}</ref>
In any event, even if the Japanese had decoded and delivered the 14-Part Message before the beginning of the attack, it would not have constituted either a formal break of diplomatic relations or a declaration of war.<ref>{{harvnb|Prange|Goldstein|Dillon|1981|p=485}}. "[The] fourteenth part was not a formal declaration of war. It did not even rupture diplomatic relations. It merely broke off the discussions."</ref> The final two paragraphs of the message read:<ref>{{cite web |mode=cs2 |date=December 7, 1941 |title=Japanese 'Fourteen Part' Message of December 7, 1941 |type=Memorandum |via=HyperWar Foundation |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/Dip/Fourteen.html |access-date=December 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917001957/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/Dip/Fourteen.html |archive-date=September 17, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{blockquote| Thus the earnest hope of the Japanese Government to adjust Japanese-American relations and to preserve and promote the peace of the Pacific through cooperation with the American Government has finally been lost.{{parabr}}The Japanese Government regrets to have to notify hereby the American Government that in view of the attitude of the American Government it cannot but consider that it is impossible to reach an agreement through further negotiations.}}
United States naval intelligence officers were alarmed by the unusual timing for delivering the {{nowrap|message{{hsp}}{{mdash}}{{hsp}}}}1:00{{spaces}}p.m. on a Sunday, which was 7:30{{spaces}}a.m. in {{nowrap|Hawaii{{hsp}}{{mdash}}{{hsp}}}}and attempted to alert Pearl Harbor. But due to communication problems the warning was not delivered before the attack.<ref name=codebreakers/>{{rp|Ch. 1}}
===First wave composition===
[[File:Pearlmap1.png|thumb|The Japanese attacked in two waves. The first wave was detected by [[United States Army]] [[radar]] at {{convert|136|nmi|km|0}}, but was misidentified as [[United States Army Air Forces]] [[bombers]] arriving from the American mainland.<br />'''Top:''' {{nowrap|A: Ford Island NAS.}} {{nowrap|B: Hickam Field.}} {{nowrap|C: Bellows Field.}} {{nowrap|D: Wheeler Field.}} {{nowrap|E: Kaneohe NAS.}} {{nowrap|F: Ewa MCAS.}} {{nowrap|R-1: Opana Radar Station.}} {{nowrap|R-2: Kawailoa RS.}} {{nowrap|R-3: Kaaawa RS.}} {{nowrap|G: Kahuku.}} {{nowrap|H: Haleiwa.}} {{nowrap|I: Wahiawa.}} {{nowrap|J: Kaneohe.}} {{nowrap|K: Honolulu.}} {{nowrap|0: B-17s from mainland.}} {{nowrap|1: First strike group.}} {{nowrap|1-1: Level bombers.}} {{nowrap|1–2: Torpedo bombers.}} {{nowrap|1–3: Dive bombers.}} {{nowrap|2: Second strike group.}} {{nowrap|2-1: Level bombers.}} {{nowrap|2-1F: Fighters.}} {{nowrap|2-2: Dive bombers.}}<br />'''Bottom:''' {{nowrap|A: Wake Island.}} {{nowrap|B: Midway Islands.}} {{nowrap|C: Johnston Island.}} {{nowrap|D: Hawaii.}} {{nowrap|D-1: Oahu.}} {{nowrap|1: {{USS|Lexington|CV-2|2}}.}} {{nowrap|2: {{USS|Enterprise|CV-6|2}}.}} {{nowrap|3: First Air Fleet.}}]]
[[File:Pearlmap2.png|thumb|{{legend inline|#E1E1E1|City}} {{legend inline|#4E583F|Army base}} {{legend inline|#808080|Navy base}}<br />'''Attacked targets:''' {{nowrap|1: {{USS|California|BB-44|6}}.}} {{nowrap|2: {{USS|Maryland|BB-46|6}}.}} {{nowrap|3: {{USS|Oklahoma|BB-37|6}}.}} {{nowrap|4: {{USS|Tennessee|BB-43|6}}.}} {{nowrap|5: {{USS|West Virginia|BB-48|6}}.}} {{nowrap|6: {{USS|Arizona|BB-39|6}}.}} {{nowrap|7: {{USS|Nevada|BB-36|6}}.}} {{nowrap|8: {{USS|Pennsylvania|BB-38|6}}.}} {{nowrap|9: [[Ford Island|Ford Island NAS]].}} {{nowrap|10: [[Hickam Air Force Base|Hickam field]].}}<br />'''Ignored infrastructure targets:''' {{nowrap|A: Oil storage tanks.}} {{nowrap|B: CINCPAC headquarters building.}} {{nowrap|C: Submarine base.}} {{nowrap|D: Navy Yard.}}]]
The first attack wave of 183 airplanes, led by Commander [[Mitsuo Fuchida]], was launched north of Oahu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fuchida|2011|loc=chs. 19, 20}}</ref> Six airplanes failed to launch due to technical difficulties.<ref name="DiGiulian OOB" /> The first wave included three groups of airplanes:{{refn|The Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor, Planning and Execution. First wave: 189 planes, 50 Kates w/bombs, 40 Kates with torpedoes, 54 Vals, 45 Zekes Second wave: 171 planes, 54 Kates w/bombs, 81 Vals, 36 Zekes. The Combat Air Patrol over the carriers alternated 18 plane shifts every two hours, with 18 more ready for takeoff on the flight decks and an additional 18 ready on hangar decks.<ref name="IJN">{{cite web |title=Aircraft Attack Organization |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/USSBS/PTO-Campaigns/USSBS-PTO-2.html#appendix3 |publisher=Ibiblio.org |access-date=July 17, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623081726/http://ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/USSBS/PTO-Campaigns/USSBS-PTO-2.html |archive-date=June 23, 2011}}</ref>|group=nb}}
*'''1st Group''' (targets: battleships and aircraft carriers)<ref name="navsource-ijnaf">{{Harvnb|Yarnell|2003}}</ref>
**49 [[Nakajima B5N]] ''Kate'' bombers armed with 800{{nbh}}kg (1760{{spaces}}lb) [[armor-piercing bomb]]s, organized in four sections (one failed to launch)
**40 B5N bombers armed with [[Type 91 torpedo]]es, also in four sections
*'''2nd Group''' – (targets: [[Ford Island]] and [[Wheeler Field]])
**51 [[Aichi D3A]] ''Val'' dive bombers armed with {{cvt|550|lb|kg|0}} [[general-purpose bomb]]s (3 failed to launch)
*'''3rd Group''' – (targets: aircraft at Ford Island, Hickam Field, Wheeler Field, Barber's Point, Kaneohe)
**43 [[Mitsubishi A6M Zero|Mitsubishi A6M "Zero"]] fighters for air control and [[strafe|strafing]]<ref name="IJN" /> (2 failed to launch)
As the first wave approached Oahu, it was [[Radar warning of Pearl Harbor attack|detected]] by United States Army [[SCR-270 radar]] positioned at [[Opana Radar Site|Opana Point]] near the island's northern tip. This post had been in training mode for months, but was not yet operational.<ref>{{harvnb|Prange|Goldstein|Dillon|1981|pp=730–731}}. "'Short mishandled radar{{spaces}}...' In his (Short's) words '...{{spaces}}more for training than any idea it would be real'".</ref> The operators, Privates George Elliot Jr. and [[Joseph Lockard]], reported a target to Private [[Joseph P. McDonald]], who was stationed at [[Fort Shafter]]'s Intercept Center near Pearl Harbor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Evans|1998|p=309}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |mode=cs2 |author=<!--Staff, no by-line--> |date=December 6, 2013 |title=Son recounts father's day during bombing of Pearl Harbor |newspaper=New Haven Register |url=https://www.nhregister.com/connecticut/article/Son-recounts-father-s-day-during-bombing-of-11416239.php |access-date=December 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817215302/https://www.nhregister.com/connecticut/article/Son-recounts-father-s-day-during-bombing-of-11416239.php |archive-date=August 17, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |mode=cs2 |title=Testimony of Joseph P. McDonald, Technician Fourth-Class; 580th Aircraft Warning |series=Proceedings of Army Pearl Harbor Board |pages=2121–2123 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/myths/radar/mcdonald_1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421035329/http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/myths/radar/mcdonald_1.html |archive-date=April 21, 2021 |url-status=live |via=iBiblio.org}}</ref> Lieutenant [[Kermit A. Tyler]], a newly assigned officer at the thinly manned Intercept Center, presumed it was the scheduled arrival of six [[Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress|B-17]] bombers from California. The Japanese planes were approaching from a direction very close (only a few degrees difference) to the bombers,<ref>{{Harvnb|Prange|Goldstein|Dillon|1988|p=98}}</ref> and while the operators had never seen a formation as large on radar, they neglected to tell Tyler of its size.<ref name="prange501">{{harvnb|Prange|Goldstein|Dillon|1981|pp=500–501}}</ref> Tyler, for security reasons, could not tell the operators of the six B-17s that were due (even though it was widely known).<ref name="prange501"/>
As the first wave approached Oahu, they encountered and shot down several American aircraft. At least one of these radioed a somewhat incoherent warning. Other warnings from ships off the harbor entrance were still being processed or awaiting confirmation when the Japanese air assault began at 7:48{{spaces}}a.m. Hawaiian time<ref name="Prange 1941, p.174">{{harvnb|Prange|Goldstein|Dillon|1988|p=174}}</ref> (3:18{{spaces}}a.m. December 8 [[Japanese Standard Time]], as kept by ships of the ''Kido Butai''),<ref>{{Harvnb|Symonds|2011|p=218}}</ref> with the attack on Kaneohe. A total of 353<ref name="parillo288"/> Japanese planes reached Oahu in two waves. Slow, vulnerable torpedo bombers led the first wave, exploiting the first moments of surprise to attack the most important ships present (the battleships), while dive bombers attacked American [[Military airbase|air bases]] across Oahu, starting with [[Hickam Field]], the largest, and [[Wheeler Field]], the main United States Army Air Forces fighter base. The 171 planes in the second wave attacked the Army Air Forces' [[Bellows Field]], near Kaneohe on the windward side of the island, and Ford Island. The only aerial opposition came from a handful of [[P-36 Hawk]]s, [[P-40 Warhawk]]s and some [[SBD Dauntless]] dive bombers from the carrier {{USS|Enterprise|CV-6|2}}.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}}{{refn|In the twenty-five sorties flown, USAF Historical Study No.85 credits six pilots with ten planes destroyed: 1st Lieutenant Lewis M. Sanders (P-36) and 2nd Lieutenants Philip M Rasmussen (P-36), Gordon H. Sterling Jr. (P-36, [[killed in action]]), Harry W. Brown (P-36), [[Kenneth M. Taylor]] (P-40, 2), and [[George Welch (pilot)|George S. Welch]] (P-40, 4). Three of the P-36 kills were not verified by the Japanese and may have been shot down by naval [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft]] fire.<ref>{{cite report |author=Office of Air Force History |date=1978 |title=USAF Credits for the Destruction of Enemy Aircraft, World War II |series=USAF Historical Study |volume=85 |id={{DTIC|ADA542272}} |publisher=Alfred F. Simpson Historical Research Center |___location=Montgomery, AL}}
</ref>{{pages needed|date=January 2024}}|group=nb}}
In the first-wave attack, about eight of the forty-nine 800{{nbh}}kg (1760{{spaces}}lb) armor-piercing bombs dropped hit their intended battleship targets. At least two of those bombs broke up on impact, another detonated before penetrating an unarmored deck, and one was a dud. Thirteen of the forty torpedoes hit battleships, while four hit other ships.{{sfn|Hone|1977}} Men aboard the ships awoke to the sounds of alarms, bombs exploding, and gunfire, prompting them to dress as they ran to [[General quarters|General Quarters]] stations. (The famous message "Air raid Pearl Harbor. This is not<!--sic--> drill."{{refn|Odd though it may sound, "not" is correct, in keeping with standard Navy telegraphic practice. This was confirmed by Beloite and Beloite after years of research and debate.|group=nb}} was sent from the headquarters of Patrol Wing Two, the first senior Hawaiian command to respond.) American servicemen were caught unprepared by the attack. Ammunition lockers were locked, aircraft parked wingtip to wingtip in the open to prevent sabotage,<ref name="parillo293">{{Harvnb|Parillo|2006|p=293}}</ref> guns unmanned (none of the Navy's [[5"/38 caliber gun|5"/38s]], only a quarter of its machine guns, and only four of 31 Army batteries got in action).<ref name="parillo293" /> Despite this low [[Alert state|alert status]], many American military personnel responded effectively during the attack.{{refn|The gunners that did get in action scored most of the victories against Japanese aircraft that morning, including the first of the attack by {{USS|Tautog|SS-199|2}}, and [[Dorie Miller]]'s [[Navy Cross]]-worthy effort. Miller was an African-American cook aboard ''West Virginia'' who took over an unattended [[anti-aircraft gun]] on which he had no training. He was the first African-American sailor to be awarded the [[Navy Cross]].<ref name="navyfaq57">{{cite web |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/biographies-list/bios-m/miller-doris.html |title=Miller, Doris |website=Naval History and Heritage Command |date=June 6, 2017 |access-date=February 8, 2018 |archive-date=May 11, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511152931/https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/biographies-list/bios-m/miller-doris.html |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=nb}} Ensign [[Joseph K. Taussig Jr.|Joseph Taussig Jr.]], aboard {{USS|Nevada|BB-36|2}}, commanded the ship's antiaircraft guns and was severely wounded but remained at his post. Lieutenant Commander F. J. Thomas commanded ''Nevada'' in the captain's absence and got her underway until the ship was grounded at 9:10{{spaces}}a.m.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bonner|1996|p=105}}</ref> One of the destroyers, {{USS|Aylwin|DD-355|2}}, got underway with only four officers aboard, all ensigns, none with more than a year's sea duty; she operated at sea for 36 hours before her commanding officer managed to get back aboard.<ref>{{Harvnb|DANFS ''Aylwin''}}</ref> Captain [[Mervyn Bennion]], commanding {{USS|West Virginia|BB-48|2}}, led his men until he was cut down by fragments from a bomb which hit {{USS|Tennessee|BB-43|2}}, moored alongside.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Biographical Sketch of Mervyn S. Bennion |url=https://www.usswestvirginia.org/stories/story.php?id=10 |access-date=August 30, 2021 |website=USSWestVirginia.org |archive-date=May 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210529125155/https://www.usswestvirginia.org/stories/story.php?id=10 |url-status=live}}</ref>
===Second wave composition===
[[File:B5N2 Bomber "Kate" Over Hickam Field full.jpg|thumb|Second wave B5N2 Bomber ''Kate'' Over Hickam Field]]
[[File:Message pertaining to the attack on Pearl Harbor. - NARA - 296806.jpg|thumb|This message, in response to the question "Is channel clear?" denotes the first U.S. ship, relates to orders for {{USS|St. Louis|CL-49|2}} to clear [[Pearl Harbor]]. It is now housed with the [[National Archives and Records Administration]]]]
The second planned wave consisted of 171 planes: 54 B5Ns, 81 D3As, and 36 A6Ms, commanded by [[Lieutenant-Commander]] [[Shigekazu Shimazaki]].<ref name="IJN"/> Four planes failed to launch because of technical difficulties.<ref name="DiGiulian OOB" /> This wave and its targets also comprised three groups of planes:<ref name="IJN"/>
*'''1st Group''' – 54 B5Ns armed with {{cvt|550|lb|kg|0}} and {{cvt|132|lb|kg}} general-purpose bombs<ref name="navsource-ijnaf" />
**27 B5Ns – aircraft and hangars on Kaneohe, Ford Island, and Barbers Point
**27 B5Ns – hangars and aircraft on Hickam Field
*'''2nd Group''' (targets: aircraft carriers and cruisers)
**78 D3As armed with {{cvt|550|lb|kg|0}} general-purpose bombs, in four sections (3 aborted)
*'''3rd Group''' – (targets: aircraft at Ford Island, Hickam Field, Wheeler Field, Barber's Point, Kaneohe)
**35 A6Ms for defense and strafing (1 aborted)
The second wave was divided into three groups. One was tasked to attack Kāne{{okina}}ohe, the rest Pearl Harbor proper. The separate sections arrived at the attack point almost simultaneously from several directions.
===American casualties and damage===
{{multiple image
| align = center
| total_width = 880
| image1 = The USS Arizona (BB-39) burning after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor - NARA 195617 - Edit.jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 = ''Arizona'' during the attack
| image2 = USS Nevada passing seaplane ramp prior to first grounding NARA 80-G-32894.jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 = ''Nevada'', on fire and down at the bow, attempting to leave the harbor before being deliberately beached
| image3 = USS West Virginia2.jpg
| alt3 =
| caption3 = ''West Virginia'' was sunk by six torpedoes and two bombs during the attack.
| image4 = SB2U-3 VMSB-231 Ewa 7Dec1941.jpg
| alt4 =
| caption4 = A destroyed [[Vought SB2U Vindicator|Vindicator]] at [[Marine Corps Air Station Ewa|Ewa field]], the victim of one of the smaller attacks on the approach to Pearl Harbor
}}
Ninety minutes after it began, the attack was over. 2,008 sailors were killed and 710 others wounded; 218 soldiers and airmen (who were part of the Army prior to the independent [[United States Air Force]] in 1947) were killed and 364 wounded; 109 Marines were killed and 69 wounded; and 68 civilians were killed and 35 wounded. In total, 2,403 Americans were killed, and 1,178 were wounded.<ref>{{Cite web |mode=cs2 |url=https://visitpearlharbor.org/faqs/how-many-people-died-at-pearl-harbor-during-the-attack/ |title=How many people died at Pearl Harbor during the attack? |website=Pearl Harbor Visitors Bureau |url-status=live |access-date=August 17, 2018 |archive-date=August 17, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817124953/https://visitpearlharbor.org/faqs/how-many-people-died-at-pearl-harbor-during-the-attack/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Rosenberg |first=Jennifer |date=January 23, 2019 |title=Facts About the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/pearl-harbor-facts-1779469 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024020725/https://www.thoughtco.com/pearl-harbor-facts-1779469 |archive-date=October 24, 2021 |access-date=December 10, 2021 |website=ThoughtCo. Humanities > History & Culture |mode=cs2}}</ref> Eighteen ships were sunk or run aground, including five battleships.{{sfn|Conn|Engelman|Fairchild|2000|p=194}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack – "The Japanese Attack And Its Aftermath" |1946 |loc=Damage to United States Naval Forces and Installations as a Result of the Attack |pp=[http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pha/congress/part_2.html#64 64–65]}}</ref> All of the Americans killed or wounded during the attack were legally non-combatants, given that there was no state of war when the attack occurred.{{sfn|McCaffrey|2004|pp=210–229}}{{sfn|Shepherd|2004|p=57}}
Of the American fatalities, nearly half were due to the explosion of {{USS|Arizona|BB-39|2}}'s forward [[Gunpowder magazine|magazine]] after she was hit by a modified {{convert|16|in|mm|adj=on}} shell.{{refn|The wreck has become a [[USS Arizona Memorial|memorial]] to those lost that day, most of whom remain within the ship. She continues to leak small amounts of [[fuel oil]], decades after the attack.|group=nb}} Author Craig Nelson wrote that the vast majority of the U.S. sailors killed at Pearl Harbor were junior enlisted personnel. "The officers of the Navy all lived in houses and the junior people were the ones on the boats, so pretty much all of the people who died in the direct line of the attack were very junior people", Nelson said. "So everyone is about 17 or 18 whose story is told there."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uso.org/stories/1732-9-things-you-might-not-know-about-the-attack-on-pearl-harbor |title=9 Things You Might Not Know About the Attack on Pearl Harbor |author=Chad Stewart |date=December 1, 2018 |publisher=[[United Service Organizations]] |access-date=March 31, 2019 |archive-date=March 31, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331220410/https://www.uso.org/stories/1732-9-things-you-might-not-know-about-the-attack-on-pearl-harbor |url-status=live}}</ref>
Among the notable [[civilian casualties]] were nine [[Honolulu Fire Department]] firefighters who responded to Hickam Field during the bombing in Honolulu, becoming the only fire department members on American soil to be attacked by a foreign power in history. Fireman Harry Tuck Lee Pang of Engine{{spaces}}6 was killed near the hangars by machine-gun fire from a Japanese plane. Captains Thomas Macy and John Carreira of Engine{{spaces}}4 and Engine{{spaces}}1, respectively, died while battling flames inside the hangar after a Japanese bomb crashed through the roof. An additional six firefighters were wounded by Japanese shrapnel. The wounded later received [[Purple Heart]]s (originally reserved for service members [[Wounded in action|wounded]] by enemy action while partaking in armed conflicts) for their peacetime actions that day on June 13, 1944; the three firefighters killed did not receive theirs until December 7, 1984, on the 43rd anniversary of the attack. This made the nine men the only non-military firefighters to receive such an award in American history.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.firehouse.com/home/article/10447100/fire-service-history-firefighters-at-dec-7-pearl-harbor-attack-firefighter-history |title=Fire History: Dec. 7, 1941: A Day of Infamy And Fire |author=Paul Hashgen |date=November 1, 2011 |publisher=Firehouse |access-date=April 1, 2019 |archive-date=April 1, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401085357/https://www.firehouse.com/home/article/10447100/fire-service-history-firefighters-at-dec-7-pearl-harbor-attack-firefighter-history |url-status=live}}</ref>
Already damaged by a torpedo and on fire amidships, ''Nevada'' attempted to exit the harbor. She was targeted by many Japanese bombers as she got underway and sustained more hits from {{cvt|250|lb|kg|0}} bombs, which started further fires. She was deliberately beached to avoid risking blocking the harbor entrance if she sank there. {{USS|California|BB-44|2}} was hit by two bombs and two torpedoes. The crew might have kept her afloat, but were ordered to abandon ship just as they were raising power for the pumps. Burning oil from ''Arizona'' and {{USS|West Virginia|BB-48|2}} was drifted down toward her and probably made the situation look worse than it was. The disarmed [[target ship]] {{USS|Utah|BB-31|2}} was holed twice by torpedoes. ''West Virginia'' was hit by seven torpedoes, the seventh tearing away her rudder. {{USS|Oklahoma|BB-37|2}} was hit by four torpedoes, the last two above her [[belt armor]], which caused her to capsize. {{USS|Maryland|BB-46|2}} was hit by two of the converted 16" shells, but neither caused serious damage.
Although the Japanese concentrated on battleships (the largest vessels present), they did not ignore other targets. The light cruiser {{USS|Helena|CL-50|2}} was torpedoed, and the concussion from the blast capsized the neighboring minelayer {{USS|Oglala|CM-4|2}}. Two destroyers in [[dry dock]], {{USS|Cassin|DD-372|2}} and {{USS|Downes|DD-375|2}}, were destroyed when bombs penetrated their fuel [[Bunker fuel|bunkers]]. The leaking fuel caught fire; flooding the dry dock in an effort to fight fire made the burning oil rise, and both were burned out. ''Cassin'' slipped from her keel blocks and rolled against ''Downes''. The light cruiser {{USS|Raleigh|CL-7|2}} was holed by a torpedo. The light cruiser {{USS|Honolulu|CL-48|2}} was damaged but remained in service. The repair vessel {{USS|Vestal|AR-4|2}}, moored alongside ''Arizona'', was heavily damaged and beached. The seaplane tender ''Curtiss'' was also damaged. The destroyer {{USS|Shaw|DD-373|2}} was badly damaged when two bombs penetrated her forward magazine.<ref>{{Harvnb|DANFS ''Shaw''}}</ref>
Of the 402 American aircraft in Hawaii, 188 were destroyed and 159 damaged, 155 of them on the ground.<ref name="parillo288" /> Almost none were actually ready to take off to defend the base. Eight Army Air Forces pilots managed to get airborne during the attack,{{sfn|Dorr|Borch|2008}} and six were credited with downing at least one Japanese aircraft during the attack: 1st Lieutenant Lewis M. Sanders and 2nd Lieutenants [[Phil Rasmussen|Philip M. Rasmussen]], [[Kenneth M. Taylor]], [[George Welch (pilot)|George S. Welch]], [[Harry W. Brown (pilot)|Harry W. Brown]], and Gordon H. Sterling Jr.{{sfn|Arakaki|1991|loc=ch. IV}}{{sfn|Potter|1982}} Of 33 [[Consolidated PBY Catalina]]s in Hawaii, 30 were destroyed, while three on patrol at the time of the attack returned undamaged. Friendly fire brought down some American planes on top of that, including four from an inbound flight from {{USS|Enterprise|CV-6|2}}.{{sfn|Toland|1970|p=235}}
At the time of the attack, nine civilian aircraft were flying in the vicinity of Pearl Harbor. Of these, three were shot down.<ref name="ALA">{{Harvnb|Watson|2007|p=[{{Google books|IHb_geGUpFcC|p=592|plainurl=yes}} 592]}}</ref>
===Japanese losses===
Fifty-five Japanese airmen and nine submariners were killed in the attack, and one, [[Kazuo Sakamaki]], was captured. Of Japan's 414<ref name="IJN"/> available planes, 350 took part in the raid. Twenty-nine were lost, nine in the first wave (three fighters, one dive bomber, and five torpedo bombers) and twenty in the second (six fighters and fourteen dive bombers),<ref name="USSBSp18">{{harvnb|United States Strategic Bombing Survey|1946|p=18}}</ref>{{refn|[[USAAF]] pilots of the 46th and 47th Pursuit Squadrons, 15th Pursuit Group, claim to have destroyed ten. Overall, the Americans claimed to have shot down 41 Japanese aircraft.|group=nb}} with another 74 damaged by anti-aircraft fire from the ground.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}}
===Possible third wave===
According to some accounts, several Japanese junior officers, including Fuchida and Genda, urged Nagumo to carry out a third strike in order to sink more of the Pearl Harbor's remaining warships, and damage the base's maintenance shops, drydock facilities and oil tank yards.<ref name=Gailey1997p68 /> Most notably, Fuchida gave a firsthand account of this meeting several times after the war. However, some historians have [[Mitsuo Fuchida#Historical controversy|cast doubt]] on this and many other of Fuchida's later claims, which sometimes conflict with documented historic records.{{sfn|Parshall|2010}} Genda, who opined during the planning for the attack that [[Events leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor#Concept of Japanese invasion of Hawaii|without an invasion]] three strikes were necessary to fully disable the Pacific Fleet,{{sfn|Caravaggio|2014}} denied requesting an additional attack.{{sfn|Willmott|2001|p=156–157}} Regardless, it is undisputed that the captains of the other five carriers in the task force reported they were willing and ready to carry out a third strike soon after the second returned,{{sfn|Horn|2005|p=16}} but Nagumo decided to withdraw for several reasons:
*American anti-aircraft performance had improved considerably during the second strike, and two-thirds of Japan's losses were incurred during the second wave.{{sfn|Hoyt|2000|p=190}}
*Nagumo felt if he launched a third strike, he would be risking three-quarters of the Combined Fleet's strength to wipe out the remaining targets (which included the facilities) while suffering higher aircraft losses.{{sfn|Hoyt|2000|p=190}}
*The ___location of the American carriers remained unknown. In addition, the admiral was concerned his force was now within range of American land-based bombers.{{sfn|Hoyt|2000|p=190}} Nagumo was uncertain whether the United States had enough surviving planes remaining on Hawaii to launch an attack against his carriers.{{sfn|Hoyt|2000|p=191}}
*A third wave would have required substantial preparation and turnaround time, and would have meant returning planes would have had to land at night. At the time, only the [[Royal Navy]] had developed night carrier techniques, so this was a substantial risk.{{sfn|Stephen|1988|pp=34–38}} The first two waves had launched the entirety of the Combined Fleet's air strength. A third wave would have required landing both the first and second wave before launching the first wave again. Compare Nagumo's situation in the [[Battle of Midway]], where an attack returning from Midway kept Nagumo from launching an immediate strike on American carriers.
*The task force's fuel situation did not permit him to remain in waters north of Pearl Harbor much longer, since he was at the very limit of logistical support. To do so risked running unacceptably low on fuel, perhaps even having to abandon destroyers en route home.{{sfn|Prange|Goldstein|Dillon|1988|p={{Page needed|date=August 2021}}}}
*He believed the second strike had essentially accomplished the mission's main objective (neutralizing the United States Pacific Fleet) and did not wish to risk further losses.{{sfn|Gailey|1997|p=97}} Moreover, it was IJN practice to prefer the conservation of strength over the total destruction of the enemy.{{sfn|Willmott|1983|p=16}}
Although a hypothetical third strike would have likely focused on the base's remaining warships,{{refn|Fuchida would later claim he had designated Pearl Harbor's oil storage facilities as the primary target, although this contradicted Japanese military doctrine and even several interviews on the subject he had given earlier in life{{sfn|Parshall|2010}}}} military historians have suggested any potential damage to the shore facilities would have hampered the Pacific Fleet far more seriously.{{sfn|Willmott|1983}}{{page needed|date=December 2015}}{{sfn|Blair|1975}}{{page needed|date=December 2015}} If they had been wiped out, "serious [American] operations in the Pacific would have been postponed for more than a year";{{sfn|Gailey|1997|pp=97–98}} according to Admiral [[Chester W. Nimitz]], later Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet, "it would have prolonged the war another two years".{{sfn|Yergin|1991|p=327}}
At a conference aboard his flagship the following morning, Yamamoto supported Nagumo's withdrawal without launching a third wave.{{sfn|Gailey|1997|p=97}} In retrospect, sparing the vital dockyards, maintenance shops, and the oil tank farm meant the United States could respond relatively quickly in the Pacific. Yamamoto later regretted Nagumo's decision to withdraw and categorically stated it had been a great mistake not to order a third strike.{{sfn|Gailey|1997|p=98}}
==Ships lost or damaged==
{{Further|List of United States Navy ships present at Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941}}
[[File:NH64486 Wallin aboard BB-44.jpg|thumb|Captain [[Homer N. Wallin]] (center) supervises salvage operations aboard {{USS|California|BB-44|6}} in early 1942]]
Twenty-one American ships were damaged or lost in the attack, of which all but three were repaired and returned to service.{{sfn|Wallin|1968|pp=203–269}}
===Battleships===
*{{USS|Arizona|BB-39|2}} (Rear Admiral [[Isaac C. Kidd]]'s flagship of [[ComBatPac|Battleship Division One]]): hit by four armor-piercing bombs, exploded; total loss, not salvaged. 1,177 dead. Later [[USS Arizona Memorial|memorialized]].
*{{USS|Oklahoma|BB-37|2}}: hit by five torpedoes, capsized; total loss, salvaged, sank en route to scrapping May 1947. 429 dead.
*{{USS|West Virginia|BB-48|2}}: hit by two bombs, seven torpedoes, sunk; returned to service July 1944. 106 dead.
*{{USS|California|BB-44|2}}: hit by two bombs, two torpedoes, sunk; returned to service January 1944. 104 dead.<ref>[https://www.dpaa.mil/News-Stories/News-Releases/PressReleaseArticleView/Article/2874015/uss-california-sailor-accounted-for-from-world-war-ii-simmons-t/ USS California Sailor Accounted For From World War II (Simmons, T.)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325053444/https://www.dpaa.mil/News-Stories/News-Releases/PressReleaseArticleView/Article/2874015/uss-california-sailor-accounted-for-from-world-war-ii-simmons-t/ |date=March 25, 2023 }}. Retrieved 25 March 2023</ref>
*{{USS|Nevada|BB-36|2}}: hit by six bombs, one torpedo, beached; returned to service October 1942. 60 dead.
*{{USS|Pennsylvania|BB-38|2}} (Admiral [[Husband E. Kimmel]]'s flagship of the [[United States Pacific Fleet]]):{{sfn|Prange|Goldstein|Dillon|1981|p=49}} in [[dry dock]] with ''Cassin'' and ''Downes'', hit by one bomb and debris from USS ''Cassin''; remained in service. 9 dead.
*{{USS|Tennessee|BB-43|2}}: hit by two bombs; returned to service February 1942. 5 dead.
*{{USS|Maryland|BB-46|2}}: hit by two bombs; returned to service February 1942. 4 dead (including floatplane pilot shot down).
===Ex-battleship (target/AA training ship)===
*{{USS|Utah|BB-31|2}}: hit by two torpedoes, capsized; total loss, salvage stopped. 64 dead. Later [[USS Utah (BB-31)#Memorial|memorialized]].
===Cruisers===
*{{USS|Helena|CL-50|2}}: hit by one torpedo; returned to service January 1942. 20 dead.
*{{USS|Raleigh|CL-7|2}}: hit by one torpedo; returned to service February 1942.<ref>{{cite DANFS| url= https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/r/raleigh-iii.html| title= Raleigh III (CL-7) | publisher= [[Naval History and Heritage Command]]| date= 26 August 2015 | access-date= 30 January 2024| ref= {{sfnRef|DANFS|2015}} }}</ref>
*{{USS|Honolulu|CL-48|2}}: near miss, light damage; remained in service.
===Destroyers===
*{{USS|Cassin|DD-372|2}}: in drydock with ''Downes'' and ''Pennsylvania'', hit by one bomb, burned; reconstructed and returned to service February 1944.
*{{USS|Downes|DD-375|2}}: in drydock with ''Cassin'' and ''Pennsylvania'', caught fire from ''Cassin'', burned; reconstructed and returned to service November 1943.
*{{USS|Helm|DD-388|2}}: underway to West Loch, damaged by two near-miss bombs;{{sfn|Wallin|1968|p=198}} continued patrol; dry-docked January 15, 1942, and sailed January 20, 1942.
*{{USS|Shaw|DD-373|2}}: hit by three bombs; returned to service June 1942.
===Auxiliaries===
*{{USS|Oglala|CM-4|2}} (minelayer): damaged by torpedo hit on ''Helena'', capsized; returned to service (as engine-repair ship) February 1944.
*{{USS|Vestal|AR-4|2}} (repair ship): hit by two bombs, blast and fire from ''Arizona'', beached; returned to service by August 1942.
*{{USS|Curtiss|AV-4|2}} (seaplane tender): hit by one bomb, one crashed Japanese aircraft; returned to service January 1942. 19 dead.
*{{USS|Sotoyomo|YTM-9|2}} (harbor tug): damaged by explosion and fires in ''Shaw''; sunk; returned to service August 1942.
*{{USS|YFD-2|YFD-2|2}} ([[Auxiliary floating drydock|yard floating dock]]): damaged by bombs; sunk; returned to service January 25, 1942, servicing ''Shaw''.
==Salvage==
After a systematic search for survivors, Captain [[Homer N. Wallin]] was ordered to lead a formal salvage operation.{{sfn|Wallin|1968|p=v}}{{refn| Wallin had been assigned to go to [[Massawa]] in East Africa. The harbor there was blocked by scuttled Italian and German ships, which prevented British use of the port. Commander [[Edward Ellsberg]] was sent instead.{{sfn|Ellsberg|1946}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}} |group=nb}}
Around Pearl Harbor, divers from the Navy (shore and tenders), the [[Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard]], and civilian contractors ([[Pacific Bridge Company]] and others) began work on the ships that could be refloated. They patched holes, cleared debris, and pumped water out of ships. [[Melvin Storer]] and other Navy divers worked inside the damaged ships.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Gribble |first=Joanne |date=1975-12-07 |title=Telegram was wrong: 'Dead' man tells tale about Pearl Harbor Day |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/imperial-beach-star-news-telegram-was-wr/126665399/ |journal=[[The Star-News (Chula Vista, California)|The Star-News]] |volume=45 |issue=80 |pages=17 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref> Within six months, five battleships and two cruisers were patched or refloated so they could be sent to shipyards in Pearl Harbor and on the mainland for extensive repair.<ref name="GrierCSM">{{cite web |last=Grier |first=Peter |date=December 7, 2021 |title=Pearl Harbor resurrection: the warships that rose to fight again |publisher=The Christian Science Monitor |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/Decoder/2012/1207/Pearl-Harbor-resurrection-the-warships-that-rose-to-fight-again |access-date=December 10, 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008202956/https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/Decoder/2012/1207/Pearl-Harbor-resurrection-the-warships-that-rose-to-fight-again |archive-date=October 8, 2021}}</ref>
Intensive salvage operations continued for another year, a total of some 20,000 man-hours under water.{{sfn|Raymer|1996}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}{{sfn|Wallin|1968|pp=277}} ''Arizona'' and the target ship ''Utah'' were too heavily damaged for salvage and remain where they were sunk,<ref name="usnp-pearl-battleship">{{cite web |title=Battleship Row |url=https://www.nps.gov/perl/learn/historyculture/battleship-row.htm |website=US National Park Service |access-date=4 March 2020 |date=July 2, 2019 |archive-date=March 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312072705/https://www.nps.gov/valr/learn/historyculture/battleship-row.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> with ''Arizona'' becoming a [[USS Arizona Memorial|war memorial]]. ''Oklahoma'', while successfully raised, was never repaired and capsized while under tow to the mainland in 1947. The ''Nevada'' proved particularly difficult to raise and repair; two men involved in the operation died after inhaling poisonous gases that had accumulated in the ship's interior.<ref name="GrierCSM"/> When feasible, armament and equipment were removed from vessels too damaged to repair and put to use to improve the anti-aircraft defense of the harbor or installed aboard other craft.{{sfn|Wallin|1968|pp=274f}}
==News coverage==
=== Coverage in the United States ===
[[File:USS Downes (DD-375), USS Cassin (DD-372) and USS Pennsylvania (BB-38) in Dry Dock No. 1 at the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard, 7 December 1941 (306533).jpg|thumb|The {{USS|Pennsylvania|BB-38|2}} behind the wreckage of ''Downes'' and ''Cassin'']]
The initial announcement of the attack on Pearl Harbor was made by the White House Press Secretary, [[Stephen Early]], at 2:22{{spaces}}p.m. Eastern time (8:52{{spaces}}a.m. Hawaiian time): "The Japanese have attacked Pearl Harbor from the air and all naval and military activities on the island of Oahu, principal American base in the Hawaiian islands."<ref>"Planes Blast U.S. Naval Bases; No Warning Is Given", ''Lawton Constitution'', December 7, 1941, Extra Edition, at 1.</ref> As information developed, Early made a number of additional announcements to approximately 150 White House reporters over the course of the afternoon.<ref>"War Brings a Tense Day to White House Press Room", ''Washington Post'', December 8, 1941, at 4.</ref>
Initial reports of the attack moved on news wires at approximately 2:25{{spaces}}p.m. Eastern time. The first radio coverage (which, at the time, represented the earliest opportunity for ordinary people to learn of the attack) was on the CBS radio network's scheduled news program, ''World News Today'', at 2:30{{spaces}}p.m. Eastern time. [[John Charles Daly]] read the initial report, then switched to London, where [[Robert Trout]] ad-libbed on the possible London reaction. The first report on NBC cut into a play, a dramatization of ''The Inspector-General'', at 2:33{{spaces}}p.m. Eastern time and lasted only 21 seconds. Unlike the later practice with major news stories, there were only brief interruptions of scheduled commercial programming.<ref>{{cite news |mode=cs2 |last=McDonough |first=John |date=December 6, 1991 |title=Hear It Now: Pearl Harbor Day Radio |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |page=A13}}</ref>
The attacks were covered on television but the extent of it was limited; as commercial television had started just six months earlier, "a few thousand TV sets existed" in the United States, with most being in the [[New York metropolitan area|Greater New York City area]], and only a handful of stations existed which were all in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles and Philadelphia. [[WNBC|WNBT]] from New York was the only TV station that was regularly airing that day in the country, with the comedy movie ''[[Millionaire Playboy]]'', which was scheduled for 3:30-4:30 PM, being interrupted with the news of the attack. The other station known to cover the attacks was WCBW, also out of New York, where a special report on the attack was broadcast that evening. There are no recordings of either station's coverage, either visual or audio.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 7, 2016 |title=A FORGOTTEN MILESTONE: TELEVISION AND PEARL HARBOR |url=https://www.tvobscurities.com/lost/forgotten-milestone-television-pearl-harbor/ |access-date=February 16, 2024 |website=Television Obscurities: Exploring forgotten TV from the 1920s to today.}}</ref>
A contemporaneous newspaper report compared the attack to the [[Battle of Port Arthur]] in which the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked the Imperial Russian Navy, triggering the [[Russo-Japanese War]], 37 years prior.<ref>{{Cite web |mode=cs2 |last=Butcher |first=Clifford F. |date=January 19, 1942 |title=Port Arthur Was 'the Pearl Harbor of 1904' |newspaper=The Milwaukee Journal |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1499&dat=19420119&id=-e4ZAAAAIBAJ&pg=4412,1516787 |access-date=June 27, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515202140/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1499&dat=19420119&id=-e4ZAAAAIBAJ&sjid=8SIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4412,1516787 |archive-date=May 15, 2016 }}</ref> Modern writers have continued to note parallels between the attacks, albeit more dispassionately.{{sfn|Peck|2016}}
===
News of the attack was first broadcast at 11:30 AM ([[Japan Standard Time|Japanese Standard Time]]), however it had already been announced "shortly after" 7 AM (Japanese Standard Time) that Japan had "entered into a situation of war with the United States and Britain in the Western Pacific before dawn". There was no further elaboration or explanation, and the attacks were already finished by that time.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Hotta |first=Eri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pOS_5EfYtEEC |title=Japan 1941: Countdown to Infamy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |year=2013 |chapter=Prologue: What A Difference a Day Makes |isbn=978-0-385-35051-8 |access-date=February 22, 2024 |via=Google Books}}</ref> The attack on Pearl Harbor was eventually covered in the Japanese press, but press in wartime Japan was heavily censored.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Kunii |first=Maiko |url=https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7744&context=etd_theses |title=Asahi Shimbun and The New York Times: Framing Pearl Harbor and the 9/11 Attacks |publisher=San Jose State University |year=2012 |access-date=February 16, 2024}}</ref> One Japanese newspaper, [[The Asahi Shimbun|''The'' ''Asahi Shimbun'']] did report on the attack the day it occurred, and from that point onward their editorials began to back governmental decisions regardless of what they were.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yoshimoto |first=Hideko |url=https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1813&context=etd_theses |title=Media treatment of World War II in Japan and the United States, 1931-1945: a propaganda theory approach (unpublished) |publisher=San Jose State University |year=1994 |pages=81–83 |access-date=February 16, 2024}}</ref> The ''Asahi Shimbun'' also reported the declaration of war on the United States after the attacks, framing it as an Imperial Order, with most Japanese people taking it that way. In contrast, coverage in the ''New York Times'' focused on "the danger to democracy and to the nation" brought on by the Japanese attack.<ref name=":0" /> [[NHK]] broadcast twelve special news reports along with its six regularly scheduled ones that day.<ref name=":1" /> NHK covered the news of Pearl Harbor and other attacks positively throughout the rest of the month.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robbins |first=Jane M. J. |url=https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/14444/1/268276.pdf |title=Tokyo Calling: Japanese Overseas Radio Broadcasting 1937-1945 |year=1997 |pages=82 |type=Doctoral thesis|publisher=University of Sheffield}}</ref>
=== Coverage elsewhere ===
The United Kingdom's [[BBC]] broadcast news of the attack and that [[Manila]] was also under attack.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 7, 2016 |title=How the BBC covered Pearl Harbor |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-38243881 |access-date=December 8, 2024 |website=BBC}}</ref>
==Aftermath==
{{Main|Consequences of the attack on Pearl Harbor|Day of Infamy speech}}
[[File:Remember december 7th.jpg|thumb|A 1942 poster by [[Allen Saalburg]] issued by the [[United States Office of War Information]]]]
The day after the attack, U.S. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] delivered his famous [[Day of Infamy speech]] to a [[Joint Session of Congress]], calling for a [[United States declaration of war on Japan|formal declaration of war on the Empire of Japan]]. Congress obliged his request less than an hour later. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, even though the Tripartite Pact did not require it.{{refn|One of the pact's objectives was to limit US intervention in conflicts involving the three nations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Liddell Hart|1971|p=[https://archive.org/details/historyofsecondw00lidd/page/n225/206 206]}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Shirer|1960|p=[https://archive.org/details/risefallthirdreich00shir/page/873/ 873]}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Keegan|1990|p=[https://archive.org/details/secondworldwar00john/page/130/ 130]}}</ref>|group=nb}} Congress issued a declaration of war against Germany and Italy later that same day.
The United Kingdom had already been at war with Germany since September 1939 and with Italy since June 1940, and British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] had promised to declare war "within the hour" of a Japanese attack on the United States.<ref>{{cite magazine |mode=cs2 |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,772812,00.html |magazine=Time |title=The U.S. At War, The Last Stage |date=December 15, 1941 |access-date=August 12, 2014 |archive-date=August 10, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810134435/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,772812,00.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Upon learning of the Japanese attacks on [[British Malaya|Malaya]], [[Colony of Singapore|Singapore]], and [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], Churchill promptly determined there was no need to either wait or further consult the US government and immediately summoned the Japanese ambassador. As a result, [[United Kingdom declaration of war on Japan|the United Kingdom declared war on Japan]] nine hours before the United States did.
The attack was an initial shock to all the Allies in the Pacific Theater. Further losses compounded the alarming setback. Japan [[Philippines campaign (1941–1942)|attacked the Philippines]] hours later (because of the time difference, it was December 8 in the Philippines). Only three days after the attack on Pearl Harbor, [[sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|the battleship ''Prince of Wales'' and battlecruiser ''Repulse'' were sunk]] off the coast of Malaya, causing Churchill later to recollect "In all the war I never received a more direct shock. As I turned and twisted in bed the full horror of the news sank in upon me. There were no British or American capital ships in the Indian Ocean or the Pacific except the American survivors of Pearl Harbor who were hastening back to California. Over this vast expanse of waters, Japan was supreme and we everywhere were weak and naked."<ref>{{Harvnb|Churchill|Gilbert|2001|pp=1593–1594}}</ref>
Throughout the war, Pearl Harbor was frequently used in [[American propaganda during World War II|American propaganda]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Rhodes|1987|p=257}}</ref>
One further consequence of the attack on Pearl Harbor and its aftermath (notably the [[Niihau incident]]) was that Japanese-American residents and citizens were relocated to nearby [[Japanese-American internment]] camps. Within hours of the attack, hundreds of Japanese-American leaders were rounded up and taken to high-security camps such as [[Sand Island (Hawaii)|Sand Island]] at the mouth of Honolulu harbor and [[Kilauea Military Camp]] on the [[Hawaii (island)|island of Hawaii]].{{sfn|Levine|1995}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}<ref>{{cite web |mode=cs2 |title=The Untold Story |publisher=Japanese Cultural Center of Hawaiʻi |website=The Untold Story: Internment of Japanese Americans in Hawaiʻi |url=https://www.hawaiiinternment.org/untold-story/untold-story |access-date=December 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813150853/https://www.hawaiiinternment.org/untold-story/untold-story |archive-date=August 13, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Eventually, more than 110,000 Japanese Americans, nearly all who lived on the West Coast, were forced into interior camps, but in [[Territory of Hawaii|Hawaii]], where the 150,000-plus Japanese Americans composed over one-third of the population, only 1,200 to 1,800 were interned.{{sfn|Daniels|1972}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pearlharboroahu.com/after.htm |title=What Happened After the Attack? |access-date=2011-11-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111201005141/http://www.pearlharboroahu.com/after.htm |archive-date=December 1, 2011 |website=The Official Pearl Harbor Tour Site}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://newmexicohistory.org/2014/01/17/japanese-american-internment-camps-in-new-mexico-1942-1946/ |title=Japanese-American Internment Camps in New Mexico 1942-1946 |website=New Mexico History.org |access-date=December 7, 2021 |archive-date=October 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017223234/https://newmexicohistory.org/2014/01/17/japanese-american-internment-camps-in-new-mexico-1942-1946/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
The attack also had international consequences. The Canadian province of [[British Columbia]], bordering the Pacific Ocean, had long had a large population of Japanese immigrants and their [[Japanese Canadians|Japanese-Canadian]] descendants. Pre-war tensions were exacerbated by the Pearl Harbor attack, leading to a reaction from the [[government of Canada]]. On February 24, 1942, Order-in-Council P.C. no. 1486 was passed under the [[War Measures Act]], allowing for the forced removal of any and all Canadians of Japanese descent from British Columbia, as well as prohibiting them from returning to the province. On March 4, regulations under the act were adopted to evacuate Japanese Canadians.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/databases/canada-gazette/093/001060-119.01-e.php?image_id_nbr=335121&document_id_nbr=8985&f=g&PHPSESSID=t6i5g5h5dhq1c9qvlkttga2l80 |title=Regulations made 4 March 1942 |access-date=November 23, 2016 |archive-date=November 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124025400/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/databases/canada-gazette/093/001060-119.01-e.php?image_id_nbr=335121&document_id_nbr=8985&f=g&PHPSESSID=t6i5g5h5dhq1c9qvlkttga2l80 |url-status=live}}</ref> As a result, 12,000 were [[interned]] in interior camps, 2,000 were sent to road camps, and another 2,000 were forced to work in the [[Canadian Prairies|prairies]] on sugar beet farms.<ref>{{Cite conference |mode=cs2 |ref={{harvid|War Measures Act Conference|1978}} |date=1978 |title=The Japanese Canadian Experience: The October Crisis |conference=War Measures Act Conference (1977, McMaster University) |publisher=P. Anas Pub. |___location=London, Ontario |pages=12–14}}</ref>
In the wake of the attack, fifteen [[Medal of Honor|Medals of Honor]], fifty-one [[Navy Cross]]es, fifty-three [[Silver Star]]s, four [[Navy and Marine Corps Medal]]s, one [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)|Distinguished Flying Cross]], four [[Distinguished Service Cross (United States)|Distinguished Service Crosses]], one [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Distinguished Service Medal]], and three [[Bronze Star Medal]]s were awarded to the American servicemen who distinguished themselves in combat at Pearl Harbor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Smith|1999}}{{page needed|date=September 2010}}.</ref> Additionally, a special [[Awards and decorations of the United States military|military award]], the [[Pearl Harbor Commemorative Medal]], was later authorized for all military veterans of the attack.
===Niihau Incident===
{{Main|Niihau incident}}
[[File:Nishikaichi's Zero BII-120.jpg|thumb|Petty Officer Shigenori Nishikaichi's aircraft ten days after it crashed]]
Japanese planners of the Pearl Harbor attack had determined that some means were required for rescuing fliers whose aircraft were damaged too badly to return to the carriers. The island of [[Niihau]], only thirty minutes by air from Pearl Harbor, was designated as the rescue point.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}}
During the second wave, a Zero fighter flown by Petty Officer Shigenori Nishikaichi of ''Hiryu'' was damaged in the attack on Wheeler, so he flew to the rescue point. The aircraft was further damaged on his crash landing. Nishikaichi was helped from the wreckage by one of the Native Hawaiians, who, aware of the tension between the United States and Japan, took the pilot's pistol, maps, codes and other documents. The island's residents had no telephones or radios and were completely unaware of the attack on Pearl Harbor. Nishikaichi enlisted the support of three Japanese-American residents in an attempt to recover the documents. During the ensuing struggles, Nishikaichi was killed, and a Hawaiian civilian was wounded; one collaborator committed suicide, and his wife and the third collaborator were sent to prison.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}}
The ease with which the local ethnic Japanese residents had apparently gone to Nishikaichi's assistance was a source of concern for many and tended to support those who believed that local Japanese could not be trusted.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fuchida|2011|pp=293–294}}</ref>
===
Rear Admiral [[Chūichi Hara]] summed up the Japanese result by saying, "We won a great tactical victory at Pearl Harbor and thereby lost the war."<ref>{{Harvnb|Haufler|2003|p=127}}</ref>
While the attack accomplished its intended objective, it turned out to be largely unnecessary. Unknown to Yamamoto, who conceived the original plan, the United States Navy had decided as far back as 1935 to abandon "charging" across the Pacific towards the Philippines in response to an outbreak of war (in keeping with the evolution of [[War Plan Orange|Plan Orange]]).{{sfn|Evans|Peattie|1997}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}} The United States instead adopted "[[Plan Dog]]" in 1940, which emphasized keeping the IJN out of the eastern Pacific and away from the shipping lanes to Australia, while the United States concentrated on defeating Nazi Germany.<ref>{{harvnb|Hakim|1995}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Source is a textbook written for middle-school kids or younger, which does not meet the requirements of reliable tertiary sources for this type of article.|date=December 2021}}
Fortunately for the United States, the American aircraft carriers were untouched; otherwise, the Pacific Fleet's ability to conduct offensive operations would have been crippled for a year or more (given no diversions from the Atlantic Fleet). As it was, the Navy was left with no choice but to rely on carriers and submarines. While six of the eight battleships were repaired and returned to service, their relatively low speed and high fuel consumption limited their deployment, and they served mainly in shore bombardment roles (their only major action being the [[Battle of Surigao Strait]] in October 1944). A major flaw in Japanese strategic thinking was a belief that the ultimate Pacific battle would be fought by battleships, in keeping with the doctrine of Captain [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]]. As a result, Yamamoto (and his successors) hoarded battleships for a "decisive battle" that never happened.{{sfn|Willmott|1983}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}{{sfn|Miller|2007}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}
The Japanese confidence in their ability to win a quick victory meant that they neglected Pearl Harbor's navy repair yards, oil tank farms, submarine base, and old headquarters building.{{sfn|Willmott|1983}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}} All of these targets were omitted from Genda's list, yet they proved more important than any battleship to the American war effort in the Pacific. The survival of the repair shops and fuel depots allowed Pearl Harbor to maintain logistical support of the Navy,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://combinedfleet.com/battles/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor |title=Attack on Pearl Harbor | Nihon Kaigun |publisher=Combinedfleet.com |access-date=March 6, 2014 |archive-date=March 19, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140319100939/http://combinedfleet.com/battles/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.kalonanews.com/articles/2013/04/17/community/doc516eb7c9cbba1744569185.txt |title=Pearl Harbor vet remembers Dec. 7, 1941, sneak attack |work=The [[Kalona, Iowa|Kalona]] News |date=April 17, 2013 |access-date=March 6, 2014 |archive-date=August 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130801200017/http://www.kalonanews.com/articles/2013/04/17/community/doc516eb7c9cbba1744569185.txt }}</ref> such as the [[Doolittle Raid]] and the [[Battle of the Coral Sea|Battles of the Coral Sea]] and [[Battle of Midway|Midway]]. It was submarines that immobilized the Imperial Japanese Navy's heavy ships and brought Japan's economy to a virtual standstill by crippling the importation of oil and raw materials: By the end of 1942, the amount of imported raw materials was cut in half "to a disastrous ten million tons", while oil "was almost completely stopped".{{refn|In less than eleven months, most of Japan's elite naval aviators who had been at Pearl Harbor were lost in subsequent battles. Lack of fuel and an inflexible training policy meant that they could not be readily replaced.{{sfn|Evans|Peattie|1997}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}|group=nb}} Lastly, the basement of the Old Administration Building was the home of the [[Station HYPO|cryptanalytic unit]] that contributed significantly to the Midway ambush and the submarine force's success.<ref>{{harvnb|Blair|1975|pp=360, 816}}</ref>
===Debate on the failure of American intelligence===
{{Main|Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge conspiracy theory}}
[[File:Arizona Memorial Wall.jpg|thumb|The [[USS Arizona Memorial|USS ''Arizona'' Memorial]]]]
There has been debate as to how and why the United States had been caught unawares, and how much and when American officials knew of Japanese plans and related topics. As early as 1924, Chief of United States Air Service [[Mason Patrick]] showed concern for military vulnerabilities in the Pacific, having sent General [[Billy Mitchell]] on a survey of the Pacific and the East. Patrick called Mitchell's subsequent report, which identified vulnerabilities in Hawaii, a "theoretical treatise on employment of airpower in the Pacific, which, in all probability undoubtedly will be of extreme value some 10 or 15 years hence".{{sfn|Wolk|2007}}
At least two naval war games, one in 1932 and another in 1936, proved that Pearl was vulnerable to such an attack. Admiral [[James O. Richardson|James Richardson]] was removed from command shortly after protesting President Roosevelt's decision to move the bulk of the Pacific fleet to Pearl Harbor.{{sfn|Wallin|1968|p=41-42}}<ref>{{cite web |mode=cs2 |date=December 15, 2020 |title=Commander at Pearl Harbor relieved of his duties |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/commander-at-pearl-harbor-canned |access-date=December 8, 2021 |website=History.com |archive-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425072542/https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/commander-at-pearl-harbor-canned |url-status=live}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=November 2024|certain=y|reason=The History Channel is generally unreliable}} The decisions of military and political leadership to ignore these warnings have contributed to conspiracy theories. Several writers, including decorated World War{{spaces}}II veteran and journalist [[Robert Stinnett]], author of ''[[Day of Deceit]]'', and former United States Rear Admiral [[Robert Alfred Theobald]], author of ''The Final Secret of Pearl Harbor: The Washington Background of the Pearl Harbor Attack'', have argued that various parties high in the American and British governments knew of the attack in advance and may even have let it happen or encouraged it in order to force the United States into the war via the so-called "back door". However, this [[Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge conspiracy theory|conspiracy theory]] is rejected by mainstream historians.{{sfn|Prange|Goldstein|Dillon|1986}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}{{sfn|Prados|1995|pp=[https://archive.org/details/combinedfleetdec00prad/page/161 161–177]}}{{sfn|Budiansky|2002}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}<ref>{{cite news |mode=cs2 |last=Stevenson |first=Richard W. |date=August 3, 1994 |title=New Light Shed on Churchill and Pearl Harbor |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/03/world/new-light-shed-on-churchill-and-pearl-harbor.html |access-date=March 4, 2014 |archive-date=July 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715175819/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/03/world/new-light-shed-on-churchill-and-pearl-harbor.html |url-status=live}}</ref>{{refn|[[Gordon Prange]] specifically addresses some revisionist works, including [[Charles A. Beard]], ''President Roosevelt and the Coming War 1941''; [[William Henry Chamberlin]], ''America's Second Crusade''; [[John T. Flynn]], ''The Roosevelt Myth''; George Morgenstern, ''Pearl Harbor''; Frederic R. Sanborn, ''Design for War''; [[Robert Alfred Theobald]], ''The Final Secret of Pearl Harbor''; Harry E. Barnes, ed., ''Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace'' and ''The Court Historians versus Revisionism''; [[Husband E. Kimmel]], ''Admiral Kimmel's Story''.{{sfn|Prange|Goldstein|Dillon|1991|p=867}}|group=nb}}
The theory that the Americans were warned in advance, however, is supported by statements made by [[Dick Ellis]], a British-Australian intelligence officer for MI6 who helped [[William J. Donovan]] set up the [[Office of Strategic Services]]. Ellis was deputy to [[William Stephenson]] at [[British Security Co-ordination]]. In [[Jesse Fink]]'s 2023 biography of Ellis, ''The Eagle in the Mirror'', Ellis is quoted as saying: "[Stephenson] was convinced from the information that was reaching him that this attack was imminent, and through [[James Roosevelt|Jimmy Roosevelt]], President Roosevelt's son, he passed this information to the President. Now whether the President at that time had other information which corroborated this... it's impossible to say."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fink |first1=Jesse |title=The Eagle in the Mirror |date=2023 |publisher=Black & White Publishing |___location=Edinburgh |isbn=9781785305108 |page=101}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Div col}}
*[[Attack on Pearl Harbor in popular culture]]
*[[List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Attack on Pearl Harbor]]
*[[National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day]]
*[[Operation K]] (1942 raid on Pearl Harbor)
*[[Pearl Harbor National Memorial]]
*[[Pearl Harbor Survivors Association]]
*[[Winds Code]]
*[[Tondern raid]] (a 1918 raid on a Zeppelin base)
*[[Attacks on the United States]]
{{Div col end}}
==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|30em|group=nb}}
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}
==
====Books====
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{Citation |last=Arakaki |first=Leatrice R. |date=1991 |title=7 December 1941: The Air Force Story |publisher=Pacific Air Forces Office of History |___location=Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii |url=https://archive.org/details/7December1941TheAirForceStory/7%20December%201941%20The%20Air%20Force%20Story/ }}
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{{refend}}
====US government documents====
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{Citation |author=Department of State |title=Peace and War, United States Foreign Policy 1931–1941 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Dip/PaW/ |date=1943 |place=Washington D.C. |publisher=United States Government Printing Office |access-date=December 8, 2007 |archive-date=May 12, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512150939/http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/paw/ |url-status=live}}
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*{{Cite report |mode=cs2 |last=Nimitz |first=Chester |date=February 15, 1942 |title=CINCPAC Report of Japanese Raid on Pearl Harbor, 7 December, 1941 |at=Enclosure (C) Damages Sustained by Ships as a Results of the Japanese Raid, December 7, 1941 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/rep/Pearl/CinCPac-Damage.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111235255/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/rep/Pearl/CinCPac-Damage.html |archive-date=January 11, 2012 |url-status=live |via=HyperWar Foundation |id=Cincpac File No. A16-3/Serial 0479}}
*{{Citation |ref={{harvid|United States Strategic Bombing Survey|1946}} |author=United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific), Naval Analysis Division |editor-last=Daniels |editor-first=Gordon |title=The Campaigns of the Pacific War |date=1946 |publisher=United States Government Printing Office |___location=Washington, D.C. |url=https://archive.org/details/campaignsofpacif46unit/ |access-date=December 7, 2021}}
*{{Citation |title=U.S. Navy Report of Japanese Raid on Pearl Harbor |url=http://ww2db.com/doc.php?q=45 |date=1942 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113234417/http://ww2db.com/doc.php?q=45 |url-status=live |publisher=United States National Archives, Modern Military Branch |access-date=December 25, 2007 |archive-date=January 13, 2008}}
*{{Citation |title=Report of the Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pha/congress/part_0.html |date=1946 |ref={{harvid|Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack – "The Japanese Attack And Its Aftermath"|1946}} |chapter=Part II: The Japanese Attack And Its Aftermath |chapter-url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pha/congress/part_2.html |place=Washington D.C. |publisher=United States Government Printing Office |access-date=December 8, 2007 |archive-date=May 1, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501061754/http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pha/congress/part_0.html |url-status=live}}
*{{Citation |title=Report of the Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack |date=1946 |ref={{harvid|Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack – "Review of the Diplomatic Conversations"|1946}} |chapter=Appendix D: Review of the Diplomatic Conversations |place=Washington D.C. |publisher=United States Government Printing Office |url-status=live |chapter-url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pha/congress/app-d.html#314 |archive-date=April 29, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429222741/http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pha/congress/app-d.html#314}}
*{{Cite DANFS |ref={{Harvid|DANFS ''Aylwin''}} |title=USS ''Aylwin'' III (DD-355) |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/a/aylwin-iii.html |access-date=December 10, 2021}}
*{{Cite DANFS |ref={{Harvid|DANFS ''Shaw''}} |title=USS ''Shaw'' II (DD-373) |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/s/shaw-ii.html |access-date=December 11, 2021}}
{{refend}}
====Journal articles====
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{cite journal |mode=cs2 |last=Caravaggio |first=Angelo N. |title='Winning' the Pacific War: The Masterful Strategy of Commander Minoru Genda |journal=Naval War College Review |date=Winter 2014 |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=85–118 |url=https://www.usnwc.edu/getattachment/59d3fa3c-3a53-49f6-9f28-6f0358389db8/-Winning--the-Pacific-War--The-Masterful-Strategy-.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190848/https://www.usnwc.edu/getattachment/59d3fa3c-3a53-49f6-9f28-6f0358389db8/-Winning--the-Pacific-War--The-Masterful-Strategy-.aspx |archive-date=July 14, 2014 }}
*{{Cite journal |mode=cs2 |last=Lauren |first=Paul Gordon |date=1978 |title=Human Rights in History: Diplomacy and Racial Equality at the Paris Peace Conference |journal=Diplomatic History |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=257–278 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-7709.1978.tb00435.x |jstor=24909920 |s2cid=154765654 |issn=0145-2096}}
*{{Cite journal |mode=cs2 |last=Wilford |first=Timothy |title=Decoding Pearl Harbor: USN Cryptanalysis and the Challenge of JN-25B in 1941 |journal=[[The Northern Mariner]] |volume=XII |number=1 |pages=17–37 |date=January 2002 |doi=10.25071/2561-5467.571 |s2cid=247550000 |url=https://www.cnrs-scrn.org/northern_mariner/vol12/nm_12_1_17to37.pdf |access-date=December 8, 2021 |archive-date=July 5, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705080832/https://www.cnrs-scrn.org/northern_mariner/vol12/nm_12_1_17to37.pdf |url-status=live | issn = 1183-112X}}
*{{cite journal |publisher=Naval History and Heritage Command/[[United States Naval War College]] ([[United States Department of the Navy]]) |publication-place=[[Newport, Rhode Island|Newport]], [[Rhode Island]], United States of America |issn=0028-1484 |lccn=75617787 |oclc=01779130 |date=21 March 2010 |title=Reflecting on Fuchida or "A Tale of Three Whoppers" |jstor=26397106 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=127–138 |access-date=15 August 2021 |first=Jonathan |last=Parshall |journal=Naval War College Review |url=http://www.usnwc.edu/getattachment/612aa0c4-47a1-4107-afbb-17fa992adf59/Reflecting-on-Fuchida,-or--A-Tale-of-Three-Whopper |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127070529/http://www.usnwc.edu/getattachment/612aa0c4-47a1-4107-afbb-17fa992adf59/Reflecting-on-Fuchida,-or--A-Tale-of-Three-Whopper |archive-date=27 November 2011 }}
*{{cite journal |mode=cs2 |last=Potter |first=Joseph V. |date=Winter 1982 |title=A Handful of Pilots |journal=Journal of American Aviation Historical Society |pages=282–285 |url=http://aviation.hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/A-Handful-of-Pilots.pdf |access-date=December 10, 2021 |archive-date=April 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417093542/http://aviation.hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/A-Handful-of-Pilots.pdf |url-status=live }}
{{refend}}
====Magazine articles====
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{Citation |last1=Dorr |first1=Robert F. |author1-link=Robert F. Dorr |last2=Borch |first2=Fred L. |title=Pajama-clad pilot took on Japanese at Pearl Harbor |magazine=[[Army Times]] |date=December 8, 2008 |url=http://www.armytimes.com/offduty/travel/airforce_history_120808w/ |access-date=October 27, 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130102094911/http://www.armytimes.com/offduty/travel/airforce_history_120808w/ |archive-date=January 2, 2013 }}
*{{Citation |last=Fukudome |first=Shigeru |author-link=Shigeru Fukudome |date=December 1955b |volume=81 |issue=12 |pages=13, 15–31 |title=Hawaii Operation |magazine=[[Proceedings (magazine)|Proceedings]] |publisher=[[United States Naval Institute]] |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1955/december/hawaii-operation |url-access=subscription |access-date=December 10, 2021 |archive-date=December 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211210054032/https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1955/december/hawaii-operation |url-status=live }}
*{{Citation |last=Hone |first=Thomas C. |date=December 1977 |title=The Destruction of the Battle Line at Pearl Harbor |magazine=[[Proceedings (magazine)|Proceedings]] |volume=103 |issue=12 |pages=56–57 |publisher=[[United States Naval Institute]] |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1977/december/destruction-battle-line-pearl-harbor |url-access=subscription |access-date=December 10, 2021 |archive-date=December 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211210205857/https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1977/december/destruction-battle-line-pearl-harbor |url-status=live }}
*{{Citation |last=Peck |first=Michael |date=August 5, 2016 |title=Russia's Pearl Harbor: The Battle of Port Arthur |magazine=[[The National Interest]] |url=https://nationalinterest.org/feature/russias-pearl-harbor-the-battle-port-arthur-17260 |access-date=June 26, 2019 |archive-date=August 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814234939/https://nationalinterest.org/feature/russias-pearl-harbor-the-battle-port-arthur-17260 |url-status=live }}
*{{Citation |last=Stewart |first=A. J. |date=December 1974 |title=Those Mysterious Midgets |magazine=[[Proceedings (magazine)|Proceedings]] |publisher=[[United States Naval Institute]]}}
*{{Citation |last=Wolk |first=Herman S. |date=July 2007 |title=Mason Patrick's Inside Game |magazine=Air Force Magazine |publisher=Air Force Association |url=http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2007/July%202007/0707mason.aspx |access-date=July 13, 2019 |archive-date=July 15, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715002734/http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2007/July%25202007/0707mason.aspx |url-status=live }}
{{refend}}
====Online sources====
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{cite web |mode=cs2 |last=Bjorkman |first=James |date=March 2, 2019 |title=December 7, 1941: Japanese Attack Pearl Harbor |publisher=Filminspector.com |url=https://worldwartwodaily.filminspector.com/2019/03/december-7-1941-japan-attacks-pearl.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306111526/https://worldwartwodaily.filminspector.com/2019/03/december-7-1941-japan-attacks-pearl.html |archive-date=March 6, 2019 |url-status=live |access-date=March 3, 2019}}
*{{cite web |mode=cs2 |last=DiGiulian |first=Tony |date=March 7, 2021 |title=Order of Battle: Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941 |publisher=Navweaps.com |url=http://www.navweaps.com/index_oob/OOB_WWII_Pacific/OOB_WWII_Pearl_Harbor.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110630214745/http://navweaps.com/index_oob/OOB_WWII_Pacific/OOB_WWII_Pearl_Harbor.htm |archive-date=June 30, 2011 |url-status=live |access-date=December 10, 2021}}
*{{cite web |mode=cs2 |last=Yarnell |first=Paul R. |date=November 2003 |title=Organization of the Japanese Air Attack Units December 7, 1941 |url=http://www.navsource.net/Naval/ijnaf.htm |publisher=NavSource Naval History |access-date=December 8, 2007}}
{{refend}}
===Further reading===
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{Citation |last=Beach |first=Edward L. Jr. |date=1995 |title=Scapegoats: A Defense of Kimmel and Short at Pearl Harbor |publisher=Naval Institute Press |isbn=1-55750-059-2 |author-link=Edward L. Beach, Jr.}}
*{{Citation |ref=none |last1=Clausen |first1=Henry C. |last2=Lee |first2=Bruce |date=2001 |title=Pearl Harbor: Final Judgment |publisher=HarperCollins}}. An account of the secret "[[Clausen Inquiry]]" undertaken late in the war by order of Congress to Secretary of War [[Henry L. Stimson]]. Clausen was given the authority to go anywhere and question anyone under oath. Ultimately, he traveled more than 55,000 miles and interviewed over a hundred US and British Army, Navy, and civilian personnel, in addition to being given access to all relevant Magic intercepts.
*{{cite journal |mode=cs2 |last1=Condon-Rall |first1=M. E. |date=1989 |title=The U.S. Army medical department and the attack on Pearl Harbor |journal=J Mil Hist |volume=53 |pages=65–78 |issue=1 |pmid=11617401 |doi=10.2307/1986020 |jstor=1986020}}. This article discusses the state of medical readiness prior to the attack, and the post-attack response by medical personnel.
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Dorsey |first=James |date=2009 |contribution=Literary Tropes, Rhetorical Looping, and the Nine Gods of War: 'Fascist Proclivities' Made Real |editor-last=Tansman |editor-first=Alan |title=The Culture of Japanese Fascism |publisher=Duke University Press |___location=Durham, North Carolina / London |pages=409–431}}. A study of Japanese wartime media representations of the submarine component of the attack on Pearl Harbor.
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Fish |first=Hamilton III |date=1983 |title=Tragic Deception: FDR and America's Involvement in World War II |publisher=Devin-Adair |isbn=0-8159-6917-1 |author-link=Hamilton Fish III}}
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Gannon |first=Michael V. |date=2001 |title=Pearl Harbor Betrayed |publisher=Henry Holt and Company}}. A recent examination of the issues surrounding the surprise of the attack.
*{{Cite magazine |mode=cs2 |ref=none |last=Haynok |first=Robert J. |date=2009 |title=How the Japanese Did It |publisher=United States Naval Institute |volume=23 |issue=6 |journal=Naval History Magazine |url=http://www.usni.org/magazines/navalhistory/2009-12/how-japanese-did-it |access-date=February 6, 2013 |archive-date=June 7, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607195401/http://www.usni.org/magazines/navalhistory/2009-12/how-japanese-did-it |url-status=live}}
*{{Citation |editor-last=Hixson |editor-first=Walter L. |date=2003 |title=The United States and the Road to War in the Pacific |volume=3 |series=The American Experience in World War II |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5mJWrEeqMfgC |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-94031-1 |access-date=March 21, 2023 |archive-date=April 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404221251/https://books.google.com/books?id=5mJWrEeqMfgC |url-status=live }}. Part of a twelve-volume series.
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Holmes |first=W. J. |date=1979 |title=Double-Edged Secrets: U.S. Naval Intelligence Operations in the Pacific During World War II |publisher=United States Naval Institute}}. Contains some important material, such as Holmes's argument that, had the US Navy been warned of the attack and put to sea, it would have likely resulted in an even greater disaster.
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Hughes-Wilson |first=John |date=2004 |title=Military Intelligence Blunders and Cover-Ups |edition=revised |orig-date=1999 |publisher=Robinson}}. Contains a brief but insightful chapter on the particular intelligence failures, and a broader overview of what causes them.
*{{Citation |ref=none |last1=Kimmett |first1=Larry |last2=Regis |first2=Margaret |date=2004 |title=The Attack on Pearl Harbor: An Illustrated History |publisher=NavPublishing}}. Using maps, photos, unique illustrations, and an animated CD, this book provides a detailed overview of the surprise attack that brought the United States into World War{{spaces}}II.
*{{cite report |mode=cs2 |last=Krepinevich |first=Andrew F. |date=February 25, 2002 |title=Lighting the Path Ahead: Field Exercises and Transformation |publisher=Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments |url=https://csbaonline.org/uploads/documents/2002.02.25-Field-Exercises-and-Military-Transformation.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924003422/https://csbaonline.org/uploads/documents/2002.02.25-Field-Exercises-and-Military-Transformation.pdf |archive-date=September 24, 2021 |access-date=December 11, 2021 |url-status=live }}. Contains a passage regarding the Yarnell attack, as well as reference citations.
*{{Citation |ref=none |last1=Layton |first1=Edwin T. |last2=Pineau |first2=Roger |last3=Costello |first3=John |date=1985 |title=And I Was There: Pearl Harbor and Midway – Breaking the Secrets |___location=New York |publisher=W. Morrow |isbn=978-0-688-06968-1 |author1-link=Edwin T. Layton}}. Layton, Kimmel's Combat Intelligence Officer, says that [[Douglas MacArthur]] was the only field commander who had received any substantial amount of [[Purple (cipher machine)|Purple]] intelligence.
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Madsen |first=Daniel |date=2003 |title=Resurrection-Salvaging the Battle Fleet at Pearl Harbor |publisher=[[Naval Institute Press]]}}
*{{cite report |ref=none |mode=cs2 |last=McCollum |first=Arthur H. |date=October 7, 1940 |title=Memorandum for the Director: Estimate of the Situation in the Pacific and Recommendations for Action by the United States |type=Memorandum |publisher=Office of Naval Intelligence |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/McCollum_memorandum |access-date=December 9, 2021 |archive-date=January 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124120956/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/McCollum_memorandum |url-status=live }}. The [[McCollum memo]] is a 1940 memo from a Naval headquarters staff officer to his superiors outlining possible provocations to Japan, which might lead to war (declassified in 1994).
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Melber |first=Takuma |date=2016 |title=Pearl Harbor: Japans Angriff und der Kriegseintritt der USA |language=de |trans-title=Pearl Harbor: Japan's Attack and the US Entry into the War |publisher=C.H. Beck |___location=München |isbn=978-3-406-69818-7}}.
*{{Cite journal |ref=none |mode=cs2 |last=Moorhead |first=John J. |date=1942 |title=Surgical Experience at Pearl Harbor |journal=The Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=118 |issue=9 |page=712 |doi=10.1001/jama.1942.62830090002009}}. An overview of different surgical procedures at the hospital at the scene of the event.
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Morgenstern |first=George Edward |date=1947 |title=Pearl Harbor: The Story of the Secret War |publisher=The Devin-Adair Company |url=https://archive.org/details/pearlharborthestoryofthesecretwar/ }}. Conspiracy theory.
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Parker |first=Frederick D. |date=1994 |title=Pearl Harbor Revisited: United States Navy Communications Intelligence 1924–1941 |publisher=National Security Agency, Center for Cryptologic History |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/p/pearl-harbor-revisited-usn-communications-intelligence.html |via=[[Naval History and Heritage Command]] |access-date=December 9, 2021 |archive-date=December 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209030151/https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/p/pearl-harbor-revisited-usn-communications-intelligence.html |url-status=live }}. Contains a detailed description of what the Navy knew from intercepted and decrypted Japan's communications prior to Pearl.
*{{Citation |ref=none |last1=Rodgaard |first1=John |last2=Hsu |first2=Peter K. |last3=Lucas |first3=Carroll L. |last4=Biache |first4=Andrew Jr. |date=December 1999 |title=Pearl Harbor – Attack from Below |work=[[Naval History (magazine)|Naval History]] |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/1999/december/pearl-harbor-attack-below |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060930030611/http://www.usni.org/navalhistory/Articles99/Nhrodgaard.htm |url-status=live |volume=13 |issue=6 |publisher=[[United States Naval Institute]] |archive-date=September 30, 2006 |name-list-style=amp }}
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Seki |first=Eiji |date=2006 |title=Mrs. Ferguson's Tea-Set, Japan and the Second World War: The Global Consequences Following Germany's Sinking of the SS Automedon in 1940 |___location=London |publisher=Brill/[[Global Oriental]] |isbn=978-1-905246-28-1}}.
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Stille |first=Mark E. |date=2011 |title=Tora! Tora! Tora!: Pearl Harbor 1941 |series=Raid Series |volume=26 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84908-509-0}}
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Stinnett |first=Robert |date=1999 |title=Day of Deceit: The Truth About FDR and Pearl Harbor |publisher=Free Press |isbn=0-7432-0129-9 |author-link=Robert Stinnett |url=http://www.pearlharbor41.com/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050616074335/http://www.pearlharbor41.com/ |archive-date=June 16, 2005 }}. A study of the Freedom of Information Act documents that led Congress to direct clearance of Kimmel and Short.
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Takeo |first=Iguchi |date=2010 |title=Demystifying Pearl Harbor: A New Perspective From Japan |publisher=I-House Press}}
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Theobald |first=Robert A. |date=1954 |title=Final Secret of Pearl Harbor |publisher=Devin-Adair |isbn=0-8159-5503-0 |author-link=Robert A. Theobald}}. Foreword by Fleet Admiral [[William F. Halsey, Jr.]]
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Toll |first=Ian W. |date=2011 |author-link=Ian W. Toll |title=[[Pacific Crucible: War at Sea in the Pacific, 1941–1942]] |___location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton}}
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Wedemeyer |first=Albert C. |date=1958 |title=Wedemeyer Reports! |publisher=Henry Holt Co. |isbn=0-89275-011-1 |author-link=Albert Coady Wedemeyer}}
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Wohlstetter |first=Roberta |date=1962 |title=Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision |publisher=Stanford University Press}}. The most cited scholarly work on the intelligence failure at Pearl Harbor. Her introduction and analysis of the concept of "noise" persist in understanding intelligence failures.
*{{Citation |ref=none |last=Wohlstetter |first=Roberta |date=1965 |title=Cuba and Pearl Harbor: Hindsight and Foresight |journal=Foreign Affairs |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations |volume=43 |number=4 |pages=691–707 |doi=10.2307/20039133 |jstor=20039133 |url=http://ias.wustl.edu/files/ias/imce/wohlstetter_cuba_and_pearl_harbor.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210231934/http://ias.wustl.edu/files/ias/imce/wohlstetter_cuba_and_pearl_harbor.pdf |archive-date=December 10, 2017 }}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Pearl Harbor attack}}
{{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100818203925/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq66-1.htm Overview] (archived) from [[Naval History and Heritage Command]]
*[http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/pearl-harbor Account (with Video)] on History.com
*[http://history1900s.about.com/od/worldwarii/a/Attack-Pearl-Harbor.htm The Attack on Pearl Harbor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203013415/http://history1900s.about.com/od/worldwarii/a/Attack-Pearl-Harbor.htm |date=February 3, 2017 }} on ThoughtCo.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20190614081536/https://www.nps.gov/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/18arizona/18arizona.htm ''"Remembering Pearl Harbor:The USS Arizona Memorial"'' — Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan] (archived) from National Park Service
*[https://manoa.hawaii.edu/library/research/collections/archives/manuscript-collections/hawaii-war-records-depository/ Hawaii War Records Depository], Archives & Manuscripts Department, University of Hawaii at Manoa Library
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/7Dec41/index.html 7 December 1941, The Air Force Story] on ibiblio.org
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/magic/ The "Magic" Background] (PDFs or readable online) on ibiblio.org
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/congress/ The Congressional investigation] on ibiblio.org
*{{cite report |author1=LTC Jeffrey J. Gudmens |author2=COL Timothy R. Reese |date=2009 |title=Staff Ride Handbook for the Attack on Pearl Harbor, 7 December 1941: A Study of Defending America |url=https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Portals/7/educational-services/staff-rides/StaffRideHB_PearlHarbor.pdf |publisher=Combat Studies Institute}}
*{{NYTtopic|subjects/w/world_war_ii_/pearl_harbor|Pearl Harbor}}
===
* [https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10046453 Records related to the Pearl Harbor (Hawaii)] in [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] Catalog
::116 moving images, 13 photographs and 9 textual records are available online
===Accounts===
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080101233716/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/Guard-US/ch7.htm Guarding The United States And Its Outposts], in ''[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/Guard-US/index.htm#contents Guarding the United States and Its Outposts] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225041653/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/Guard-US/index.htm#contents |date=December 25, 2007 }}'' Official US Army history of Pearl Harbor by the [[United States Army Center of Military History]]
*[http://archives.starbulletin.com/1999/09/13/special/index.html War comes to Hawaii] ''Honolulu Star-Bulletin'', Monday, September 13, 1999
===Media===
*[http://www.britishpathe.com/video/pearl-harbour-first-pictures Video of first Newsreel from December 23, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor] from [[British-Pathe]]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8H-BTblzqO0&list=PLNxwX7r4A557deayljDNLqVA7Pl9Y8K9Z&index=1 ''Pearl Harbour'' – British Movietone News, 1942] from the [[Associated Press|AP]] Archive
*[http://www.criticalpast.com/video/65675029979_attack-on-Pearl-Harbor_Harbor-installations_USS-Arizona-burns_black-smoke-rises Historic footage of Pearl Harbor during and immediately following attack on December 7, 1941] on CriticalPast
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gb7XUDlhz6k December 7th (long version)] from [[National Archives and Records Administration|U.S. National Archives]] {{--}} A documentary made by the [[Office of Strategic Services]] several years after the attack, which shows (mostly by dramatization) life in Hawaii before, during, and after the attack on Pearl Harbor.
===Historical documents===
*[http://ww2db.com/doc.php?q=45 US Navy Report of Japanese Raid on Pearl Harbor] from World War II Database
*[http://www.worldwar-two.net/events/usa_declaration_of_war_on_japan/ Second World War – USA Declaration of War on Japan] from WorldWar-Two.net
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/monos/097/index.html Collection of extensive Japanese preparation military documents] on ibiblio.org
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