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=Super Mario 64=
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==Reception==
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Secondo 1up.com ''Super Mario 64'' è stato uno dei primi giochi ad aver portato una serie di giochi 2D nel pieno 3D.<ref name="1up1" /> Nel gioco erano stati inclusi elementi dei vecchi giochi 2D della serie come le mosse di Mario, i blocchi [[power-up]], i tipi di livello (il deserto, il vulcano, il mondo ghiacciato e così via), i nemici e altri personaggi. ''Super Mario 64''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s translation of traditional 2D platforming action into 3D was hailed as a great success by many players, and the game itself went on to effectively drive sales of the N64 console,{{Who|date=June 2007}} and is regarded today as one of the best games ever made.
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There were others who felt that ''Super Mario 64'' did ''not'' readily capture the "feel" of its predecessors.{{Who|date=June 2007}} In the transition to 3D, many of the series conventions were rethought drastically, placing an emphasis on exploration over traditional platform jumping, or "hop and bop" action. While few disputed its quality, it has been argued that it established an entirely new genre, different from that of previous games in the series.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3211627.stm | title=Platform video games evolve | last= | first= | publisher=[[BBC]] | date=2003-10-25 |accessdate=2006-11-21}}</ref>
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===Reviews===
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''Super Mario 64'' was praised in the gaming press, and is still highly acclaimed. It has collected numerous awards, including various "Game of the Year" honors by members of the gaming media, as well as Nintendo's own bestseller [[Player's Choice]] selection.
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==Impact and legacy==
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''Super Mario 64'' set many precedents for 3D platformers to follow.<ref name="1up1" />
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Most existing 3D games at the time used a [[first-person shooter|first person]] or fixed perspective, but the platform gameplay of ''Super Mario 64'' required the use of a free camera. The game world is therefore viewed through an in-game [[professional video camera|video camera]] operated by [[Lakitu]].<ref name="instructions" /> Lakitu handles the camera automatically, but the player can change the perspective manually when necessary, since the camera programming occasionally makes the view get stuck behind walls or at odd angles. This was a useful innovation, as other games were sometimes unplayable due to an unfixable bad camera.<ref name="npsep96">(September 1996). "Super Mario 64". ''Nintendo Power'', vol 88. pp. 14-23.</ref>
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The Nintendo 64's analog control stick allowed for more realistic and wide-ranging character movements than the [[digital]] [[D-pad]]s of previous consoles, and ''Super Mario 64'' exploits this feature extensively. For example, Mario's speed varies depending on the degree of tilt of the control stick.<ref name="instructions" /> The range and direction of many other movements can be controlled as well. The Bowser battles exhibit this by forcing the player to rotate the control stick in circles in order to swing Bowser around and throw him into mines placed around the arena.<ref>(June 1996). "N64 Exclusive". ''Nintendo Power'', vol 85. pp. 16-17.</ref>
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''Super Mario 64'' viene spesso ricordato per il suo senso di libertà e la non-linearità. This was initially unfamiliar to many people, among them was Michael Grayford of [[Liquid Entertainment]]:
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{{quote|lingua=en|Quando giocai per la prima volta a Mario 64, non mi era piaciuto. C'erano troppi posti da esplorare e troppe cose da fare, e non avevo veramente compreso lo spirito del gioco. Nonostante tutto lo provai di nuovo, poichè molti mi avevano detto che era molto divertente, e finì col giocarlo tutto fino alla fine. Ero molto soddisfatto. Ogni livello aveva qualcosa di unico e non mi sono mai annoiato.|Michael Grayford|When I first played ''Mario 64'', I was very turned off. There were too many places to run around and too much stuff to do, and I didn't really see the point or the spirit of the game. I tried it again later, though, hearing from everyone how fun it was, and ended up playing it all the way through to the end. I was highly pleased. Each level brought some new unique cool gameplay element and I was never bored.<ref name="GameSpy50">{{cite web | title=GameSpy's Top 50 Games of All Time | year=July 2001 | publisher=gamespy.com | url=http://archive.gamespy.com/articles/july01/top502ase/index3.shtm | accessdate=2006-02-11}}</ref>}}
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[[Warren Spector]], former lead designer at [[Ion Storm Inc.]], also gave the following explanation for the game's influence:
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{{quote|lingua=en|Non è possibile comprimere cosi tanto gameplay in un singolo gioco. Mario ha circa dieci cose che può fare e non c'è mai un momento in cui ti senti costretto in qualche modo. Nessun gioco ha fatto un lavoro migliore di mostrare gli obbiettivi prima che possano essere raggiunti, permettendo ai giocatori di progettare un piano e di metterlo alla pratica.|Warren Spector|It's not possible to squeeze this much gameplay into a single game. Mario has, like, ten things he can do and yet there's never a moment where you feel constrained in any way. No game has done a better job of showing goals before they can be attained, allowing players to make a plan and execute on it. And the way the game allows players to explore the same spaces several times while revealing something new each time is a revelation. Any developer who wouldn't kill to have made this game is nuts.<ref name="GameSpy50" />}}
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A central hub, where controls can be learned before entering levels themselves, has been used in many 3D platformers since. In addition, the game's mission-based level design was an inspiration for other game designers. For example, [[Martin Hollis]], who produced and directed ''[[GoldenEye 007]]'', says that "the idea for the huge variety of missions within a level came from ''Super Mario 64''."<ref>{{cite web | title=The Making of GoldenEye 007 | year=September 2, 2004 | publisher=zoonami.com | url=http://www.zoonami.com/briefing/2004-09-02.php | accessdate=2006-02-11}}</ref>
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===Remakes and sequels===
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''Super Mario 64'' was first re-released in Japan on [[July 18]] [[1997]] as ''Shindou Super Mario 64''. This version added support for the [[Rumble Pak]] and included voice acting from the American version as well.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://ign64.ign.com/objects/010/010131.html | title=Shindou Super Mario 64 (Rumble Pak Vers.) | publisher=[[IGN]] | accessdate=2006-10-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.allgame.com/cg/agg.dll?p=agg&sql=1:17806 | title=Shindou Super Mario 64 | last=Davies | first=Jonti | publisher=allgame|accessdate=2006-10-22}}</ref> In [[1998]], ''Super Mario 64'' was re-released in America as part of the [[Player's Choice]] line: a selection of games with high sales sold for a reduced price.
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Nel 2007 è uscita una nuova versione di ''Super Mario 64'' per Wii Virtual console al prezzo di 1.000 Wii Points.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://wii.ign.com/articles/733/733464p1.html | title=IGN's Nintendo Wii FAQ | last=Casamassina | first=Matt | authorlink=Matt Casamassina | publisher=[[IGN]]|date=[[2006-09-19]] | pages=5 | accessdate=2006-10-22}}</ref> This release adds compatibility with the [[GameCube]] and Classic controllers, and [http://www.bytecellar.com/archives/000084.php enhances the display]. This version is able to run in [[480p]] on properly configured setups.
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==Note e riferimenti==
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=Mesopotamia=
==Impero neo-babilonese==
[[Image:Shepherd 1923 Oriental Empires c.600 BCE.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Middle East, c. 600 BC, showing extent of Chaldean rule.]]
===Independence from Assyrian rule===
Through the centuries of [[Assyria]]n domination, Babylonia enjoyed a prominent status, and revolted at the slightest indication that it did not. However, the Assyrians always managed to restore Babylonian loyalty, whether through granting of increased privileges, or militarily. That finally changed in [[627 BC]] with the death of the last strong Assyrian ruler, [[Ashurbanipal]], and Babylonia rebelled under [[Nabopolassar]] the Chaldean the following year. With help from the [[Medes]], [[Nineveh]] was sacked in 612, and the seat of empire was again transferred to Babylonia.
===Nebuchadnezzar===
{{main|Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon}}
Nabopolassar was followed by his son [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar II]], whose reign of 43 years made Babylon once more the mistress of the civilized world. Only a small fragment of his annals has been discovered, relating to his invasion of Egypt in [[567 BC]], and referring to "Phut of the Ionians".
===Rise of the Achaemenids===
Of the reign of the last Babylonian king, [[Nabonidus]] (''Nabu-na'id''), and the conquest of Babylonia by [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus]], there is a fair amount of information available. This is chiefly derived from a chronological tablet containing the annals of Nabonidus, supplemented by another inscription of Nabonidus where he recounts his restoration of the temple of the Moon-god at Harran; as well as by a proclamation of Cyrus issued shortly after his formal recognition as king of Babylonia. It was in the sixth year of Nabonidus ([[549 BC]]) that Cyrus, the Achaemenid Persian "king of [[Anshan]]" in Elam, revolted against his suzerain [[Astyages]], "king of the Manda" or Medes, at Ecbatana. Astyages' army betrayed him to his enemy, and Cyrus established himself at Ecbatana, thus putting an end to the empire of the Medes. Three years later Cyrus had become king of all Persia, and was engaged in a campaign in the north of [[Mesopotamia]]. Meanwhile, Nabonidus had established a camp in the desert, near the southern frontier of his kingdom, leaving his son [[Belshazzar]] (''Belsharutsur'') in command of the army.
In [[539 BC]] Cyrus invaded Babylonia. A battle was fought at Opis in the month of June, where the Babylonians were defeated; and immediately afterwards Sippara surrendered to the invader. Nabonidus fled to Babylon, where he was pursued by Gobryas, the governor of [[Gutium]]<ref>http://www.livius.org/gi-gr/gobryas/gobryas_1.html</ref>, and on the 16th of ''Tammuz'', two days after the capture of Sippara, "the soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without fighting." Nabonidus was dragged from his hiding-place, and Gutian guards were placed at the gates of the great temple of Bel, where the services continued without interruption. Cyrus did not arrive until the 3rd of ''Marchesvan'' (October), Gobryas having acted for him in his absence. Gobryas was now made governor of the province of Babylon, and a few days afterwards the son of Nabonidus died. A public mourning followed, lasting six days, and Cambyses accompanied the corpse to the tomb{{Fact|date=August 2007}}.
Cyrus now claimed to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of [[Bel-Marduk]], who was assumed to be wrathful at the impiety of Nabonidus in removing the images of the local gods from their ancestral shrines, to his capital Babylon. Nabonidus, in fact, had excited a strong feeling against himself by attempting to centralize the religion of Babylonia in the temple of [[Marduk]] at Babylon, and while he had thus alienated the local priesthoods, the military party despised him on account of his antiquarian tastes. He seems to have left the defense of his kingdom to others, occupying himself with the more congenial work of excavating the foundation records of the temples and determining the dates of their builders.
The invasion of Babylonia by Cyrus was doubtless facilitated by the existence of a disaffected party in the state, as well as by the presence of foreign exiles like the Jews, who had been planted in the midst of the country. One of the first acts of Cyrus accordingly was to allow these exiles to return to their own homes, carrying with them the images of their gods and their sacred vessels. The permission to do so was embodied in a proclamation, whereby the conqueror endeavored to justify his claim to the Babylonian throne. The feeling was still strong that none had a right to rule over western Asia until he had been consecrated to the office by Bel and his priests; and accordingly, Cyrus henceforth assumed the imperial title of "King of Babylon."
A year before Cyrus' death, in [[529 BC]], he elevated his son [[Cambyses II]] in the government, making him king of Babylon, while he reserved for himself the fuller title of "king of the (other) provinces" of the empire. It was only when [[Darius Hystaspis]] ("the Magian") acquired the Persian throne and ruled it as a representative of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian religion]], that the old tradition was broken and the claim of Babylon to confer legitimacy on the rulers of western Asia ceased to be acknowledged. Darius, in fact, entered Babylon as a conqueror.
After the murder of [[Smerdis the Usurper]] by Darius, it briefly recovered its independence under Nidinta-Bel, who took the name of [[Nebuchadnezzar III]], and reigned from October [[521 BC]] to August [[520 BC]], when the Persians took it by storm. A few years later, probably [[514 BC]], Babylon again revolted under [[Arakha]]; on this occasion, after its capture by the Persians, the walls were partly destroyed. E-Saggila, the great temple of Bel, however, still continued to be kept in repair and to be a center of Babylonian patriotism, until at last the foundation of [[Seleucia on the Tigris|Seleucia]] diverted the population to the new capital of Babylonia and the ruins of the old city became a quarry for the builders of the new seat of government.
== Conquista islamica della Mesopotamia persiana ==
The collapse of the Sassanid polity after the death of Khusrau II left the Persians in a weak position ''vis-a-vis'' Arab invaders. At first the Muslims merely attempted to consolidate their rule over the fringes of the desert and the Lakhmid Arabs. The border town of [[Hira (city)|Hira]] fell to the Muslims in 633. The Sassanids had reorganized under a new king, [[Yazdegerd III]].
The main military commander of the Muslims, [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]], was able to conquer most of [[Mesopotamia]] ([[Iraq]]) from the Persians in a span of nine months, from April 633 until January 634, after a series of battles. The following are some of the most significant battles fought between the Muslim Arabs and the Persians in Mesopotamia.
=== Battle of Walaja ===
{{main|Battle of Walaja}}
The Battle of Walaja was a battle fought in Mesopotamia ([[Iraq]]) on [[May]] [[633]] between the [[Muslim conquests|Muslim Arabs]] under [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] against the [[Sassanid Empire|Persian Empire]] and its [[Arab]] allies. The strength of the Persian army at the battle was 10,000–50,000 compared to 18,000 for the Arabs.
Khalid decisively defeated the Persian forces using a variation of the [[Pincer movement|double envelopment]] tactical manoeuvre, similar to the manoeuvre [[Hannibal]] used to defeat the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] forces at the [[Battle of Cannae]], though Khalid developed his version independently.
=== Battle of Firaz ===
{{main|Battle of Firaz}}
Khalid defeated the combined forces of the Persian Empire, [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Empire]] and Christian Arabs at the [[Battle of Firaz]]. The result of the battle was a decisive victory for Khalid, which led to most of Mesopotamia being annexed by the Muslims.
After this victory, Khalid left Mesopotamia to lead another [[Muslim conquest of Syria|campaign at Syria]] against the Roman Empire, after which Mithna ibn Haris took command in Mesopotamia.
===Battle of the Bridge===
{{main|Battle of the Bridge}}
The Sassanids mounted a counterattack under Bahman Jadu, who led 9,000 Persians against 10,000 Arabs. The Persians won a major victory at the [[Battle of the Bridge]] against the Muslims in October 634, in which Abu Ubaid was killed in battle. The Persians lost 600 men, and the Arabs more than 4,000.
After a decisive Muslim victory against the Romans in [[Levant|Syria]] at the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] in 636, the second caliph, [[Umar]], was able to transfer forces to the east and resume the offensive against the Sassanids.
=== The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah ===
{{main|Battle of al-Qādisiyyah}}
This was the decisive engagement that sealed the fate of the Sassanid empire. Intorno all'anno 636, [[Rostam Farrokhzad|Rostam Farrokhzād]], advisor and general for [[Yazdegerd III]] (''r''. 632–51) condusse un esercito di circa 60.000 uomini a [[Battaglia di al-Qādisiyyah|al-Qādisiyyah]], presso l'odierna città di [[Hilla]] in [[Iraq]]. Alcuni lo hanno criticato per la sua decisione di affrontare gli Arabi in casa loro — nel deserto — and surmised that the Persians could have held their own if they had stayed on the opposite bank of the Euphrates.
Il [[Califfo]] [[Umar]] mandò 36.000 uomini comandati da [[Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas|Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās]] contro l'esercito persiano. Fu così che iniziò la [[Battaglia di al-Qādisiyyah]], con i persiani che prevalsero in un primo momento, ma al terzo giorno di battaglia, the Muslims gained the upper hand. Il generale persiano [[Rostam Farrokhzād]] fu catturato e beheaded. Secondo alcune fonti, i Persiani persero 20.000 uomini mentre gli Arabi 8.500.
In seguito alla battaglia, l'esercito Arabo si diresse verso [[Ctesiphon]] (anche chiamata Madā'in in Arabo), la capitale dell'impero, che fu rapidamente evacuata da Yazdgird dopo un breve assedio. Dopo la presa della città, gli arabi continuarono il loro cammino verso est all'inseguimento di Yazdgird e delle sue truppe rimanenti. Within a short space of time, gli Arabi sconfissero un major Sāsānian counter-attack in the Battle of Jalūlā', as well as other engagements at [[Qasr-e Shirin]], and Masabadhan. A partire dalla metà del VII secolo, gli Arabi controllarono tutta la Mesopotamia, inclusa l'area che è ora la provincia iraniana di [[Khuzestan]].
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