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{{short description|Person learning the English language}}
'''English-language learner''' (often abbreviated as '''ELL''') is a term used in some English-speaking countries such as the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] to describe a person who is learning the [[English language]] and has a native language that is not English. Some [[Education in the United States|educational]] advocates, especially in the United States, classify these students as non-native English speakers or emergent bilinguals.<ref>{{cite book |id={{ERIC|ED524002}} |last1=Garcia |first1=Ofelia |last2=Kleifgen |first2=Jo Anne |last3=Falchi |first3=Lorraine |title=From English Language Learners to Emergent Bilinguals. Equity Matters. Research Review No. 1 |date=January 2008 |publisher=Campaign for Educational Equity, Teachers College, Columbia University }}{{pn|date=June 2023}}</ref> Various other terms are also used to refer to students who are not proficient in English, such as [[English as a second or foreign language|English as a second language (ESL)]], English as an additional language (EAL), limited English proficient (LEP), culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD), non-native English speaker, bilingual students, heritage language, emergent bilingual, and language-minority students. The legal term that is used in federal legislation is 'limited English proficient'.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wright|first=Wayne|title=Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners|publisher=Caslon|year=2010|___location=Philadelphia|pages=3 and 4}}</ref>
== History ==
The term "English-language learner" was first used by Mark LaCelle-Peterson and Charlene Rivera in their 1994 study. He defined ELL students as students whose first language is not English, including both limited and higher levels of language proficiency. The term ELL emphasizes that students are mastering another language, something many monolingual students in American schools may never attempt outside of the limited proficiency gained from foreign language class requirements. In adopting the term, LaCelle-Peterson and Rivera gave analogies of other conventional educational terms. The authors believed that just as we refer to advanced teaching candidates as "student teachers" rather than "limited teaching proficient individuals," the term ELL underscores what students are ''learning'' instead of their limitations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lacelle-Peterson |first1=Mark |last2=Rivera |first2=Charlene |title=Is It Real for All Kids? A Framework for Equitable Assessment Policies for English Language Learners |journal=Harvard Educational Review |date=1 April 1994 |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=55–76 |doi=10.17763/haer.64.1.k3387733755817j7 }}</ref>
Since 1872, an English-only instruction law had been in place in the United States. It was not until 1967
Not long after the installment of [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|Title VII]], the "taxpayers revolt" came to fruition and California's Proposition 13 was drafted. It proposed funding cuts for large portions of California's public schools, backed by those who disapproved of immigrant progress. In opposition to this, cases like ''[[Castañeda v. Pickard|Castaneda v Pickard]]'' fought for educational equality and standards focused on developing ELL students, as well as an overall sound plan for school districts.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sutori|url=https://www.sutori.com/story/sf-cess-historical-timeline-of-public-education-in-the-u-s--R4BQwQWU9qnFGZQk3x1WAbcN|access-date=2021-05-12|website=www.sutori.com|language=en}}</ref> An additional setback occurred in California in 1998 when Proposition 227 passed, banning bilingual education yet again. To combat this, education advocates in the Bay Area began to open all-inclusive schools to promote the acceptance of ELL students.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Small Autonomous Schools as a District Policy: The Oakland Plan {{!}} Coalition of Essential Schools|url=http://essentialschools.org/horace-issues/small-autonomous-schools-as-a-district-policy-the-oakland-plan/|access-date=2021-05-12|language=en-US}}</ref>
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== Models of instruction ==
There are a wide variety of different program models that may be used to structure the education of English-language learners (ELLs). These program models vary depending on the goals of the program and the resources available. Some researchers describe program models as existing on a spectrum from more monolingual forms to more bilingual forms.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Baker |first1=Colin |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.21832/baker9899 |title=Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism |last2=Wright |first2=Wayne E. |date=2021-03-31 |publisher=Multilingual Matters |doi=10.21832/baker9899 |isbn=978-1-78892-988-2 |s2cid=241801261}}</ref> Others distinguish between English-only program models and bilingual program models.<ref>{{cite book |id={{ERIC|ED517794}} |last1=Moughamian |first1=Ani C. |last2=Rivera |first2=Mabel O. |last3=Francis |first3=David J. |title=Instructional Models and Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners |date=2009 |publisher=Center on Instruction }}{{pn|date=June 2023}}</ref>
[[File:Professional Development SIOP.jpg|thumb|At a professional development seminar, educators learn about the Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) model, a specific model of sheltered instruction used to accommodate English
Fast-track to English programs encourage students to use English as quickly as possible and offer little to no native language support. In [[Transitional bilingual education|transition-bilingual programs]], instruction begins in the student's native language and then switches to English in elementary or middle school. In [[Dual language|dual language programs]] (also known as two-way bilingual or two-way [[Language immersion|immersion]] programs), students become fluent simultaneously in their native language and English.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Learning and Thinking Differences in English Language Learners |date=5 August 2019 |url=https://www.understood.org/en/school-learning/special-services/english-language-learners/understanding-learning-and-thinking-differences-in-ells}}</ref> [[Sheltered instruction]] is another approach in which integrates language and content instruction in the mainstream classroom environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hansen-Thomas |first=Holly |date=2012-07-13 |title=Sheltered Instruction: Best Practices for ELLs in the Mainstream |journal=Kappa Delti Pi Record |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=165–69|doi=10.1080/00228958.2008.10516517 |s2cid=144305523 }}</ref> Program models utilizing sheltered instruction may also be referred to as content-based instruction (CBI) or content language integrated learning (CLIL).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ping |first1=Wang |title=Understanding bilingual education: an overview of key notions in the literature and the implications for Chinese university EFL education |journal=Cambridge Journal of Education |date=2 January 2017 |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=85–102 |doi=10.1080/0305764X.2015.1118439 |s2cid=147483836 }}</ref>
=== "Push-in" programs versus "pull-out" programs ===
Two specific models of instruction include the push-in program and the pull-out program.
The push-in program includes the English teacher coming into the classroom to aid the English-language
The pull-out program entails the ELL student learning in a separate classroom with the English teacher. The benefit of such a method is that ELL students receive individualized, focused training. Unfortunately, this method can isolate ELL students from the rest of their peers, leaving them feeling left out from the community.<ref>{{cite web |title=Push In Versus Pull Out in Esl |url=http://theeducatorsroom.com/2013/12/push-in-versus-pull-out-in-e-s-l/ |website=theeducatorsroom.com |date=26 December 2013}}</ref>
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=== Scaffolding ===
[[
=== Labor-based grading === <!-- [[Labor-based grading]] links here. Please do not change. -->
In Asao Inoue's "Labor-Based Grading Contracts", he proposes an alternative to traditional content-based or quality-based methods of assessment in writing classrooms.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Inoue|first=Asao B.|date=2019|title=Labor-Based Grading Contracts|url=https://wac.colostate.edu/docs/books/labor/contracts.pdf}}</ref> Inoue outlines his own innovative classroom design, which assigns grades based on set standards for how much work is put into each assignment through quantitative methods such as word counts. High marks are earned by students who go above the baseline requirements, which earn students a "B" on the A–F grading scale. The intent behind Inoue's design is that students are rewarded for their efforts rather than deterred, and students who traditionally score poorly when graded on quality (such as ELL students) are equally capable of receiving a certain grade as any other student, despite any educational setbacks or challenges they endure. A unique aspect to the labor-based grading design is that students collaborate as a class to decide what the terms on conditions of grading scales are. This way, all student's voices are heard and considered when developing a method of evaluation for their work.
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=== Assessment biases ===
[[File:No Child Left Behind Act.jpg|thumb|George W. Bush signing the No Child Left Behind Act.]]
The [[Every Student Succeeds Act]] or ESSA passed in 2015
=== Teacher biases and training ===
Attitudes of educators play a major role in the ESL classroom. Estimates suggest that approximately 45% of teachers in America have ELL students in their classrooms;<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=Anne |last2=Shafer |first2=Jill |last3=Iiams |first3=Michelle |date=2004 |title="Not In My Classroom": Teacher Attitudes Towards English Language Learners in the Mainstream Classroom |journal=NABE Journal of Research and Practice |volume=2 |citeseerx=10.1.1.579.2287}}</ref> however, it is not uncommon for teachers to have negative perceptions of the ELL students in their classrooms. These negative perceptions are informed by a bias that ELL students are not adequately trying or that they are personally at fault for their language barrier.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Carley Rizzuto |first=Kerry |date=22 June 2017 |title=Teachers' Perceptions of ELL Students: Do Their Attitudes Shape Their Instruction?|journal=The Teacher Educator |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=182–202 |doi=10.1080/08878730.2017.1296912|s2cid=219622420 }}</ref> Research shows that the negative attitudes of teachers may stem from lack of time to address unique ELL student classroom needs,<ref name="Youngs2001">{{cite journal |author1=Youngs, Cheryl S. |author2=Youngs, George A. Jr. |date=Spring 2001 |title=Predictors of Mainstream Teachers' Attitudes toward ESL Students |journal=TESOL Quarterly |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=97–120|doi=10.2307/3587861|jstor=3587861}}</ref> added teacher workload when working with ELL students in mainstream classrooms,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gitlin|first1=A.|last2=Buendia|first2=E.|last3=Crosland|first3=K.|last4=Doumbia|first4=F.|year=2003|title=The Production of Margin and Center: Welcoming-Unwelcoming of Immigrant Students|journal=American Educational Research Journal|volume=40|pages=91–122|doi=10.3102/00028312040001091|s2cid=144636531}}<!-- Gitlin, Buenda, Crosland & Doumbia, 2003. The Production of Margin and Center: Welcoming–Unwelcoming of Immigrant Students--></ref> and personal feelings of professional insufficiency to work with ELL students.<ref name="Verplaetse1998">{{cite journal|author=Verplaetse, Lorrie Stoops|date=Autumn 1998|title=How Content Teachers Interact with English Language Learners|journal=TESOL Journal|volume=7|issue=5|pages=24–28}}</ref><ref name="Reeves2006">{{cite journal |last1=Reeves |first1=Jenelle R. |title=Secondary Teacher Attitudes Toward Including English-Language Learners in Mainstream Classrooms |journal=The Journal of Educational Research |date=January 2006 |volume=99 |issue=3 |pages=131–143 |doi=10.3200/joer.99.3.131-143 |citeseerx=10.1.1.957.3133 |s2cid=146569899 }}</ref> Research indicates that
These attitudes can also lead to biases in the way students are assessed and evaluated.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Stevenson |first1=Nathan A. |last2=Reed |first2=Deborah K. |last3=Tighe |first3=Elizabeth L. |title=Examining Potential Bias in Screening Measures for Middle School Students By Special Education and Low Socioeconomic Status Subgroups: Bias in Screening Measures in Middle School |journal=Psychology in the Schools |date=May 2016 |volume=53 |issue=5 |pages=533–547 |doi=10.1002/pits.21919 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garcia |first1=Elisa B. |last2=Sulik |first2=Michael J. |last3=Obradović |first3=Jelena |title=Teachers' perceptions of students' executive functions: Disparities by gender, ethnicity, and ELL status. |journal=Journal of Educational Psychology |date=July 2019 |volume=111 |issue=5 |pages=918–931 |doi=10.1037/edu0000308 |s2cid=150018433 }}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Downey |first=D. B. |date=2004 |title=When race matters: Teachers' evaluations of students' classroom behavior |journal=Sociology of Education |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=267–282 |doi=10.1177/003804070407700401 |s2cid=145521968}}</ref> ELL students tend underrate or under-evaluate academic skills of ELL students than English dominant peers, this can affect academic growth, ELL reclassification to English proficient, and even referral to [[Special education in the United States|special education services]].<ref name=":5" /> Some researchers state that more multicultural education or trainings for teachers can help change these biases, along with more teachers of color that are representative of their students can help with less biases and lead to better evaluations of ELLs.<ref name=":6" /> Teachers can also become more aware of the issues faced by ELLs along with how language is developed and the issues with language development.
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A study to examine anti-racist pedagogy within predominantly white versus predominantly Mexican classrooms concluded that Mexican elementary-level students had a firmer grasp on cultural inequalities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borsheim-Black |first1=Carlin |title='It's Pretty Much White': Challenges and Opportunities of an Antiracist Approach to Literature Instruction in a Multilayered White Context |journal=Research in the Teaching of English |date=2015 |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=407–429 |jstor=24398713 }}</ref> According to the findings, the social and cultural maturity of the Mexican students is a direct result of having faced the inequalities themselves. Another study{{fact|date=August 2022}} on Caucasian first-grade teachers and their ELL students indicated biases that ultimately affected students' desire to learn. A combination of misinformation, stereotypes, and individual reservations can alter teachers' perception when working with culturally diverse or non-native English speakers. Teachers are placed in the position to teach English-learning students, sometimes without the necessary training, as mentioned above. From a Walden University study, a handful of teachers at an elementary school expressed not having the energy, training, or time to perform for these students.<ref>{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|305224931}} |last1=Couch |first1=Marsha |date=2010 |title=First grade teachers' perceptions of and expectations for ELL students }}{{pn|date=June 2023}}</ref>
An ESL teacher, in a study called "Losing Strangeness to Mediate ESL Teaching", "connects culture to religious celebrations and holidays and the fusion invites students to share their knowledge".<ref name="Rowsell2007">{{cite journal |last1=Rowsell |first1=Jennifer |last2=Sztainbok |first2=Vannina |last3=Blaney |first3=Judy |title=Losing Strangeness: Using Culture to Mediate ESL Teaching |journal=Language, Culture and Curriculum |date=July 2007 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=140–154 |doi=10.2167/lcc331.0 |s2cid=144057826 }} p147.<!-- Rowsell, J., Sztainbok, V., & Blaney, J. (2008). Losing strangeness: using culture to mediate esl teaching. --></ref> This has encouraged students to open up and talk about their cultural backgrounds and traditions. "Teachers who encourage CLD students to maintain their cultural or ethnic ties promote their personal and academic success."<ref name="Herrera2007">{{Cite book|last1=Herrera|first1=Socorro|title=Assessment Accommodations for Classroom Teachers of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students|last2=Murry|first2=Kevin|last3=Cabral|first3=Robin|publisher=Pearson/Allyn and Bacon|year=2007|isbn=978-0-205-49271-8|___location=Boston}}</ref>{{rp|90}} Students should not feel that they need to lose their identity in the classroom, but rather that they gain knowledge from both their culture and the world around them. It have been proven to be beneficial to bring culture into the ESL classroom
Another reason that an ESL student may be struggling to join discussions and engage in class could be attributed to whether they come from a culture where speaking up to an authority figure (like a teacher or a professor) is discouraged. This makes classes that are graded based on participation especially challenging for these students. Strategies that can mitigate this discomfort or misunderstanding of expectations include offering surveys or reflective writing prompts, that are collected after class, inquiring about student's educational and cultural backgrounds and past learning experiences. Regardless of how much training an instructor has on teaching ELL students, being open to learning about them as an individual rather than a part of a larger group and making efforts towards tailoring and personalizing their learning experience can contribute to the student's overall success.
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=== Prompts and expectations ===
Aside from linguistic gaps, the adjustment to American scholarly expectations, writing genres, and prompts can all be jarring and even contradictory to an ELL individual's academic experiences from their home country. An example of this is how American writing prompts tend to be multiple pages long, with extensive details and examples. Many collegiate ELLs can be overwhelmed and confused by all of the additional information, making it difficult to decipher all of the different parts that their writing needs to address. Another example is found in how students from other countries may be unfamiliar with sharing their opinions,<ref>{{Citation|title=We No Speak Americano
===
Once ELLs begins to use the second language they typically use brief phrases and short words. With time, they may begin to feel more comfortable with using the new language. The length of duration for an ELL to become fluent in the second language depends on the individual and their strength in their native language. <ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-08-27 |title=Language Acquisition: An Overview |url=https://www.colorincolorado.org/article/language-acquisition-overview |website=www.colorincolorado.org}}</ref>
== ELLs with disabilities ==▼
Of the 5 million ELL students in the 2019–2020 school year, 15.3% of these or 766,600 were identified with disabilities and qualified for special education services.<ref>{{Cite web|title=COE - English Language Learners in Public Schools|url=https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cgf|access-date=2021-10-16|website=nces.ed.gov|language=en}}</ref> ELLs with disabilities follow the same path to receiving services for special education: academic struggle is observed by those working with the student, the student is referred to a team of professionals for intervention and/or assessment, if a disability is found they are then placed in special education programming for support.<ref name=":3" />▼
▲== ELLs with disabilities ==
Researchers have found that there is a disproportion in ELL students identified into special education.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> There can be an overrepresentation where ELL students can be qualified into special education services but do not truly have a disability, or there can be an underrepresentation where a disability exists but the ELL student is not qualified into special education because it is deemed a language development related issue.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-06-10|title=Challenges in Special Education Identification for ELLs|url=https://www.colorincolorado.org/special-education-ell/identification|access-date=2021-10-16|website=Colorín Colorado|language=en}}</ref>▼
▲Of the 5 million ELL students in the 2019–2020 school year, 15.3% of these or 766,600 were identified with disabilities and qualified for special education services.<ref>{{Cite web|title=COE
▲Researchers have found that there
* Environment
* The child as a whole
* Students' strengths during meaningful activities
* Student progression in relation to their peers
== Enriching the classroom environment ==
=== Strategies for supporting ELLs in the classroom and beyond ===
Allowing students to [[Translanguaging|translanguage]], or alternate, between English and their native language is an essential strategy for English
When it comes to writing, constant and a
[[File:Karvachar Armath Lab at work.jpg|thumb|Technology usage in the classroom can be beneficial for English
Incorporating technology
Experiential learning is another strategy to support ELL students. The teacher can provide opportunities for English-language
A strategy that requires more involvement from educators is supporting the students outside of the school setting. To respond to deficiencies in the public school system, educators and student activists have created spaces that work to uplift ELL and their families. Labeled as family-school-community partnerships, these spaces have sought out cultural and linguistic responsiveness through encouraging participation and addressing needs outside of school. It is an interpretation of growth through art and community bonding meant to prime student development.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chappell|first=Sharon Verner|title=The Arts and Emergent Bilingual Youth: Building Culturally Responsive, Critical and Creative Education in School and Community Contexts|publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|year=2013}}{{pn|date=June 2023}}</ref>
== Future ==
While there have been several advancements in both the rights and the strategies and support offered in the United States and Canada for English-language learning students, there is still much work to be done. Despite International students (who often make up the bulk of ELL students in higher education, in addition to immigrants) being sought out as sources of profit and their boosts of collegiate diversity statistics, there are not always additional funding and resources curated to support these students at their respective institutions. With efforts like former U.S. president
== References ==
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