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{{Short description|Spanish writer (1547–1616)}}
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{{Infobox Writer
{{Redirect|Miguel nameCervantes|the American actor and = singer|Miguel de Cervantes (actor)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
| image = Cervates jauregui.jpg
{{Infobox writer
| caption = portrait of Cervantes{{Ref_label|A|a|none}} by [[Juan Martínez de Jáuregui y Aguilar]] (c. 1600)
| name = Miguel de Cervantes
| birth_date = [[September 29]], [[1547]]
| image = Cervantes Jáuregui.jpg
| birth_place = [[Alcalá de Henares]], [[Spain]]
| caption = This portrait, attributed to [[Juan de Jáuregui]],{{efn|Although Cervantes wrote in his preface to ''[[Novelas ejemplares|Exemplary Novels]]'' that Jáuregui did paint his portrait: "el cual amigo bien pudiera, como es uso y costubre, grabarme y esculpirme en la primera hoja de este libro, pues le diera mi retrato el famoso D. Juan de Jauregui".}} is unauthenticated. No authenticated image of Cervantes exists.<ref>
| death_date = [[April 23]], [[1616]]
{{cite journal |first=José María
| death_place = [[Madrid]], [[Spain]]
|last=Chacón y Calvo |title=Retratos de Cervantes |journal=Anales de la Academia Nacional de Artes y Letras |language=es |volume=27 |date=1947–1948 |pages=5–17}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Enrique Lafuente |last=Ferrari |title=La novela ejemplar de los retratos de Cervantes |language=es |year=1948}}</ref>
| occupation = [[novelist]], [[poet]] and [[playwright]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1547|9|29}}
| birth_place = [[Alcalá de Henares]], Spain
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1616|4|22|1547|9|29}}<ref name= Engines>{{cite web |url=https://www.uh.edu/engines/epi2368.htm |work=Engines of Our Ingenuity |author=Armstrong, Richard |others=Lienhard, John (host, producer) |number=2368 |title=Time Out of Joint |via=UH.edu |access-date=9 December 2019}}</ref>
| death_place = [[Madrid]], Spain
| resting_place = [[Convent of the Barefoot Trinitarians]], Madrid
| occupation = Soldier, [[Farm (revenue leasing)|tax collector]], accountant, purchasing agent for Navy<br />(writing was an [[avocation]] which did not produce much income)
| language = [[Early Modern Spanish]]
| movement = [[Renaissance literature]], [[Mannerism]], Baroque
| notableworks = ''[[Don Quixote]]''<br />''Entremeses''<br />''[[Novelas ejemplares]]''
| children = Isabel {{circa|1584}} (illegitimate){{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=112}}
| signature = Miguel de Cervantes signature.svg
| spouse = Catalina de Salazar y Palacios
}}
Don '''Miguel de Cervantes y Saavedra'''{{Ref_label|B|b|none}} ([[September 29]], [[1547]] &ndash; [[April 23]], [[1616]]) was a [[Spain|Spanish]] [[novelist]], [[poet]] and [[playwright]]. Cervantes was one of the most important and celebrated figures in [[literature]] and the leading figure associated with the cultural florescence of sixteenth century Spain (the [[Siglo de Oro]]). His novel, ''[[Don Quixote]]'', is considered as a founding classic of [[Western literature]] and regularly figures among the best novels ever written; it has been translated into more than sixty-five languages, while editions continue regularly to be printed, and critical discussion of the work has unabatedly persisted since the [[18th century]].<ref name="Br">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Cervantes, Miguel de|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica|date=2002}}</ref>. He has been dubbed ''el Príncipe de los Ingenios'' (the Prince of Wits).
 
'''Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra''' ({{IPAc-en|s|ɜr|ˈ|v|æ|n|t|iː|z|,_|-|t|ɪ|z}} {{respell|sur|VAN|teez|,_-|tiz}};<ref>{{EPD|18|Cervantes|page=83|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KQXL_uRxUN4C&printsec=frontcover&q=cervantes&f=false}}</ref> {{IPA|es|miˈɣel de θeɾˈβantes saaˈβeðɾa|lang}}; 29 September 1547 (assumed) – 22 April 1616)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://dbe.rah.es/biografias/11973/miguel-de-cervantes-saavedra |title=Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra |encyclopedia=Diccionario biográfico España |first=Martín |last=de Riquer Morera |publisher=[[Real Academia de la Historia]] |language=es}}</ref> was a Spanish writer widely regarded as the greatest writer in the [[Spanish language]] and one of the world's pre-eminent novelists. He is best known for his novel ''[[Don Quixote]]'', a work considered as the first modern [[novel]].<ref name=bloom>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/dec/13/classics.miguelcervantes |title=The knight in the mirror |author=Bloom, Harold |website=[[The Guardian]] |date=13 December 2003 |access-date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-don-quixote-the-worlds-first-modern-novel-and-one-of-the-best-94097 |title=Guide to the classics: Don Quixote, the world's first modern novel – and one of the best |last1=Puchau de Lecea |first1= Ana |first2= Vicente |last2=Pérez de León |website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]] |date=25 June 2018 |access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref><ref name=bbcdon/> The novel has been labelled by many well-known authors as the "best book of all time"{{efn|[[Milan Kundera]], [[John le Carré]], [[John Irving]],<ref name=bbcdon/> [[Doris Lessing]], [[Salman Rushdie]], Miriam Lebwohl, [[Nadine Gordimer]], [[Wole Soyinka]], [[Seamus Heaney]], [[Carlos Fuentes]], [[Norman Mailer]], and [[Astrid Lindgren]]<ref name=chrisafis/> were among the authors polled.}} and the "best and most central work in world literature".<ref name=chrisafis>{{cite news |last=Chrisafis |first=Angelique |title=Don Quixote is the world's best book say the world's top authors |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/may/08/humanities.books |access-date=13 October 2012 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=21 July 2003}}</ref><ref name=bbcdon>{{cite news |title=Don Quixote gets authors' votes |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1972609.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=7 May 2002 |access-date=3 January 2010}}</ref>
Cervantes, born in [[Alcalá de Henares]], was the fourth of seven children in a family whose origins may have been of the minor [[gentry]]. The family moved from town to town, and little is known of Cervantes's early years. Cervantes made his literary début in 1568. By 1570 he had enlisted as a soldier in a Spanish infantry regiment and continued his military life until 1575, when he was captured by [[barbary pirate]]s on his return home. He was ransomed by his parents and the [[Trinitarians]] and returned to his family in [[Madrid]].
 
Much of his life was spent in relative poverty and obscurity, which led to many of his early works being lost. Despite this, his influence and literary contribution are reflected by the fact that Spanish is often referred to as "the language of Cervantes".<ref>{{cite web |title=La lengua de Cervantes |author=[[Gerardo Diego|Diego, Gerardo]] |language=es |url=http://www.cepc.es/rap/Publicaciones/Revistas/2/REP_031-032_288.pdf |publisher=Ministerio de la Presidencia de España |access-date=14 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083955/http://www.cepc.es/rap/Publicaciones/Revistas/2/REP_031-032_288.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2008}}</ref>
In 1585, Cervantes published a pastoral novel, ''[[La Galatea]]''. Because of financial problems, Cervantes worked as a purveyor for the [[Spanish Armada]], and later as a [[tax collector]]. In 1597 discrepancies in his accounts of three years previous landed him in the Crown Jail of Seville. In 1605 he was in [[Valladolid]], just when the immediate success of the first part of his Don Quixote, published in Madrid, signaled his return to the literary world. In 1607, he settled in Madrid, where he lived and worked until his death. During the last nine years of his life, Cervantes solidified his reputation as a writer; he published the ''Exemplary Novels'' (''Novelas ejemplares'') in 1613, the ''Journey to Parnassus'' (''Viaje del Parnaso'') in 1614, and in 1615, the ''Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses'' and the second part of ''Don Quixote''.
 
[[File: An Incident in the story of Don Quixote, by Robert Hillingford.jpg|thumb|''An incident in the story of'' Don Quixote (1870), by [[Robert Hillingford]]]]
==Biography==
===Family and Early Life===
 
In 1569, Cervantes was forced to leave Spain and move to [[Rome]], where he worked in the household of a [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|cardinal]]. In 1570, he enlisted in a [[Spanish Marine Infantry|Spanish Navy infantry]] regiment, and was badly wounded at the [[Battle of Lepanto]] in October 1571 and lost the use of his left arm and hand. He served as a soldier until 1575, when he was captured by [[Barbary pirates]]; after five years in captivity, he was ransomed, and returned to [[Madrid]].
Cervantes was born at [[Alcalá de Henares]], a Spanish city about 20 miles from Madrid, probably on September 29 (the feast day of [[St. Michael]]) 1547. He was baptized on [[October 9]].<ref name="Br" /> The first known member of the Cervantes family was Miguel's great-grandfather Ruy (Rodrigo) Diaz de Cervantes, a prosperous draper who was born most probably in the 1430s. Contemporary scholars believe that he was of Jewish converso descent. He married a Catalina de Cabrera about whom nothing at all is known. Their son, Miguel's grandfather Juan studied law at [[University of Salamanca]], for most of his life he served as a minor magistrate, ended his career as a specialist in fiscal law for the [[Inquisition]] and was a well-to-do man. He married Leonor Frenandez de Torreblanka from a prominent Jewish converso family; she was probably Juan's cousin. She was a daughter of Cordoban physician. Miguel's father, Ruy (Rodrigo), was a barber-surgeon who set bones, performed bloodlettings, and attended lesser medical needs. He presented himself as a nobleman and liked to act as a gentleman, which was not easy because of his low income.<ref>William Byron, "Cervantes. A Biography," Doubleday& Company: Garden City, NY, 1978, pp. 23-32.</ref> Cervantes's mother seems to have been a descendant of [[Jewish]] [[convert]]s to [[Christianity]].<ref name="Can">J. Canavaggio, [http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/cervantes/biography/new_english_cerv_bio.html Miguel de Cervantes]</ref> Little is known of Cervantes' early years and education, but it seems that he spent much of his childhood moving from town to town with his family. While some of his biographers argue that he studied at the [[University of Salamanca]], there is no solid evidence for supposing that he did so.{{Ref_label|C|c|none}} There has been speculation also that Cervantes studied with the [[Jesuit]]s in [[Córdoba]] or [[Sevilla]].<ref name="Am">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Cervantes, Miguel de|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia Americana|date=1994}}</ref> All that we know positively about his education is that humanist [[Juan López de Hoyos]] called him his "dear and beloved pupil." This was in a little collection of verses by different hands on the death of Isabel de Valois, second queen of [[Philip II of Spain]], published by Lopez de Hoyos in 1569, to which Cervantes contributed four pieces, including an elegy, and an epitaph in the form of a sonnet.<ref name="Or">J. Ormsby, [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/c/cervantes/c41d/preface1.html About Cervantes and Don Quixote]</ref> That same year he left Spain for Italy;<ref name="Q">C. Qualia, ''Cervantes, Soldier and Umanist'', 1</ref> it seems that for a time he served as chamberlain in the household of Cardinal Giulio Acquaviva in [[Rome]].
 
His first significant novel, titled ''[[La Galatea]]'', was published in 1585, but he continued to work as a purchasing agent, and later as a government [[Farm (revenue leasing)|tax collector]]. Part One of ''Don Quixote'' was published in 1605, and Part Two in 1615. Other works include the 12 ''[[Novelas ejemplares]]'' (''Exemplary Novels''); a long poem, the ''[[Viaje del Parnaso]]'' (''Journey to Parnassus''); and ''Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses'' (''Eight Plays and Eight [[wikt:interlude|Interlude]]s''). The novel ''[[Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda]]'' (''The Travails of Persiles and Sigismunda''), was published posthumously in 1617.
===Soldier and captive===
[[Image:The Battle of Lepanto by Paolo Veronese.jpeg|thumb|right|The ''Battle of Lepanto'' by [[Paolo Veronese]] (c. 1572, oil on canvas, 169 x 137 cm, [[Gallerie dell'Accademia]], [[Venice]])]]
The reasons that forced Cervantes to leave Spain remain unclear. Whether he was the "student" of the same name, a "sword-wielding fugitive from justice", fleeing from the royal warrant of arrest for having wounded a certain Antonio de Sigura in a duel is another mystery. This fugitive was condemned "by default to having his right hand publicly cut off and to banishment from the realm for ten years".<ref name="Lokos118">E. Lokos, ''The Enigma of Cervantine Genealogy'', 118</ref> In any event, in going to Italy Cervantes was doing what many young Spaniards of the time did to further their careers in one way or another. Rome would reveal to the young artist its ecclesiastic pomp, [[ritual]] and majesty. In a city teeming with ruins, Cervantes could focus his attention on [[Renaissance]] art, architecture and poetry (knowledge of [[Italian literature]] is so readily discernible in his own productions), and on rediscovering antiquity; he could find in the ancients "a powerful impetus to revive the contemporary world in light of its accomplishments".<ref name="Ar32">F.A. de Armas, ''Cervantes and the Italian Renaissance'', 32<br>* F.A. de Armas, ''Quixotic Frescoes'', 5</ref> Thus, Cervantes' continuing desire for Italy, as revealed in his later works, was in part a desire for a return to Renaissance.<ref name="Ar33">F.A. de Armas, ''Cervantes and the Italian Renaissance'', 33</ref>
 
The cave of [[Medrano]] (also known as the casa de Medrano) in Argamasilla de Alba, which has been known since the beginning of the 17th century, and according to the tradition of Argamasilla de Alba, was the prison of Cervantes and the place where he conceived and began to write ''Don Quixote''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-06 |title=Casa – Cueva de Medrano - Ruta del Vino de La Mancha |url=https://www.rutadelvinodelamancha.com/argamasilla-de-alba/casa-cueva-de-medrano/,%20https://www.rutadelvinodelamancha.com/argamasilla-de-alba/casa-cueva-de-medrano/ |access-date=2024-07-01 |language=es-ES}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Visita Museo Casa de Medrano {{!}} TCLM |url=https://www.turismocastillalamancha.es/patrimonio/museo-casa-de-medrano-4361/descripcion/ |access-date=2024-09-13 |website=www.turismocastillalamancha.es |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Casa de Medrano |url=https://www.ellugardelamancha.es/turismo/casa-de-medrano/ |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=Turismo Argamasilla de Alba |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=CERVANTES en la BNE - Casa de Medrano que sirvió de prisión a Cervantes en Argamasilla de Alba |url=http://cervantes.bne.es/es/exposicion/obras/casa-medrano-que-sirvio-prision-cervantes-argamasilla-alba |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=cervantes.bne.es |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cueva Prisión de Medrano {{!}} Portal de Cultura de Castilla-La Mancha |url=https://cultura.castillalamancha.es/patrimonio/catalogo-patrimonio-cultural/cueva-prision-de-medrano |access-date=2024-09-13 |website=cultura.castillalamancha.es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cueva Prisión de Medrano (Argamasilla de Alba). Turismo Ciudad Real |url=https://www.turismociudadreal.com/ruta/30/cueva-prision-de-medrano |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=Turismo Ciudad Real |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-04-27 |title=Cueva de Medrano: leyenda y realidad del origen del Quijote |url=https://www.lanzadigital.com/cultura/cueva-de-medrano-leyenda-y-realidad-del-origen-del-quijote/ |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=www.lanzadigital.com |language=es}}</ref>
By 1570 Cervantes had enlisted as a soldier in a Spanish infantry regiment stationed in [[Naples]], then a possession of the Spanish crown. He was there for about a year before he saw active service. In September 1571, Cervantes sailed on board the ''Marquesa'', part of the [[galley]] fleet of the [[Holy League (Mediterranean)|Holy League]] (a coalition of the [[Pope Pius V|Pope]], [[Spain]], [[Republic of Venice|Venice]], [[Republic of Genoa]], [[Duchy of Savoy]], the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of Malta]] and others under the command of [[John of Austria]]) that defeated the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] fleet on [[October 7]] in the [[battle of Lepanto|Gulf of Lepanto]] near [[Gulf of Lepanto|Corinth]]. Though taken down with fever, Cervantes refused to stay below, and begged to be allowed to take part in the battle, saying that he would rather die for his God and his king than keep under cover. He fought bravely on board a vessel, and received three gunshot wounds &ndash; two in the chest and one which rendered his left hand useless for the rest of his life. In ''Journey to Parnassus'', he was to say that he "had lost the movement of the left hand for the glory of the right" (he was thinking of the success of the first part of ''Don Quixote''). Cervantes always looked back on his conduct in the battle with pride: he believed that he had taken part in an event that would shape the course of [[European history]].<ref name="Q" />
{| class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" | "What I cannot help taking amiss is that he{{Ref_label|D|d|none}} charges me with being old and one-handed, as if it had been in my power to keep time from passing over me, or as if the loss of my hand had been brought about in some tavern, and not on the grandest occasion the past or present has seen, or the future can hope to see. If my wounds have no beauty to the beholder's eye, they are, at least, honourable in the estimation of those who know where they were received; for the soldier shows to greater advantage dead in battle than alive in flight."
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Miguel de Cervantes ('''''Don Quixote - Part II''''', "The Author's Preface" translated by [[John Ormsby]])
|}
 
==Biography==
After the battle of Lepanto Cervantes remained in hospital for nearly six months, before his wounds were sufficiently healed to allow his joining the colors again.<ref name="F33">J. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, ''The Life of Cervantes'', 9</ref> From 1572 to 1575, based mainly in Naples, he continued his soldier's life; he participated in expeditions to [[Corfu]] and [[Pylos|Navarino]], and saw the fall of [[Tunis]] and [[La Goleta]] to the [[Ottoman Turks|Turks]] in 1574.<ref name="G220">M.A. Garcés, ''Cervantes in Algiers'', 220</ref>
[[File:Alcalá de Henares (RPS 08-11-2014) Plaza de Cervantes.png|thumb|''Santa María la Mayor'', in [[Alcalá de Henares]], where Cervantes was reputedly baptised; the square in front is named ''Plaza Cervantes'']]
Despite his subsequent renown, many details of Cervantes' life remain uncertain, including his name, background, and physical appearance. He signed his name as "Cerbantes", but his printers used "Cervantes", which became the common form. In later life, Cervantes used "Saavedra", the name of a distant relative, rather than the more usual "Cortinas", after his mother.{{sfn|Garcés|2002|p=189}} Historian [[Luce López-Baralt]] has suggested that "Saavedra" comes from the Arabic dialect word ''shaibedraa'', meaning "one-handed", a reference to his nickname during his captivity.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.es/cultura/cultural/abci-luce-lopez-baralt-ante-quijote-y-san-juan-cruz-siento-vertigo-asomarme-abismo-sin-201611170144_noticia.html |title=Luce López-Baralt: "Ante el 'Quijote' y San Juan de la Cruz siento el vértigo de asomarme a un abismo sin fin" |author=Iglesias, Amalia |date=17 November 2016 |website=abc |language=es}}</ref> Further linguistic and historical evidence for this claim, however, remains debated.
 
Another area of dispute is his religious background. It has been suggested that not only Cervantes' father but also his mother may have been [[New Christians]].{{sfn|Byron|1978|p=32}}{{sfn|Lokos|2016|p=116}} Anthony Cascardi writes, "While the family might have had some claim to [[Spanish nobility|nobility]] they often found themselves in financial straits. Moreover, they may have been of converso origin, that is, [[Conversion to Catholicism|converts to Catholicism]] of [[Jewish]] ancestry. In the Spain of Cervantes' days, this meant living under clouds of official suspicion and social mistrust, with far more limited opportunities than were enjoyed by members of the 'Old Christian' caste."{{sfn|Cascardi|2002|p=4}} According to Charles D. Presberg, however, there is no wide following for the view that Cervantes had converso origins.<ref name="Cruz Johnson 2018 p. 89">{{cite book |editor1-last=Cruz |editor1-first=Anne J. |editor2-last=Johnson |editor2-first=Carrol B. |last=Presberg |first=Charles D. |title=Cervantes and His Postmodern Constituencies |chapter=Chapter 5: Anatomy of Contemporary Cervantes Studies: A Romance of "Two Cities" |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-317-94451-5 |chapter-url={{GBurl|3nt0DwAAQBAJ|pg=PA89}} |access-date=10 December 2023 |page=89 |quote=Though the thesis of Cervantes, ''converso'', has yet to gain a wide following among Cervantes scholars, ''El pensamiento'' stood as the sponsoring text for most criticism on Cervantes, whose other writings were judged in relation to ''Don Quixote'', for over fifty years.}}</ref> Cuban writer [[Roberto González Echevarría|Roberto Echevarría]] argues that the claims of Cervantes' converso origins are based on "very flimsy evidence", namely Cervantes' lack of social and financial progression which was not unusual for Spaniards of his time, regardless of their ancestry as many didn't receive these rewards during this period.<ref name="Echevarria 2010 p. 13">{{cite book |last=Echevarria |first=Roberto G. |title=Cervantes' Don Quixote: A Casebook |chapter=Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Casebooks in Criticism |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-996046-0 |chapter-url={{GBurl|mvPQCwAAQBAJ|pg=PA13}} |access-date=10 December 2023 |page=13}}</ref>
On [[September 6]] or [[September 7|7]] [[1575]] Cervantes set sail on the [[galley]] ''Sol'' from Naples to [[Barcelona]], Spain, with letters of commendation to the king from the duke de [[Sessa]] and Don Juan himself.<ref name="F41">J. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, ''The Life of Cervantes'', 41</ref> On the morning of [[September 26]], as the ''Sol'' approached the Catalan coast, it was attacked by [[Algerian]] corsairs. After significant resistance, in which the captain and many crew members were killed, the surviving passengers were taken to [[Algiers]] as captives.<ref name="G236">M.A. Garcés, ''Cervantes in Algiers'', 236</ref> After five years spent as a slave in Algiers, and four unsuccessful escape attempts, he was ransomed by his parents and the [[Trinitarians]] and returned to his family in Madrid. Not surprisingly, this period of Cervantes' life supplied subject matter for several of his literary works, notably the Captive's tale in ''Don Quixote'' and the two Algiers plays, ''El trato de Argel'' (''The Traffic of Algiers'') and ''Los baños de Argel'' (''The Bagnios of Algiers''), as well as episodes in a number of other writings, although never in straight autobiographical form.<ref name="Br" />
 
It is generally accepted Miguel de Cervantes was born around 29 September 1547, in [[Alcalá de Henares]]. He was the second son of [[barber-surgeon]] Rodrigo de Cervantes and his wife, Leonor de Cortinas ({{circa|1520–1593}}).{{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=35}} Rodrigo came from [[Córdoba, Andalusia]], where his father Juan de Cervantes was an influential lawyer.
===Literary pursuits===
{{main|Don Quixote}}
In [[1584]], he married the much younger Catalina de Salazar y Palacios. During the next 20 years he led a nomadic existence, working as a purchasing agent for the Spanish Armada, and as a tax collector. He suffered a bankruptcy, and was imprisoned at least twice ([[1597]] and [[1602]]) because of irregularities in his accounts, one due rather to some subordinate than to himself. Between the years 1596 and 1600, he lived primarily in [[Seville]]. In 1606, Cervantes settled permanently in Madrid, where he remained for the rest of his life. In 1585, Cervantes published his first major work, ''La Galatea'', a pastoral romance, at the same time that some of his plays, now lost except for ''El trato de Argel'' (where he dealt with the life of Christian slaves in Algiers) and ''El cerco de Numancia'', were playing on the stages of Madrid. ''La Galatea'' received little contemporary notice, and Cervantes never wrote the continuation for it, (which he repeatedly promised). Cervantes next turned his attention to the drama, hoping to derive an income from that source, but the plays which he composed failed to achieve their purpose. Aside from his plays, his most ambitious work in verse was ''Viaje del Parnaso'' ([[1614]]), an allegory which consisted largely of a rather tedious though good-natured review of contemporary poets. Cervantes himself realized that he was deficient in poetic gifts.
 
===1547 to 1566: Early years===
If a remark which Cervantes himself makes in the prologue of Don Quixote is to be taken literally, the idea of the work, though hardly the writing of its "First Part", as some have maintained, occurred to him in prison at [[Argamasilla de Alba]], in La Mancha. Cervantes' idea was to give a picture of real life and manners, and to express himself in clear language. The intrusion of everyday speech into a literary context was acclaimed by the reading public. The author stayed poor until 1605, when the first part of Don Quixote appeared. Although it did not make Cervantes rich, it brought him international appreciation as a man of letters. Cervantes also wrote many plays, only two of which have survived; short novels, and the rogue obtained by Cervantes's story led to the publication of a continuation of it by an unknown who masqueraded under the name of Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda. In self-defence, Cervantes produced his own continuation, or "Second Part", of Don Quixote, which made its appearance in 1615.
Rodrigo was frequently in debt, or searching for work, and moved constantly. Leonor came from [[Arganda del Rey]], and died in October 1593, at the age of 73; surviving legal documents indicate she had seven children, could read and write, and was a resourceful individual with a keen eye for business. When Rodrigo was imprisoned for debt from October 1553 to April 1554, she supported the family on her own.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=34}}
 
Cervantes' siblings were Andrés (born 1543), Andrea (born 1544), Luisa (born 1546), Rodrigo (born 1550), Magdalena (born 1554) and Juan. They lived in Córdoba until 1556, when his grandfather died. For reasons that are unclear, Rodrigo did not benefit from his will and the family disappears until 1564 when he filed a lawsuit in [[Seville]].{{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=36}}
For the world at large, interest in Cervantes centers particularly in Don Quixote, and this work has been regarded chiefly as a novel of purpose. It is stated again and again that he wrote it in order to ridicule the romances of chivalry, and to destroy the popularity of a form of literature which for much more than a century had engrossed the attention of a large proportion of those who could read among his countrymen, and which had been communicated by them to the ignorant.
 
Seville was then in the midst of an economic boom, and Rodrigo managed rented accommodation for his elder brother Andres, who was a junior magistrate. It is contended that Cervantes attended the [[Jesuits|Jesuit]] college in Seville, where one of the teachers was Jesuit playwright Pedro Pablo Acevedo, who moved there in 1561 from Córdoba.{{sfn|Egginton|2016|p=23}} However, legal records show his father got into debt once more and in 1566 the family moved to [[Madrid]].{{sfn|McCrory|2006|pp=40–41}}
Don Quixote certainly reveals much narrative power, considerable humor, a mastery of dialogue, and a forcible style. Of the two parts written by Cervantes, the first has ever remained the favourite. The second part is inferior to it in humorous effect; but, nevertheless, the second part shows more constructive insight, better delineation of character, an improved style, and more realism and probability in its action.
 
===1566 to 1580: Military service and captivity===
In 1613, he published a collection of tales, the Exemplary Novels, some of which had been written earlier. On the whole, the Exemplary Novels are worthy of the fame of Cervantes; they bear the same stamp of genius as Don Quixote. The [[Pirate|picaroon]] strain, already made familiar in Spain by the [[Lazarillo de Tormes]] and his successors, appears in one or another of them, especially in the ''Rinconete y Cortadillo'', which is the best of all. He also published the ''Viaje del Parnaso'' in 1614, and in 1615, the ''Eight Comedies and Eight New Interludes''. At the same time, Cervantes continued working on ''Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda'', a novel of adventurous travel completed just before his death, and which appeared posthumously in January, 1617.And he was stupid
[[File:Madrid - Monumento a Miguel de Cervantes (35231601834).jpg|thumb|left|[[Monument to Miguel de Cervantes|Monument of Cervantes]] erected in 1929 ([[Madrid]])]]
In the 19th century, a biographer discovered an [[arrest warrant]] for a Miguel de Cervantes, dated 15 September 1569, who was charged with wounding Antonio de Sigura in a duel.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=48}} Although disputed at the time, largely on the grounds such behaviour was unworthy of so great an author, it is now accepted as the most likely reason for Cervantes leaving Madrid.{{sfn|Lokos|2016|p=118}}
 
Cervantes eventually made his way to Rome, where he found a position in the household of [[Giulio Antonio Acquaviva|Giulio Acquaviva]], an Italian bishop who spent 1568 to 1569 in Madrid, and was appointed [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|Cardinal]] in 1570.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=50}} When the 1570 to 1573 [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573)|Ottoman–Venetian War]] began, Spain formed part of the [[Holy League (1571)|Holy League]], a coalition formed to support the [[Republic of Venice|Venetian Republic]]. Possibly seeing an opportunity to have his arrest warrant rescinded, Cervantes went to [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], then part of the [[Crown of Aragon]].{{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=52}} The military commander in Naples was Álvaro de Sande, a friend of the family, who gave him a commission in the [[Tercio of Sicily]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ejercito.defensa.gob.es/en/noticias/2015/06/4343_Honores_militares_a_Cervantes.html?__locale=en |title=Military honours for Miguel de Cervantes |website=Gobierno de España. Ministerio de Defensa. |date=16 June 2015 |access-date=24 April 2024}}</ref> under the [[Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquess of Santa Cruz|Marqués de Santa Cruz]]. At some point, he was joined in Naples by his younger brother Rodrigo.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=52}}
===Death===
[[File:Nafpaktos evlahos.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Statue of Miguel de Cervantes at the harbour of [[Naupactus]] (Lepanto)]]
In September 1571, Cervantes sailed on board the ''Marquesa'', part of the Holy League fleet under Don [[John of Austria]], illegitimate half brother of [[Philip II of Spain|Phillip II of Spain]]; on 7 October, they defeated the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] fleet at the [[Battle of Lepanto]].{{sfn|Davis|1999|p=199}} This landmark sea battle, the most significant naval conflict since the Roman [[Battle of Actium]] in 32 B.C., stopped Muslim incursion into Europe, and for the first time allowed European Christians to feel that they were not going to be overrun by Islam.{{Citation needed|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Cervantes en Lepanto.jpg|thumb|upright|''Cervantes at the battle of Lepanto'', by [[Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau]]]]
According to his own account, although suffering from malaria, Cervantes was given command of a 12-man [[skiff]], a small boat used for assaulting enemy galleys. The ''Marquesa'' lost 40 dead, and 120 wounded, including Cervantes, who received three separate wounds, two in the chest, and another that rendered his left arm useless, this last wound is the reason why he later was called "''El manco de [[Battle of Lepanto|Lepanto]]''" (English: "The one-handed man of Lepanto", "The one-armed man of Lepanto"), a title that followed him for the rest of his life. His actions at Lepanto were a source of pride to the end of his life,{{efn|In the Preface to Volume 2 of ''Don Quixote'', he writes "the loss of my hand (came about) on the grandest occasion the past or present has seen, or the future can hope to see. If my wounds have no beauty to the beholder's eye, they are, at least, honorable in the estimation of those who know where they were received".{{sfn|Cervantes|2015|p=20}}}} while Don John approved no less than four separate pay increases for him.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=58}}
 
In ''[[Viaje del Parnaso|Journey to Parnassus]]'', published two years before his death in 1616, Cervantes claimed to have "lost the movement of the left hand for the glory of the right".{{sfn|Ma|2017|p=99}} As with much else, the extent of his disability is unclear, the only source being Cervantes himself, while commentators cite his habitual tendency to praise himself.{{efn|According to scholar Nicolás Marín: "No hay ocasión en que Cervantes no se elogie, bien que excusándose por salir de los límites de su natural modestia; tantas veces ocurre esto que no es posible verla nunca ni creer en ella". &#91;There is no occasion in which Cervantes does not praise himself, even if he excuses himself for going beyond the limits of his natural modesty; this happens so many times that it is never possible to see it or believe in it&#93;.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marín |first=Nicolás |year=1973 |title=Belardo furioso. Una de Lope mal leída |url=https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/la-interpretacin-cervantina-del-quijote-0/html/ffcf2960-82b1-11df-acc7-002185ce6064_50.html |journal=Anales Cervantinos |volume=12 |page=21 |issn=0569-9878 |via=Cervantes Virtual}}</ref>}}{{sfn|Eisenberg|1996|pp=32–53}} However, they were serious enough to earn him six months in the Civic Hospital at [[Messina]], Sicily.{{sfn|Fitzmaurice-Kelly|1892|p=33}}
Cervantes died in Madrid on [[April 23]], [[1616]]; coincidentally [[William Shakespeare]] also died on that date, but not on the same day; Britain was still using the [[Julian calendar]], whereas Spain had already adopted the [[Gregorian calendar]].<ref>C. Calvo, ''Shakespeare and Cervantes in 1916'', 78.</ref> In honour of this coincidence [[UNESCO]] established April 23 as the International Day of the Book.<ref>[http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=5125&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html World Book and Copyright Day — April 23, 2006], United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)</ref>
It is worth mentioning that the Encyclopedia Hispanica claims the date widely quoted as Cervantes' date of death, namely [[April 23]], is the date on his [[tombstone]] which in accordance of the traditions of Spain at the time would be his date of burial rather than date of death. If this is true, according to Hispanica, then it means that Cervantes probably died on [[April 22]] and was buried on [[April 23]].
 
Although he returned to service in July 1572 in the ''Tercio de Figueroa'',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ejercitotierra.blog/2015/04/17/la-tumba-de-cervantes-y-el-tercio-viejo-de-sicilia/ |title=La Tumba de Cervantes y El "Tercio Viejo de Sicilia." |website=Ejercito de Tierra |access-date=24 April 2024 |language=es}}</ref> records show his chest wounds were still not completely healed in February 1573.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=60}} Based mainly in Naples, he joined expeditions to [[Corfu]] and [[Siege of Navarino (1572)|Navarino]], and took part in the [[Conquest of Tunis (1573)|1573 occupation]] of [[Tunis]] and [[La Goulette]], which were [[Conquest of Tunis (1574)|recaptured]] by the Ottomans in 1574.{{sfn|Garcés|2002|pp=191–192, 220}} Despite Lepanto, the war overall was an Ottoman victory, and the loss of Tunis a military disaster for Spain. Cervantes returned to [[Palermo]], where he was paid off by the [[Duke of Sessa]], who gave him letters of commendation.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=63}}
==Works==
===Novels===
 
In early September 1575, Cervantes and Rodrigo left Naples on the [[galley]] ''Sol''; as they approached [[Barcelona]] on 26 September, their ship was captured by [[Ottoman corsairs]], and the brothers taken to [[Algiers]], to be sold as [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|slaves]], or – as was the case of Cervantes and his brother – held for ransom, if this would be more lucrative than their sale as slaves.{{sfn|Fitzmaurice-Kelly|1892|p=41}} Rodrigo was ransomed in 1577, but his family could not afford the fee for Cervantes, who was forced to remain.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|pp=65–68, 78}} Turkish historian [[Rasih Nuri İleri]] found evidence suggesting Cervantes worked on the construction of the [[Kılıç Ali Pasha Complex]], which would mean he spent at least part of his captivity in [[Istanbul]].<ref name="dergi">{{cite magazine |last=Eren |first=Güleren |title=The Heritage of a Sailor |magazine=Beyoğlu |issue=3 |pages=59–64 |date=June 2006}}</ref><ref name="kitap">{{cite book |last=Bayrak |first=M. Orhan |title=Türkiye Tarihi Yerler Kılavuzu |publisher=İnkılâp Kitabevi |year=1994 |___location=İstanbul |pages=326–327 |language=es |isbn=975-10-0705-4}}</ref><ref name="john">{{cite book |last1=Sumner-Boyd |first1=Hilary |last2=Freely |first2=John |title=Strolling Through Istanbul: A Guide to the City |publisher=SEV Matbaacılık |year=1994 |edition=6 |___location=İstanbul |pages=450–451 |isbn=975-8176-44-7}}</ref> This is yet to be proven and no evidence has been published on the matter.<ref name="archivo">{{cite magazine |last=Vielva Diego |first=Héctor |title=Cervantes in Istanbul, history or fiction? |magazine=Archivo de la Frontera |date=September 2016 |isbn=978-84-690-5859-6 |url=http://www.archivodelafrontera.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/VIELVA_Cervantes-en-Estambul.pdf |access-date=12 December 2023 |language=es}}</ref>
Cervantes's novels, listed chronologically, are:
 
By 1580, Spain was occupied with integrating [[Portuguese Empire|Portugal]], and suppressing the [[Dutch Revolt]], while the Ottomans were at [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–1590)|war with Persia]]; the two sides agreed a truce, leading to an improvement of relations.{{sfn|Glete|2001|p=84}} After almost five years, and four escape attempts, in 1580 Cervantes was set free by the [[Trinitarian Order|Trinitarians]], a religious charity that specialised in ransoming [[Barbary slave trade|Christian captives]], and returned to Madrid.{{sfn|Parker|Parker|2009|p=?}}
* ''[[La Galatea]]'' ([[1585]]), a pastoral [[Romance (genre)|romance]] in prose and verse based upon the genre introduced into Spain by [[Jorge de Montemayor]]'s ''Diana'' ([[1559]]). Its theme is the fortunes and misfortunes in love of a number of idealized shepherds and shepherdesses, who spend their life singing and playing musical instruments.
 
===1580 to 1616: Later life and death===
* ''[[Don Quixote|El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha I]]'' ([[1605]])
[[File:Miguel de Cervantes at the National Library.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Cervantes outside the [[Biblioteca Nacional de España|National Library of Spain]]]]
While Cervantes was in captivity, both Don John and the Duke of Sessa died, depriving him of two potential patrons, while the Spanish economy was in dire straits. This made finding employment difficult; other than a period in 1581 to 1582, when he was employed as an intelligence agent in North Africa, little is known of his movements prior to 1584.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|pp=100–101}}
* ''[[Exemplary Novels|Novelas ejemplares]]'' ([[1613]]), a collection of twelve short stories of varied types about the social, political, and historical problems of the Cervantes' Spain:
:* ''lil ho''(The Gypsy Girl)
:* ''El amante liberal'' (The Generous Lover)
:* ''Rinconete y Cortadillo''
:* ''La española inglesa'' (The English Spanish Lady)
:* ''El licenciado Vidriera'' (The Glass Vidriera)
:* ''La fuerza de la sangre'' (The Power of Blood)
:* ''El celoso extremeño'' (The Jealous Old Man From Extremadura)
:* ''La ilustre fregona'' (The Illustrious Kitchen-Maid)
:* ''Novela de las dos doncellas'' (The Two Damsels)
:* ''Novela de la señora Cornelia'' (Lady Cornelia)
:* ''Novela del casamiento engañoso'' (The Deceitful Marriage)
:* ''El coloquio de los perros'' (The Dialogue of the Dogs)
 
In April of that year, Cervantes visited [[Esquivias]], to help arrange the affairs of his recently deceased friend and minor poet, Pedro Laínez. There he met Catalina de Salazar y Palacios ({{circa|1566 – 1626}}), eldest daughter of the widowed Catalina de Palacios; her husband died leaving only debts, but the elder Catalina owned some land of her own. This may be why in December 1584, Cervantes married her daughter, then between 15 and 18 years old.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|pp=115–116}} The first use of the name ''Cervantes Saavedra'' appears in 1586, on documents related to their marriage.{{sfn|Garcés|2002|p=189}}
* ''[[Don Quixote|Segunda parte del ingenioso caballero don Quijote de la Mancha]]'' ([[1615]])
 
Shortly before this, his illegitimate daughter Isabel was born in November. Her mother, Ana Franca, was the wife of a Madrid innkeeper; they apparently concealed it from her husband, but Cervantes acknowledged paternity.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=113}} When Ana Franca died in 1598, he asked his sister Magdalena to take care of his daughter.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=206}}
*''[[Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda|Los trabajos de Persiles y Segismunda, historia septentrional]]'', The Labours of Persiles and Sigismunda: A Northern Story ([[1617]]).
[[File:Trinitmad.jpg|thumb|upright|Cervantes was buried at the [[Convento de las Monjas Trinitarias Descalzas|Convent of the Barefoot Trinitarians]] in Madrid.]]
In 1587, Cervantes was appointed as a government purchasing agent, ''Commissary of the Royal Galleons'' in Seville, obtaining wheat and oil for the doomed [[Spanish Armada]].{{sfn|Cascardi|2002|p=6}} He became a tax collector in 1592 and was briefly jailed for 'irregularities' in his accounts, but quickly released.{{sfn|Cascardi|2002|p=6}} Several applications for positions in Spanish America were rejected i.e. to the [[Council of Indies]] in 1590, though modern critics note images of the colonies appear in his work.{{sfn|Ma|2017|p=99}}
 
From 1596 to 1600, he lived primarily in Seville, then returned to Madrid in 1606, where he remained for the rest of his life.{{sfn|Close|2008|p=12}} In later years, he received some financial support from the [[Pedro Fernández de Castro y Andrade|Count of Lemos]], although he was not included in the retinue Lemos took to Naples when appointed [[List of viceroys of Naples|Viceroy]] in 1608.{{sfn|Ma|2017|p=99}} In July 1613, he joined the [[Secular Franciscan Order|Third Order Franciscans]], then a common way for Catholics to gain spiritual merit.{{sfn|Fitzmaurice-Kelly|1892|p=179}}
''Los trabajos'' is the best evidence not only of the survival of [[Byzantine novel]] themes but also of the survival of forms and ideas of the Spanish novel of the second [[Renaissance]]. In this work, published after the author's death, Cervantes relates the ideal love and unbelievable vicissitudes of a couple who, starting from the Arctic regions, arrive in Rome, where they find a happy ending for their complicated adventures.
 
It is generally accepted Cervantes died on 22 April 1616 (NS; the [[Gregorian calendar]] had superseded the [[Julian calendar|Julian]] in 1582 in Spain and some other countries). The date of 23 April 1616 was long considered his death date, but is now understood to be his date of burial.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Swanton |first1=Kathryn |title=Shakespeare and Cervantes: 400 Years Later |url=https://www.folger.edu/blogs/shakespeare-and-beyond/shakespeare-and-cervantes-400-years/ |website=Folger Shakespeare Library |access-date=23 April 2025 |date=4 February 2016}}</ref> 23 April, which is also the death date of [[William Shakespeare]] (also in 1616, but not on the same day, as England then used the Julian calendar), is now celebrated as [[World Book Day]].
====''Don Quixote''====
{{mainarticle|Don Quixote}}
 
The symptoms described leading to his death, including intense thirst, correspond to [[diabetes]], then untreatable.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=264}}
[[Image:Don Quixote.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Statues of Don Quixote (left) and Sancho Panza (right)]]
 
In accordance with his will, Cervantes was buried in the [[Convent of the Barefoot Trinitarians]], in central Madrid.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.notablebiographies.com/Ca-Ch/Cervantes-Miguel-de.html |title=Miguel de Cervantes Biography – life, family, children, name, story, death, history, wife, son, book |website=Notablebiographies.com |access-date=3 February 2012}}</ref> His remains went missing when moved during rebuilding work at the convent in 1673, and in 2014, historian [[Fernando de Prado]] launched a project to rediscover them.<ref>{{cite news |last=Tremlett |first=Giles |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/jul/25/cervantes-bones-madrid-convent-search |title=Madrid begins search for bones of Don Quixote author Miguel de Cervantes &#124; Books |newspaper=The Guardian |date=25 July 2011 |access-date=18 March 2014}}</ref>
''Don Quixote''(sometimes spelled "Quijote") is actually two separate books that cover the adventures of ''Don Quixote'', also known as the knight or man of [[La Mancha]], a hero who carries his enthusiasm and self-deception to unintentional and comic ends. On one level, ''Don Quixote'' works as a [[satire]] of the romances of [[chivalry]] which ruled the literary environment of Cervantes' time. However, the novel also allows Cervantes to illuminate various aspects of human nature by using the ridiculous example of the delusional Quixote.
 
In January 2015, Francisco Etxeberria, the [[forensic anthropologist]] leading the search, reported the discovery of caskets containing bone fragments, and part of a board, with the letters 'M.C.'.<ref>{{cite news |agency=Agence France-Presse |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jan/27/casket-find-could-lead-to-remains-of-don-quixote-author-miguel-de-cervantes |title=Casket find could lead to remains of Don Quixote author Miguel de Cervantes &#124; Books |newspaper=The Guardian |date=27 January 2015 |access-date=17 March 2015}}</ref> Based on evidence of injuries suffered at Lepanto, on 17 March 2015 they were confirmed as belonging to Cervantes along with his wife and others.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-31852032 |title=Spain finds Don Quixote writer Cervantes' tomb in Madrid |publisher=BBC News |date=17 March 2015 |access-date=17 March 2015}}</ref> They were formally reburied at a public ceremony in June 2015.<ref>{{cite news |first=Ciaran |last=Giles |date=11 June 2015 |title=Spain formally buries Cervantes, 400 years later |url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/2ab3c6f5e8684cada0ce22819ecccc36/spain-gives-formal-burial-cervantes-400-years-later |agency=Associated Press |access-date=11 June 2015 |archive-date=13 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613045058/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/2ab3c6f5e8684cada0ce22819ecccc36/spain-gives-formal-burial-cervantes-400-years-later }}</ref>
Because the novel - particularly the first part - was written in individually published sections, the composition includes several incongruities. In the preface to the second part, Cervantes himself pointed out some of these errors, but he disdained to correct them, because he conceived that they had been too severely condemned by his critics.
Cervantes felt a passion for the vivid painting of character, as his successful works prove. Under the influence of this feeling, he drew the natural and striking portrait of his heroic ''Don Quixote'', so truly noble-minded, and so enthusiastic an admirer of everything good and great, yet having all those fine qualities, accidentally blended with a relative kind of madness; and he likewise portrayed with no less fidelity, the opposite character of [[Sancho Panza]], a compound of grossness and simplicity, whose low self esteem leads him to place blind confidence in all the extravagant hopes and promises of his master. The subordinate characters of the novel exhibit equal truth and decision.
 
==Supposed likenesses==
A translator can not commit a more serious injury to ''Don Quixote'' than to dress that work in a light, anecdotal style{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. A style perfectly unostentatious and free from affectation, but at the same time solemn, and penetrated, as it were, with the character of the hero, diffuses over this comic romance an imposing air, which, were it not so appropriate, would seem to belong exclusively to serious works and which is certainly difficult to capture in a translation. Yet it is precisely this solemnity of language which imparts a characteristic relief to the comic scenes{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. It is the genuine style of the old romances of chivalry, improved and applied in a totally original way; and only where dialogue style occurs is each person found to speak as he might be expected to do, and in his own peculiar manner. But wherever Don Quixote himself harangues, the language re-assumes the venerable tone of the romantic style; and various uncommon expressions used by the hero serve to complete the delusion of his covetous squire, to whom they are only half intelligible. This characteristic tone diffuses over the whole a poetic colouring, which distinguishes ''Don Quixote'' from all comic romances of the ordinary style; and that poetic colouring is moreover heightened by the judicious choice of episodes.
No authenticated portrait of Cervantes is known to exist. The one most often associated with the author is attributed to [[Juan de Jáuregui]], but both names were added at a later date.{{sfn|Byron|1978 |p=131}} The [[El Greco]] painting in the {{Lang|es|[[Museo del Prado]]|italic=no}}, known as ''[[Retrato de un caballero desconocido]]'' (''Portrait of an Unknown Gentleman''), is cited as 'possibly' depicting Cervantes, but there is no evidence for this.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/online-gallery/on-line-gallery/obra/a-nobleman-2/ |title=Portrait of a Gentleman |work=[[Museo del Prado]] |access-date=25 June 2013 |publisher=[[Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte]], [[Gobierno de España]] |language=es}}</ref> It has been suggested that the portrait ''[[The Nobleman with his Hand on his Chest]]'', also by El Greco, may possibly depict Cervantes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.artehistoria.com/en/artwork/portrait-nobleman-his-hand-his-chest |title=Portrait of a Nobleman with his Hand on his Chest &#124; artehistoria.com |website=www.artehistoria.com |access-date=12 December 2022 |archive-date=12 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212171418/https://www.artehistoria.com/en/artwork/portrait-nobleman-his-hand-his-chest }}</ref>
 
However, [[Museo del Prado|The Prado]] itself, while mentioning, in passing, that "specific names have been proposed for the sitter, including that of Cervantes",<ref name=ruiz/> and even "that the painting could be a self-portrait [of El Greco]",<ref name=ruiz/> goes on to state that "Without doubt, the most convincing suggestion has connected this figure with the Second Marquis of Montemayor, Juan de Silva y de Ribera, a contemporary of El Greco who was appointed military commander of the Alcázar in Toledo by Philip II and Chief Notary to the Crown, a position that would explain the solemn gesture of the hand, depicted in the act of taking an oath."<ref name=ruiz>Ruiz, L. (2008). [https://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/art-work/the-nobleman-with-his-hand-on-his-chest/9cb73bdf-66e8-4826-a79c-5de2b15a1da6 "El caballero de la mano en el pecho" En: ''El retrato del Renacimiento'', Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado, pp. 326–327.] Museo del Prado. Retrieved 12 December 2022.</ref>
The essential connection of these episodes with the whole has sometimes escaped the observation of critics, who have regarded as merely parenthetical those parts in which Cervantes has most decidedly manifested the poetic spirit of his work. The novel of ''El curioso impertinente'' cannot indeed be ranked among the number of these essential episodes, but the charming story of ''the shepherdess Marcella'', the history of ''Dorothea'', and the history of ''the rich Camacho'' and the poor Basilio, are unquestionably connected with the interest of the whole.
 
The portrait by [[Luis de Madrazo]], at the {{lang|es|[[Biblioteca Nacional de España]]|italic=no}}, painted in 1859, was based on his imagination.<ref>{{cite web |language=es |url=http://www.fnmt.es/index.php?cha=collector&scha=14&page=548&spage=552 |title=Programa Europa – Cervantes |access-date=25 June 2013 |work=[[Fábrica Nacional de Moneda y Timbre]] |year=2013 |publisher=Real Casa de la Moneda |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130629094408/http://www.fnmt.es/index.php?cha=collector&scha=14&page=548&spage=552 |archive-date=29 June 2013}}</ref> The image that appears on [[Spanish euro coins]] of €0.10, €0.20 and €0.50 is based on a bust, created in 1905.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/euro/cash/national/spain_en.htm |title=Euro notes and coins: national sides |work=[[European Commission]] |access-date=25 June 2013 |date=8 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100207105016/http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/euro/cash/national/spain_en.htm |archive-date=7 February 2010}}</ref>
[[Image:QuijoteIVCentenario.JPG|200px|right|thumb|IV centenary of Don Quixote of La Mancha (1605-2005)]]
 
In 2025, the [[European Central Bank]] announced that Cervantes had been selected to appear on the observe of [[50 euro note|fifty euro banknotes]] in a [[Euro banknotes#New series and plans for a redesign|future redesign]], were the theme "European culture" to be selected over "Rivers and birds".<ref>{{Cite press release|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/pr/date/2025/html/ecb.pr250131~611055a567.en.html|title=ECB selects motifs for future euro banknotes|date=31 January 2025|publisher=[[European Central Bank]]|access-date=31 January 2025}}</ref>
These serious romantic parts, which are not, it is true, essential to the narrative connexion, but strictly belong to the characteristic dignity of the whole picture{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, also prove how far Cervantes was from the idea usually attributed to him of writing a book merely to excite laughter. The passages, which common readers feel inclined to pass over{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, are, in general, precisely those in which Cervantes is most decidedly a poet, and for which he has manifested an evident predilection. On such occasions, he also introduces among his prose, episodical verses, for the most part excellent in their kind and no translator can omit them without doing violence to the spirit of the original.
 
==Literary career and legacy==
Were it not for the happy art with which Cervantes has contrived to preserve an intermediate tone between pure poetry and prose, ''Don Quixote'' would not deserve to be cited as the first classic model of the modern romance or novel. It is, however, fully entitled to that distinction. Cervantes was the first writer who formed the genuine romance of modern times on the model of the original chivalrous romance that equivocal creation of the genius and the barbarous taste of the [[Middle Ages]]. The result has proved that modern taste, however readily it may in other respects conform to the rules of the antique, nevertheless requires, in the narration of fictitious events, a certain union of poetry with prose, which was unknown to the [[Greeks]] and [[ancient Rome|Romans]] in their best literary ages{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. It was only necessary to seize on the right tone, but that was a point of delicacy, which the inventors of romances of chivalry were not able to comprehend. [[Diego de Mendoza]], in his ''Lazarillo de Tormes'', departed too far from poetry. Cervantes, in his Don Quixote restored to the poetic art the place it was entitled to hold in this class of writing; and he must not be blamed if cultivated nations have subsequently mistaken the true spirit of this work, because their own novelists had led them to regard common prose as the style peculiarly suited to romance composition.
[[File:Don Quijote Illustration by Gustave Dore VII.jpg|thumb|upright|The windmill scene from ''Don Quijote'', by [[Gustave Doré]]]]
Cervantes claimed to have written over 20 plays, such as ''El trato de Argel'', based on his experiences in captivity. Such works were extremely short-lived, and even [[Lope de Vega]], the best-known playwright of the day, could not live on their proceeds.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=112}} In 1585, he published ''La Galatea'', a conventional [[pastoral]] romance that received little contemporary notice; despite promising to write a sequel, he never did so.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|pp=110–111}}
 
Aside from these, and some poems, by 1605, Cervantes had not been published for 20 years. In ''Don Quixote'', he challenged a form of literature that had been a favourite for more than a century, explicitly stating his purpose was to undermine 'vain and empty' [[chivalric romance]]s.{{sfn|Close|2008|p=39}} His portrayal of real life, and use of everyday speech in a literary context was considered innovative, and proved instantly popular. First published in January 1605, Don Quixote and Sancho Panza featured in masquerades held to celebrate the birth of [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]] on 8 April.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|p=206}}
''Don Quixote'' is, moreover, the undoubted prototype of the comic novel. The humorous situations are, it is true, almost all burlesque, which was certainly not necessary, but the satire is frequently so delicate, that it escapes rather than obtrudes on unpractised attention; as for example, in the whole picture of the administration of Sancho Panza in his imaginary island. The language, even in the description of the most burlesque situations, never degenerates into vulgarity; it is on the contrary, throughout the whole work, so noble, correct and highly polished, that it would not disgrace even an ancient classic of the first rank{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. This explanation of a part of the merits of a work, which has been so often wrongly judged, may perhaps seem belong rather to the eulogist than the calm and impartial historian. Let those who may he inclined to form this opinion study ''Don Quixote'' in the original language, and study it rightly, for it is not a book to be judged by a superficial perusal{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. But care must be taken lest the intervention of many subordinate traits, which were intended to have only a transient national interest, should produce an error in the estimate of the whole. By the [[20th century]] it became clear that Don Quixote was the first true modern novel, a systemical and structural masterpiece.
[[File:Don Quijote illustrated by Gustav Dore V.jpg|thumb|upright|right|An illustration from ''Don Quijote'', by [[Gustave Doré|Doré]]]]
He finally achieved a degree of financial security, while its popularity led to demands for a sequel. In the foreword to his 1613 work, ''Novelas ejemplares'', dedicated to his patron, the Count of Lemos, Cervantes promises to produce one, but was pre-empted by an unauthorised version published in 1614, published under the name [[Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda]]. It is possible this delay was deliberate, to ensure support from his publisher and reading public; Cervantes finally produced the second part of ''Don Quixote'' in 1615.{{sfn|McCrory|2006|pp=234–235}}
 
The two parts of ''Don Quixote'' are different in focus, but similar in their clarity of prose and their realism. The first was more comic, and had greater popular appeal.{{sfn|Mitsuo|Cullen|2006|pp=148–152}} The second part is often considered more sophisticated and complex, with a greater depth of characterisation and philosophical insight.{{sfn|Putnam|1976|p=14}}
Don Quixote is one of the Encyclopedia Britannica's "[[Great Books of the Western World]]" and the Russian author [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]] called it "the ultimate and most sublime word of human thinking". Notably, [[Israel]]i [[Prime Minister of Israel|Prime Minister]] [[David Ben-Gurion]] learned the [[Spanish language]] so that he could read it in the original, considering it a prerequisite to becoming an effective statesman.
 
In addition to this, he produced a series of works between 1613 and his death in 1616. They include a collection of tales titled ''Exemplary Novels''. This was followed by ''[[Viaje del Parnaso]]'', ''Eight Comedies and Eight New Interludes'', and ''[[Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda]]'', completed just before his death, and published posthumously in January 1617.
====''La Galatea''====
 
Cervantes also possessed a unique writing style, often blending elements of comedic themes to more complex adult-oriented undertones, best displayed by Don Quixote.
''[[La Galatea]]'', the [[pastoral]] romance, which Cervantes wrote in his youth, is an imitation of the ''Diana'' of [[Jorge de Montemayor]], and bears an even closer resemblance to [[Gil Polo]]'s continuation of that romance. Next to ''Don Quixote'' and the ''Novelas exemplares'', it is particularly worthy of attention, as it manifests in a striking way the poetic direction in which the genius of Cervantes moved even at an early period of life.
 
"In the space of a few pages, what started as an exercise in comic ridicule and, as the narrator insists on several occasions, a satirical send-up of the tales of chivalry, has taken on an entirely different dimension; it has begun to transform itself into the story of a relationship between two characters whose incompatible takes on the world are bridged by friendship, loyalty, and eventually love."<ref>{{Cite web |author=Bret McCabe |date=2016-09-29 |title=The remarkable life of Miguel de Cervantes and how it shaped his timeless tale, 'Don Quixote' |url=https://hub.jhu.edu/2016/09/29/egginton-cervantes-29sept2016/ |access-date=2025-01-16 |website=The Hub |language=en}}</ref>
====''Novelas ejemplares''====
 
Cervantes was rediscovered by English writers in the mid-18th century. The literary editor [[John Bowle (writer)|John Bowle]] argued that Cervantes was as significant as any of the Greek and Roman authors then popular, and published an annotated edition in 1781. Now viewed as a significant work, at the time it proved a failure.{{sfn|Truman|2003|pp=9–31}} However, ''Don Quixote'' has been translated into all major languages, in 700 editions. Mexican author [[Carlos Fuentes]] suggested that Cervantes and his contemporary [[William Shakespeare]] form part of a narrative tradition that includes [[Homer]], [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]], [[Daniel Defoe|Defoe]], [[Charles Dickens|Dickens]], [[Honoré de Balzac|Balzac]], and [[James Joyce|Joyce]].{{sfn|Fuentes|1988|p=69–70}}
It would be scarcely possible to arrange the other works of Cervantes according to a critical judgment of their importance; for the merits of some consist in the admirable finish of the whole, while others exhibit the impress of genius in the invention, or some other individual feature.
 
[[Sigmund Freud]] claimed he learnt Spanish to read Cervantes in the original; he particularly admired ''[[The Dialogue of the Dogs]]'' (''El coloquio de los perros''), from ''Exemplary Tales'', in which two dogs, Cipión and Berganza, share their stories; as one talks, the other listens, occasionally making comments. From 1871 to 1881, Freud and his close friend Eduard Silberstein wrote letters to each other, using the pen names Cipión and Berganza.{{sfn|Riley|1994|pp=13–14}}
 
In 1905, the tricentennial of the publication of ''Don Quixote'' was marked with celebrations in Spain;<ref>{{cite book |last1=Leerssen |first1=J. |last2=Rigney |first2=A. |title=Commemorating Writers in Nineteenth-Century Europe: Nation-Building and Centenary Fever |year=2014 |url={{GBurl|IElvBAAAQBAJ|pg=PT207}} |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-41214-0 |page=207}}</ref> the 400th anniversary of his death in 2016, saw the production of ''Cervantina'', a celebration of his plays by the Compañía Nacional de Teatro Clásico in Madrid.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.centroculturalmva.es/6871/com1_fb-0/com1_md3_cd-13713/cervantina-compania-nacional-teatro-clasico-lala |title=Cervantina de Compañía Nacional de Teatro Clásico y Ron Lalá |date=19 April 2020 |website=www.centroculturalmva.es |language=es |access-date=19 April 2020}}</ref> ''[[Man of La Mancha]]'', the 1965 musical, was loosely based on Cervantes' life.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://users.ipfw.edu/jehle/cervante/csa/artics99/wasserma.htm |title=Don Quixote as Theatre, Cervantes |journal=Journal of the Cervantes Society of America |volume=19 |issue=1 |year=1999 |pages=125–130 |doi=10.3138/Cervantes.19.1.125 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231939/http://users.ipfw.edu/jehle/cervante/csa/artics99/wasserma.htm |archive-date=3 March 2016 |access-date=25 September 2014|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://users.ipfw.edu/jehle/cervante/csa/articf01/diary.pdf |title=A Diary for ''I, Don Quixote'', ''Cervantes'' |journal=Journal of the Cervantes Society of America |volume=21 |issue=2 |year=2001 |pages=117–123 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303211807/http://users.ipfw.edu/jehle/cervante/csa/articf01/diary.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016 |access-date=25 September 2014}}</ref> The [[Miguel de Cervantes Virtual Library]] is the world's largest [[digital archive]] of Spanish-language historical and literary works.
A distinguished place must, however, be assigned to the ''Novelas ejemplares'' (Moral or Instructive Tales). They are unequal in merit as well as in character. Cervantes doubtless intended that they should be to the Spaniards nearly what the novels of [[Giovanni Boccaccio|Boccaccio]] were to the Italians, some are mere anecdotes, some are romances in miniature, some are serious, some comic, and all are written in a light, smooth, conversational style.
 
''The Cervantes Society of America'' was founded in 1978 and held its first membership meeting in San Francisco in December, 1979. The organization aims to further studies of Cervantes' works and his influence in our society.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About the CSA |url=https://cervantessocietyamerica.org/history |access-date=2025-04-07 |website=CERVANTES SOCIETY OF AMERICA |language=en-US}}</ref>
Four of them are perhaps of less interest than the rest: ''El amante liberal'', ''La señora Cornelia'', ''Las dos doncellas'' and '' La española inglesa''. The theme common to these is basically the traditional one of the [[Byzantine novel]]: pairs of lovers separated by lamentable and complicated happenings are finally reunited and find the happiness they have longed for. The heroines are all of most perfect beauty and of sublime morality; they and their lovers are capable of the highest sacrifices, and they exert their souls in the effort to elevate themselves to the ideal of moral and aristocratic distinction which illuminates their lives.
 
==Works==
In ''El amante liberal'', to cite an example, the beautiful Leonisa and her lover Ricardo are carried off by Turkish pirates; both fight against serious material and moral dangers; Ricardo conquers all obstacles, returns to his homeland with Leonisa, and is ready to renounce his passion and to hand Leonisa over to her former lover in an outburst of generosity; but Leonisa's preference naturally settles on Ricardo in the end.
[[File:La Galatea First Edition Title Page.jpg|thumb|upright|The original title page of Cervantes's ''La Galatea'' (1585) ]]
As listed in ''Complete Works of Miguel de Cervantes'':<ref>{{cite book |url=http://cervantes.dh.tamu.edu/V2/CPI/index.html |title=OBRAS COMPLETAS de Miguel de Cervantes |trans-title=Complete Works of Miguel de Cervantes |editor1-first=Florencio |editor1-last=Sevilla Arroyo |editor2-first=Antonio |editor2-last=Rey Hazas |publisher=Centro de Estudios Cervantinos |year=1995 |via=Proyecto Cervantes, [[Texas A&M University]]}}</ref>
* ''[[La Galatea]]'' (1585);
* ''El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha'' (1605): First volume of ''[[Don Quixote]]''.
* ''[[Novelas ejemplares]]'' (1613): a collection of 12 short stories of varied types about the social, political, and historical problems of Cervantes's Spain:
** "[[La gitanilla]]" ("The Gypsy Girl")
** "El amante liberal" ("The Generous Lover")
** "[[Rinconete y Cortadillo]]" ("Rinconete & Cortadillo")
** "La española inglesa" ("The English Spanish Lady")
** "[[El licenciado Vidriera]]" ("The Lawyer of Glass")
** "La fuerza de la sangre" ("The Power of Blood")
** "[[El celoso extremeño]]" ("The Jealous Man from Extremadura")<ref name="Br">{{Britannica|103673 |author=Riley, Edward C.; Cruz, Anne J.}}</ref>
** "[[La ilustre fregona]]" ("The Illustrious Kitchen-Maid")
** "Novela de las dos doncellas" ("The Novel of the Two Damsels")
** "Novela de la señora Cornelia" ("The Novel of Lady Cornelia")
** "Novela del casamiento engañoso" ("The Novel of the Deceitful Marriage")
** "[[El coloquio de los perros]]" ("The Dialogue of the Dogs")
* ''Segunda Parte del Ingenioso Cavallero [sic] Don Quixote de la Mancha'' (1615): Second volume of ''[[Don Quixote]]''.
* ''[[Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda]]'' (1617).
 
===Other works===
Another group of "exemplary" novels is formed by ''La fuerza de la sangre'', ''La ilustre fregona'', ''La gitanilla'', and ''El celoso extremeño''. The first three offer examples of love and adventure happily resolved, while the last unravels itself tragically. Its plot deals with the old Felipe Carrizales, who, after traveling widely and becoming rich in America, decides to marry, taking all the precautions necessary to forestall being deceived. He weds a very young girl and isolates her from the world by having her live in a house with no windows facing the street; but in spite of his defensive measures, a bold youth succeeds in penetrating the fortress of conjugal honor, and one day Carrizales surprises his wife in the arms of her seducer. Surprisingly enough he pardons the adulterers, recognizing that he is more to blame than they, and dies of sorrow over the grievous error he has committed. Cervantes here deviated from literary tradition, which demanded the death of the adulterers, but he transformed the punishment inspired by the social ideal of honor into a criticism of the responsibility of the individual.
[[File:Viaje del Parnaso.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Book frontispiece|frontispiece]] of the ''Viaje'' (1614)]]
Cervantes is generally considered a mediocre poet; few of his poems survive. Some appear in ''[[La Galatea]]'', while he also wrote ''Dos Canciones à la Armada Invencible''.
 
His [[sonnets]] include ''Al Túmulo del Rey Felipe en Sevilla'', ''Canto de Calíope'' and ''Epístola a Mateo Vázquez''. ''[[Viaje del Parnaso]]'', or ''Journey to Parnassus'', is his most ambitious verse work, an [[allegory]] that consists largely of reviews of contemporary poets.
''Rinconete y Cortadillo'', ''El casamiento engañoso'', ''El licenciado Vidriera'' and ''El coloquio de los perros'', four works of art which are concerned more with the personalities of the characters who figure in them than with the subject matter, form the final group of these stories. The protagonists are two young vagabonds, Rincón and Cortado; Lieutenant Campuzano; a student, Tomás Rodaja, who goes mad and believes himself to have been changed into a man of glass; and finally two dogs, Cipión and Berganza, whose wandering existence serves as a mirror for the most varied aspects of Spanish life. Rinconete y Cortadillo is one of the most delightful of Cervantes' works. Its two young vagabonds come to [[Seville]] attracted by the riches and disorder that the sixteenth-century commerce with the Americas had brought to that metropolis. There they come into contact with a brotherhood of thieves led by the unforgettable Monipodio, whose house is the headquarters of the Sevillian underworld. Under the bright Andalusian sky persons and objects take form with the brilliance and subtle drama of a [[Velazquez]], and a distant and discreet irony endows the figures, insignificant in themselves, as they move within a ritual pomp that is in sharp contrast with their morally deflated lives. When Monipodio appears, serious and solemn among his silent subordinates, "all who were looking at him performed a deep, protracted bow." Rincón and Cortado had initiated their mutual friendship beforehand "with saintly and praiseworthy ceremonies." The solemn ritual of this band of ruffians is all the more comic for being concealed in Cervantes' drily humorous style.
 
He published a number of dramatic works, including ten extant full-length plays:
==== ''Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda''====
* ''Trato de Argel''; based on his own experiences, deals with the life of Christian slaves in Algiers;
* ''[[La Numancia]]''; intended as a patriotic work, dramatization of the long and brutal siege of [[Numantia]], by [[Scipio Aemilianus]], completing the transformation of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] into the Roman province [[Hispania]], or España.
* ''El gallardo español'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Comedia Famosa del Gallardo Español |website=Página de inicio del web de Cervantes |url=http://cervantes.uah.es/teatro/GALLARDO/gallardo.html |language=es |access-date=19 April 2020}}</ref>
* ''Los baños de Argel'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://miguelde.cervantes.com/pdf/Los%20Banos%20de%20Argel.pdf |title=Los Baños de Argel |website=miguelde.cervantes.com |access-date=16 November 2015 |archive-date=26 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200826140410/http://miguelde.cervantes.com/pdf/Los%20Banos%20de%20Argel.pdf }}</ref>
* ''La gran sultana, Doña Catalina de Oviedo'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://miguelde.cervantes.com/pdf/La%20Gran%20Sultana.pdf |title=La Gran Sultana |publisher=miguelde.cervantes.com |access-date=10 December 2019 |archive-date=18 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118091835/http://miguelde.cervantes.com/pdf/La%20Gran%20Sultana.pdf }}</ref>
* ''La casa de los celos'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://miguelde.cervantes.com/pdf/La%20casa%20de%20los%20celos.pdf |title=La casa |publisher=miguelde.cervantes.com |access-date=10 December 2019 |archive-date=18 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118123159/http://miguelde.cervantes.com/pdf/La%20casa%20de%20los%20celos.pdf }}</ref>
* ''El laberinto de amor'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://miguelde.cervantes.com/pdf/El%20Laberinto%20de%20Amor.pdf |title=El Laberinto |publisher=miguelde.cervantes.com |access-date=10 December 2019 |archive-date=25 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125192014/http://miguelde.cervantes.com/pdf/El%20Laberinto%20de%20Amor.pdf }}</ref>
* ''La entretenida'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://miguelde.cervantes.com/pdf/La%20Entretenida.pdf |title=La Entretenida |publisher=miguelde.cervantes.com |access-date=10 December 2019 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071846/http://miguelde.cervantes.com/pdf/La%20Entretenida.pdf }}</ref>
* ''El rufián dichoso'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cervantes.tamu.edu/V2/textos/fsevilla/8comedias_rufiandichoso.htm |title=Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses / El rufian dichoso |website=cervantes.tamu.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609021212/http://cervantes.tamu.edu/V2/textos/fsevilla/8comedias_rufiandichoso.htm |archive-date=9 June 2010 }}</ref>
* ''Pedro de Urdemalas'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://miguelde.cervantes.com/pdf/Pedro%20de%20Urdemales.pdf |title=Pedro Urdamles |publisher=miguelde.cervantes.com |access-date=10 December 2019 |archive-date=26 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200826140411/http://miguelde.cervantes.com/pdf/Pedro%20de%20Urdemales.pdf }}</ref> a sensitive play about a ''picaro'', who joins a group of Gypsies for love of a girl.
 
He also wrote eight short farces ([[Entremés|''entremeses'']]):
The romance of ''Persiles and Sigismunda'', which Cervantes finished shortly before his death, must be regarded as an interesting appendix to his other works. The language and the whole composition of the story exhibit the purest simplicity, combined with singular precision and polish. The idea of this romance was not new, and scarcely deserved to be reproduced in a new manner. But it appears that Cervantes, at the close of his glorious career, took a fancy to imitate [[Heliodorus]]. He has maintained the interest of the situations, but the whole work is merely a romantic description of travels, rich enough in fearful adventures, both by sea and land. Real and fabulous geography and history are mixed together in an absurd and monstrous manner; and the second half of the romance, in which the scene is transferred to Spain and Italy, does not exactly harmonize with the spirit of the first half.
* ''El juez de los divorcios'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cervantes.uah.es/teatro/Entremes/entre_1.html |title=Entremes: el Juez de los Divorcios |website=cervantes.uah.es |language=es}}</ref>
* ''El rufián viudo llamado Trampagos'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.comedias.org/cervantes/trampa.html |title=El Rufián Viudo Llamado Trampagos |website=comedias.org |language=es}}</ref>
* ''La elección de los Alcaldes de Daganzo'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://miguelde.cervantes.com/pdf/La%20Eleccion%20de%20los%20alcaldes%20de%20Daganzo.pdf |title=Daganzo |publisher=miguelde.cervantes.com |access-date=10 December 2019 |archive-date=18 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418011026/http://miguelde.cervantes.com/pdf/La%20Eleccion%20de%20los%20alcaldes%20de%20Daganzo.pdf }}</ref>
* ''La guarda cuidadosa''<ref name="biblioteca.org.ar">{{cite web |url=http://www.biblioteca.org.ar/libros/70718.pdf |title=Info |publisher=biblioteca.org.ar |access-date=10 December 2019}}</ref> (The Vigilant Sentinel),<ref name="biblioteca.org.ar"/>
* ''El vizcaíno fingido'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cervantes.uah.es/teatro/Entremes/entre_5.html |title=Entremes: Del Vizcaíno Fingido |website=cervantes.uah.es}}</ref>
* ''El retablo de las maravillas'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cervantes.uah.es/teatro/Entremes/entre_6.html |title=Entremes: Del Retablo de las Maravillas |website=cervantes.uah.es}}</ref>
* ''[[La cueva de Salamanca (The Cave of Salamanca)|La cueva de Salamanca]]''
* ''El viejo celoso''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cervantes.uah.es/teatro/Entremes/entre_8.html |title=Entremes: Del Viejo Celoso |website=cervantes.uah.es}}</ref> (The Jealous Old Man).
 
These plays and short farces, except for ''Trato de Argel'' and ''La Numancia'', made up ''Ocho Comedias y ocho entreméses nuevos, nunca representados''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cervantes.tamu.edu/english/ctxt/cec/ocho.html |title=Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses |website=cervantes.tamu.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105132443/http://cervantes.tamu.edu/english/ctxt/cec/ocho.html |archive-date=5 January 2010 }}</ref> (''Eight Comedies and Eight New Interludes, Never Before Performed''), which appeared in 1615.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ocho comedias, y ocho entremeses nuevos {{!}} work by Cervantes |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ocho-comedias-y-ocho-entremeses-nuevos |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=www.britannica.com}}</ref> The dates and order of composition of Cervantes's short farces are unknown. Faithful to the spirit of Lope de Rueda, Cervantes endowed them with novelistic elements, such as simplified plot, the type of descriptions normally associated with a novel, and character development. Cervantes included some of his dramas among the works he was most satisfied with.
===Poetry===
 
==Influence==
Some of his poems are found in ''[[La Galatea]].'' He also wrote ''Dos canciones a la armada invencible''. His best work, however, is found in the [[sonnets]], particularly ''[[Al túmulo del rey Felipe en Sevilla]]''. Among his most important poems, ''Canto de Calíope'', ''Epístola a Mateo Vázquez'', and the ''[[Viaje del Parnaso]]'' (Journey to Parnassus), ([[1614]]) stand out. The latter is his most ambitious work in verse, an [[allegory]] which consists largely of reviews of contemporary poets.
{{further|List of works influenced by Don Quixote}}
 
{{expand section|small=no|date=January 2021}}
Compared to the novelist, Cervantes is often considered a mediocre poet. If we cast a glance on the collected works of Cervantes, in order to ascertain what their author was entitled to claim as his original property, independently of his contemporaries and predecessors, we shall find that the genius of that poet, who is in general only partially estimated, shines with the finer lustre the longer it is contemplated. That kind of criticism that is to be learned, contributed but little to the development and formation of his genius. A critical tact, which is a truer guide than any rule, but which abandons genius when it forgets itself, secured the fancy of Cervantes against the aberrations of common minds, and his sportive wit was always subject to the control of solid judgement. The vanity, which occasionally made him mistake the true bent of his talent, must be confessed to have been pardonable, considering how little he was known to his contemporaries. He did not even know himself, though he felt the consciousness of his genius. From the mental height to which he had raised himself, he might, without too highly rating his own abilities, look down on all the writers of his age. More than one poet of great, of immortal genius, might be placed beside him in his own country; but of all the Spanish poets, Cervantes alone belongs to the whole world.
 
====''Viaje delPlaces Parnaso''====
* [[Cervantes, Lugo|Cervantes]]. A municipality in the [[province of Lugo]], Galicia, Spain, but the name of the town is not based on Miguel de Cervantes (nor is there any evidence tying him or his family to this town).
* [[Cervantes, Ilocos Sur|Cervantes]]. A [[Municipalities of the Philippines|municipality]] in the province of [[Ilocos Sur]], Philippines.
* [[Cervantes, Western Australia|Cervantes]]. A township situated north of the [[Western Australian]] state capital [[Perth]] in Australia.
 
=== Television ===
The prose of the ''Galatea'', which is in other respects so beautiful, is also occasionally overloaded with epithet. Cervantes displays a totally different kind of poetic talent in the ''[[Viaje del Parnaso]]'', a work which cannot properly be ranked in any particular class of literary composition, but which, next to ''Don Quixote'', is the most exquisite production of its extraordinary author.
* Cervantes is a recurring character in the Spanish television show ''[[El ministerio del tiempo]]'', portrayed by actor [[:es:Pere Ponce|Pere Ponce]].
* Cervantes played a prominent role in the episode "Gentlemen of Spain" of the TV series ''[[Sir Francis Drake (TV series)|Sir Francis Drake]]'' (1961–1962). He was portrayed by the actor [[Nigel Davenport]] and the plot had him heroically rescuing other Christian captives from the Barbary pirates.
 
===Plays= See also ==
* [[Casa de Cervantes]]
 
* [[Instituto Cervantes]]
Comparisons have also diminished the reputation of his plays, but two of them, ''[[El trato de Argel]]'' and ''[[La Numancia]],'' ([[1582]]), made a big impact and were not surpassed until [[Lope de Vega]] appeared.
* [[Miguel de Cervantes Prize]]
 
* [[Miguel de Cervantes European University]]
The first of these is written in five acts; based on his experiences as a [[Moorish]] captive, Cervantes dealt with the life of Christian slaves in Algiers. The other play, ''Numancia'' is a description of the siege of Numantia by the Romans stuffed with horrors and described as utterly devoid of the requisites of dramatic art.
* [[Miguel de Cervantes Health Care Centre]]
 
* [[Miguel de Cervantes High School]]
Cervantes's later production consists of 16 dramatic works, among which eight full-length plays:
* ''[[Miguel de Cervantes Memorial]]''
 
* [[Miguel de Cervantes University]]
''El gallardo español'',
''Los baños de Argel'',
''La gran sultana'',
''Doña Catalina de Oviedo'',
''La casa de los celos'',
''El laberinto del amor'',
the cloak and dagger play ''La Entretenida'',
''El rufián dichoso'' and ''Pedro de Urdemalas'', a sensitive play about a pícaro who joins a group of Gypsies for love of a girl.
 
He also wrote eight short farces (entremeses) :
''El juez de los divorcios'',
''El rufián viudo llamado Trampagos'',
''La elección de los alcaldes de Daganzo'',
''La guarda cuidadosa'' (The Vigilant Sentinel),
''El vizcaíno fingido'',
''El retablo de las maravillas'',
''La cueva de Salamanca'', and ''El viejo celoso'' (The Jealous Old Man).
 
These plays and entremeses made up ''[[Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses|Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses nuevos, nunca representados]]'' (Eight comedies and Eight New Interludes) , which appeared in [[1615]]. Cervantes's entremeses, whose dates and order of composition are not known, must not have been performed in their time. Faithful to the spirit of Lope de Rueda, Cervantes endowed them with novelistic elements such as simplified plot, the type of description normally associated with the novel, and character development. The dialogue is sensitive and agile.
 
Cervantes includes some of his dramas among those productions with which he was himself most satisfied; and he seems to have regarded them with the greater self-complacency in proportion as they experienced the neglect of the public. This conduct has sometimes been attributed to a spirit of contradiction, and sometimes to vanity. That the penetrating and profound Cervantes should have so mistaken the limits of his dramatic talent, would not be sufficiently accounted for, had he not unquestionably proved by his tragedy of ''Numantia'' how pardonable was the self-deception of which he could not divest himself.
 
Cervantes was entitled to consider himself endowed with a genius for dramatic poetry; but he could not preserve his independence in the conflict he had to maintain with the conditions required by the Spanish public in dramatic composition; and when he sacrificed his independence, and submitted to rules imposed by others, his invention and language were reduced to the level of a poet of inferior talent. The intrigues, adventures and surprises, which in that age characterized the Spanish drama, were ill suited to the genius of Cervantes. His natural style was too profound and precise to be reconciled to fantastical ideas, expressed in irregular verse. But he was Spaniard enough to be gratified with dramas, which, as a poet, he could not imitate; and he imagined himself capable of imitating them, because he would have shone in another species of dramatic composition, had the public taste accommodated itself to his genius.
 
====''La Numancia''====
{{mainarticle|La Numancia}}
 
This play is a dramatization of the long and brutal siege of the [[Celtiberians|Celtiberian]] town Numantia, [[Hispania]], by the Roman forces of [[Scipio Africanus]].
 
Cervantes invented along with the subject of his piece a peculiar style of tragic composition, in doing which he did not pay much regard to the theory of Aristotle. His object was to produce a piece full of tragic situations, combined with the charm of the marvellous. In order to accomplish this goal, Cervantes relied heavily on allegory and on mythological elements.
 
The tragedy is written in conformity with no rules save those which the author prescribed to himself; for he felt no inclination to imitate the Greek forms. The play is divided into four acts, (''jornadas'') and no chorus is introduced. The dialogue is sometimes in tercets and sometimes in [[redondilla|''redondillas'']], and for the most part in octaves without any regard to rule.
 
== Cervantes' historical importance and influence==
 
Cervantes' novel ''Don Quixote'' has had a tremendous influence on the development of prose fiction; it has been translated into all modern languages and has appeared in 700 editions. The first translation in English, and also in any language, was made by [[Thomas Shelton]] in 1608, but not published until 1612. Shakespeare had evidently read Don Quixote, but it is most unlikely that Cervantes had ever heard of Shakespeare.
''Don Quixote'' has been the subject of a variety of works in other fields of art, including operas by the Italian composer [[Giovanni Paisiello]], the French Jules [[Massenet]], and the Spanish [[Manuel de Falla]]; a tone poem by the German composer [[Richard Strauss]]; a German film (1933) directed by G. W. Pabst and a Soviet film (1957) directed by Grigori Kozintzev; a ballet (1965) by George Balanchine; and an American musical, [[Man of La Mancha]] (1965), by Mitch Leigh.
 
Its influence can be seen in the work of [[Smollett]], [[Daniel Defoe|Defoe]], [[Henry Fielding|Fielding]], and [[Sterne]], as well as in the classic 19th-century novelists [[Sir Walter Scott|Scott]], [[Dickens]], [[Flaubert]], [[Melville]], and [[Dostoyevsky]], and in the works of [[James Joyce]] and [[Jorge Luis Borges]].The theme also inspired the 19th-century French artists [[Honoré Daumier]] and [[Gustave Doré]].
 
== Harold Bloom on Cervantes & Don Quixote ==
 
 
*Cervantes is one of those few Western writers who cannot be surpassed.
 
*Cervantes has in common with Shakespeare the universality of his genius, and he is the only possible peer of Dante and Shakespeare in the Western Canon.
 
*So original is ''Don Quixote'' that nearly four centuries later, it remains the most advanced work of prose fiction that we have. That indeed is an understatement; it is at once the most readable and yet ultimately the most difficult of all novels.
 
*The combined influence of Cervantes and Shakespeare overdetermines the entire course of subsequent Western literature.
 
*The friendship between Sancho Panza and his Knight surpasses any other in literary representation.
 
*Cervantes and Shakespeare match each other in genius, because more even than Chaucer before them, and the host of novelists who have blended their influences since, they gave us personalities more alive than ourselves.
 
*We behold in Cervantes's vast scripture what we already are.
 
*This great book contains within itself all the novels that have followed in its sublime wake. Like Shakespeare, Cervantes is inescapable for all writers who have come after him.
 
*Don Quixote says that his quest is to destroy injustice. The final injustice is death, the ultimate bondage.
 
*The Quixotic quest is erotic, yet even the eros is literary. Crazed by reading, the Knight is in quest of a new self.
 
*Don Quixote is neither a fool nor a madman, and his vision always is at least double: he sees what we see, yet he sees something else also, a possible glory that he desires to appropriate or at least share.
 
*Battered by realities that are even more violent than he is, Don Quixote resists yielding to the authority of church and state. When he ceases to assert his autonomy, there is nothing left except to be Alonso Quixano the Good again, and no action remaining except to die.
 
*The book's continuous laughter is frequently melancholy, even painful, and Don Quixote is both a stalwart of humane affection and a man of sorrow.
 
*Cervantes plays upon the human need to withstand suffering, which is one reason the Knight awes us.
 
*Cervantes and Shakespeare: they are rival teachers of how we change, and why.
 
*Characterizing his ironies is an impossible task; missing them is also impossible.
 
*No critic's account of Cervantes's masterpiece agrees with, or even resembles, any other critic's impressions. Don Quixote is a mirror held up not to nature, but to the reader.
 
*Cervantes and Shakespeare so represent reality as to cause otherwise hidden aspects of reality to appear.
 
==Criticism Bibliography==
 
<li>''Fighting Windmills: Encounters with Don Quixote'' / Durán, Manuel and Rogg, Fay R., 2006</li>
<li>''Don Quijote Across Four Centuries'': papers / Johnson, Carroll B., 2006</li>
<li>''The Utopian Nexus in Don Quixote'' / Jehenson, Myriam Yvonne and Dunn, Peter., 2006</li>
<li>''Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau'' / Farrell, John., 2006</li>
<li>''Quixotic Offspring: The Global Legacy of Don Quixote'' / Macalester College., 2006</li>
<li>''Cervantes' Don Quixote: A Reference Guide'' / Mancing, Howard., 2006</li>
<li>''The humble story of Don Quixote: reflections on the birth of the modern novel'' / Bandera, Cesáreo., 2006</li>
<li>''Quixotic frescoes: Cervantes and Italian Renaissance Art'' / De Armas, Frederick., 2006</li>
<li>''The writer's experience: essays on self and circumstance in the Hispanic literatures'' / Earle, Peter., 2006</li>
<li>''Cervantes (Modern Critical Views)'' / Bloom, Harold., 2005</li>
<li>''The Wit and Wisdom of Don Quixote de la Mancha'' / Sieber, Charles., 2005</li>
<li>''Cervantes: essays in memory of E.C. Riley'' / Robbins, Jeremy., 2005</li>
<li>''Cervantes and the Hermeneutics of Satire'' / Reichenberger, Kurt., 2005</li>
<li>''Ekphrasis in the age of Cervantes'' / De Armas, Frederick Alfred., 2005</li>
<li>''Love and the Law in Cervantes'' / Gonzalez Echevarria, Roberto., 2005</li>
<li>''Miguel de Cervantes (Bloom's BioCritiques)'' / Bloom, Harold., 2005</li>
<li>''A Companion to Cervantes's Novelas ejemplares'' / Boyd, Stephen F., 2005</li>
<li>''Unhappily Ever After: Deceptive Idealism in Cervantes's Marriage Tales'' / Kartchner, Eric J., 2005</li>
<li>''Cervantes's Novel of Modern Times: a new reading of Don Quijote'' / Quint, David., 2005</li>
<li>''Cervantes in the English-speaking World: New Essays'' / Fernández-Morera, Darío., 2005</li>
<li>''Cervantes' Don Quixote: A Casebook'' / González Echevarría, Roberto., 2005</li>
<li>''Don Quixote: A Touchstone for Literary Criticism'' / Parr, James., 2005</li>
<li>''Where Shall Wisdom Be Found?'' / Bloom, Harold., 2004</li>
<li>''The Cervantes Encyclopedia'' / Mancing, Howard., 2004</li>
<li>''Don Quixote, Don Juan, and Related Subjects'' / Parr, James., 2004</li>
<li>''Passing for Spain: Cervantes and the fictions of identity'' / Fuchs, Barbara, 2003</li>
<li>''Cambridge companion to Cervantes'' / Cascardi, Anthony J., 2002</li>
<li>''Never-ending Adventure: Studies in Medieval and Early Modern Spanish Literature'' / Dunn, Peter., 2002</li>
<li>''A study of Don Quixote'' / Eisenberg, Daniel, 2001</li>
<li>''Awry Views: anamorphosis, Cervantes, and the early picaresque'' / Castillo, David., 2001</li>
<li>''Cervantes's Don Quixote (Modern Critical Interpretations)'' / Bloom, Harold., 2001</li>
<li>''Adventures in Paradox: Don Quixote and the Western Tradition'' / Presberg, Charles., 2001</li>
<li>''Cervantes, the Novel, and the New World'' / De Armas Wilson, Diana., 2001</li>
<li>''Cervantes for the 21st century'' / Dudley, Edward J., 2000</li>
<li>''Cervantes and the comic mind of his age'' / Close, A. J., 2000</li>
<li>''Ben Jonson and Cervantes: Tilting against Chivalric Romances'' / Yumiko, Yamada., 2000</li>
<li>''Miguel de Cervantes (Twayne World Authors Series)'' / Manuel Duran., 1999</li>
<li>''Cervantes and the craft of fiction'' / Llosa, Mario Vargas., 1999</li>
<li>''Cervantes, Don Quixote (Norton Critical Editions)''., 1999</li>
<li>''Cervantes and his postmodern constituencies'' / Cruz, Anne J., 1999</li>
<li>''Cervantes: essays on social and literary polemics'' / Finello, Dominick L., 1998</li>
<li>''Don Quixote in England'' / Paulson, Ronald., 1998</li>
<li>''The Age of Reasons: Quixotism, Sentimentalism and Political Economy'' / Motooka, Wendy., 1998</li>
<li>''Cervantes, Raphael and the Classics'' / De Armas, Frederick., 1998</li>
<li>''The Endless Text: Don Quijote and the Hermeneutics of Romance'' / Dudley, Edward J., 1997</li>
<li>''International Colloquium on Perspectives on Cervantes'' / Fernández de Cano y Martín., 1997</li>
<li>''Magical Parts: Approaches to Don Quixote'' / Friedman, Edward., 1996</li>
<li>''Cervantine Marriages'' / Rogers, Coreen Louise., 1996</li>
<li>''Cultural Authority in Golden Age Spain'' / Various., 1995</li>
<li>''Not Necessarily Cervantes: Readings of the Quixote'' / Hathaway, Robert., 1995</li>
<li>''Refiguring Authority: Reading, Writing, and Rewriting in Cervantes'' / Gerli, Michael., 1995</li>
<li>''The Western Canon'' / Bloom, Harold., 1994</li>
<li>''Cervantes and the Modernists: the Question of Influence'' / Williamson, Edwin., 1994</li>
<li>''Cervantes' Exemplary Fictions: A Study of the Novelas Ejemplares'' / Hart, Thomas., 1994</li>
<li>''Magical Parts: Approaches to Don Quixote'' / Various., 1994</li>
<li>''Pastoral Themes and Forms in Cervantes's Fiction'' / Finello, Dominick L., 1994</li>
<li>''Studies on Cervantes'' / Selig, Karl-Ludwig., 1993</li>
<li>''Through the Shattering Glass: Cervantes and the Self-made World'' / Spadaccini, Nicholas., 1993</li>
<li>''Quixotic Desire: Psychoanalytic Perspectives on Cervantes'' / De Armas Wilson, Diana., 1993</li>
<li>''After Cervantes'' / Macklin, J. J., 1993</li>
<li>''Discovering the Comic in Don Quixote'' / Gorfkle, Laura., 1993</li>
<li>''Cervantine journeys'' / Hutchinson, Steven D., 1992</li>
<li>''Don Quixote and the Poetics of the Novel'' / Martinez-Bonati, Felix., 1992</li>
<li>''Utopia and Counterutopia in the Quixote'' / Maravall, Jose Antonio., 1991</li>
<li>''On Cervantes: essays for L.A. Murillo'' / Parr, James A., 1991</li>
<li>''A Critical Introduction to Don Quixote'' / Murillo, L.A., 1990</li>
<li>''Miguel de Cervantes: Don Quixote'' / Close, A.J., 1990</li>
<li>''Cervantes and Ariosto'' / Hart, Thomas., 1989</li>
<li>''In the Margins of Cervantes'' / Weiger, John G., 1988</li>
<li>''Don Quijote, Symbol of a Culture in Crisis'' / Creel, Bryant L., 1988</li>
<li>''Critical Essays on Cervantes'' / El Saffar, Ruth S., 1986</li>
<li>''Cervantes'' / Cannavagio, Jean., 1986</li>
<li>''Don Quixote'' / Riley, E.C., 1986</li>
<li>''Letter and Spirit in Hispanic writers'' / Trueblood, Alan., 1986</li>
<li>''Modern Critical Views (Cervantes)'' / Bloom, Harold., 1986</li>
<li>''The Substance of Cervantes'' / Weiger, John G. Publication, 1985</li>
<li>''Cervantes'' / Russell, P.E., 1985</li>
<li>''Beyond Fiction: the Recovery of the Feminine in the Novels of Cervantes'' / El Saffar, Ruth., 1984</li>
<li>''Studies on Don Quijote and Other Cervantine works'' / Bleznick, Donald William., 1984</li>
<li>''Nabokov: Lectures on Don Quixote'' / Bowers, Fredson., 1983</li>
<li>''Cervantes and the Humanist Vision: a Study of Four Exemplary Novels'' / Forcione, Alban K., 1982</li>
<li>''Skepticism in Cervantes'' / Ihrie, Maureen., 1982</li>
<li>''The Romantic Approach to Don Quixote: a Critical History'' / Close, A. J. , 1978</li>
<li>''Don Quixote: or, The Critique of Reading'' / Fuentes, Carlos., 1976</li>
<li>''Hamlet and Don Quixote: Turgenev's ambivalent vision'' / Kagan-Kans, Eva., 1975</li>
<li>''The Image of Don Quixote in the 17th century'' / Quilter, Daniel Edward., 1975</li>
<li>''Cervantes; a critical trajectory'' / Barbera, Raymond E.,1971</li>
<li>''Cervantes (Twentieth Century Views)'' / Nelson, Lowry., 1970</li>
<li>''Cervantes Across the Centuries'' / Flores, Angel., 1969</li>
<li>''The World of Don Quixote'' / Predmore, Richard., 1967</li>
<li>''Our Lord Don Quixote: The Life of Don Quixote & Sancho'' / Unamuno, Miguel de., 1967</li>
<li>''Cervantes and the Art of Fiction'' / Trotter, G. D., 1965</li>
<li>''From the Poetic World of Shakespeare and Cervantes'' / Suarez de Alcocer, Maria., 1964</li>
<li>''Meditations on Don Quixote'' / Ortega y Gassett, Jose., 1961</li>
<li>''Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature'' / Auerbach, Erich., 1957</li>
<li>''Cervantes'' / Entwistle, William., 1940</li>
<li>''A Man Called Cervantes'' / Frank, Bruno., 1935</li>
<li>''Cervantes'' / Schevill, Rudolph., 1919</li>
<li>''Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra: A Memoir'' / Fitzmaurice-Kelly, James., 1913</li>
<li>''Life of Miguel de Cervantes'' / Edward Watts, Henry., 1891</li>
</ul>
 
==Notes==
{{notelist|35em}}
<div class="references-small">
'''a.''' {{Note_label|A|a|none}} The most reliable and accurate portrait of the writer to date is that provided by Cervantes himself in the ''Exemplary Novels'' (translated by Walter K. Kelly):<ref name="Gut">M. de Cervantes, [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14420/14420-8.txt The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Exemplary Novels of Cervantes]</ref>
{{Cquote2|quotetext=This person whom you see here, with an oval visage, chestnut hair, smooth open forehead, lively eyes, a hooked but well-proportioned nose, and silvery beard that twenty years ago was golden, large moustaches, a small mouth, teeth not much to speak of, for he has but six, in bad condition and worse placed, no two of them corresponding to each other, a figure midway between the two extremes, neither tall nor short, a vivid complexion, rather fair than dark, somewhat stooped in the shoulders, and not very lightfooted: this, I say, is the author of ''Galatea'', ''Don Quixote de la Mancha'', ''The Journey to Parnassus'', which he wrote in imitation of Cesare Caporali Perusino, and other works which are current among the public, and perhaps without the author's name. He is commonly called MIGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDRA.|personquoted=Miguel de Cervantes|quotesource=''Exemplary Novels (Author's Preface)''|quotewidth=20px|quoteheight=20px}}
'''b.''' {{Note_label|B|b|none}} ''Saavedra'' was the surname of a distant relative that Cervantes adopted as his second surname after his return from [[Barbary Coast]].<ref name="SC">M.A. Garcés, ''Cervantes in Algiers'', 191-192<br>* C. Slade, ''Introduction'', xxiv</ref> The earliest documents signed with Cervantes' two names (''Cervantes Saavedra'') appear several years after his repatriation. Cervantes began adding the second surname ''Saavedra'' (a name that did not correspond to his immediate family) to his patronymic in 1586-1587, in official documents related to his marriage to Catalina de Salazar.<ref name="C191-192">M.A. Garcés, ''Cervantes in Algiers'', 191-192</ref>
 
==References==
'''c.''' {{Note_label|C|c|none}} The only evidence is a statement by Professor Tomas González, that he once saw an old entry of the matriculation of a Miguel de Cervantes.<ref name="OrFiK">J. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, ''The Life of Cervantes'', 9<br>* J. Ormsby, [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/c/cervantes/c41d/preface1.html About Cervantes and Don Quixote]</ref> No subsequent scholar has been successful in verifying this statement. In any case, there were at least two other Miguels born about the middle of the century.<ref name="Or" />
{{reflist|23em}}
 
==Bibliography==
'''d.''' {{Note_label|D|d|none}} "He" refers to the writer of a spurious Part II of Don Quixote (''Second Volume of the Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha'') known under the [[pseudonym]] [[Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda]]. Avellaneda had referred to Cervantes as an "old and one-handed" man.<ref name="Q" />
{{refbegin|30em}}
</div>
* {{cite book |last=Byron |first=William |year=1978 |title=Cervantes; A Biography |publisher=[[Cassell (publisher)|Cassell]] |___location=London |isbn=978-1-55778-006-5}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Cascardi |editor-first=Anthony J. |date=17 October 2002 |title=The Cambridge Companion to Cervantes |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url={{GBurl|zSjdL03g4VAC}} |isbn=978-0-52166-387-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Cervantes |first=Miguel de |author-link=Miguel de Cervantes |translator-last=Ormsby |translator-first=John |translator-link=John Ormsby (translator) |orig-year=1615 |title=The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha |year=2015 |publisher=Aegitas |isbn=978-5-00064-159-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Close |first=A. J. |year=2008 |title=A Companion to Don Quixote |publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd |isbn=978-1-85566-170-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Davis |first=Paul K. |year=1999 |title=100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19514-366-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Egginton |first=William |year=2016 |title=The Man Who Invented Fiction: How Cervantes Ushered in the Modern World |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-62040-175-0}}
* {{cite journal |last=Eisenberg |first=Daniel |title=Cervantes, autor de la "Topografía e historia general de Argel" publicada por Diego de Haedo |journal=Cervantes: Bulletin of the Cervantes Society of America |volume=16 |number=1 |year=1996 |pages=32–53 |doi=10.3138/Cervantes.16.1.032 |s2cid=187065952}}
* {{cite book |last=Fitzmaurice-Kelly |first=James |year=1892 |title=The Life of Cervantes |publisher=Chapman Hall}}
* {{cite book |last=Fuentes |first=Carlos |year=1988 |title=Myself with Others: Selected Essays |publisher=Farrar Straus Giroux |isbn=978-0-37421-750-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Garcés |first=Maria Antonia |year=2002 |title=Cervantes in Algiers: A Captive's Tale |publisher=Vanderbilt University Press |isbn=978-0-82651-406-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Glete |first=Jan |year=2001 |title=War and the State in Early Modern Europe: Spain, the Dutch Republic and Sweden as Fiscal-Military States (Warfare and History) |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-41522-644-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Lokos |first=Ellen |editor1-last=Cruz |editor1-first=Anne J |editor2-last=Johnson |editor2-first=Carroll B |year=2016 |title=The Politics of Identity and the Enigma of Cervantine Genealogy in ''Cervantes and His Postmodern Constituencies'' |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-13886-441-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Ma |first=Ning |year=2017 |title=The Age of Silver: The Rise of the Novel, East and West |publisher=OUP |isbn=978-0-19060-656-5}}
* {{cite book |last=McCrory |first=Donald P. |year=2006 |title=No Ordinary Man: The Life and Times of Miguel de Cervantes |publisher=Dover Publishing |isbn=978-0-48645-361-3}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mitsuo |first1=Nakamura |last2=Cullen |first2=Jennifer |title=On 'Don Quixote' |journal=Review of Japanese Culture and Society |date=December 2006 |volume=18 |issue=East and West |pages=147–156 |jstor=42800232}}
* {{cite book |last1=Parker |first1=Barbara Keevil |last2=Parker |first2=Duane F. |year=2009 |title=Miguel de Cervantes |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-43810-685-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Putnam |first=Samuel |year=1976 |title=Introduction to The Portable Cervantes |publisher=Penguin |___location=Harmondsworth |isbn=978-0-14015-057-5}}
* {{cite journal |last=Riley |first=E. C. |title=Cipión" Writes to "Berganza" in the Freudian Academia Española |journal=Cervantes: Bulletin of the Cervantes Society of America |year=1994 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=3–18 |doi=10.3138/cervantes.14.1.003 |s2cid=193117593}}
* {{cite journal |last=Truman |first=R. W. |title=The Rev. John Bowle's Quixotic Woes Further Explored |journal=Cervantes: Bulletin of the Cervantes Society of America |year=2003 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=9–43 |doi=10.3138/Cervantes.23.2.009 |s2cid=190575135}}
{{refend}}
 
==CitationsFurther reading==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>
* [[Harold Bloom|Bloom, Harold]] (ed.) 2001. ''Cervantes's Don Quixote (Modern Critical Interpretations)''.
 
* Bloom, Harold (ed.) 2005. ''Miguel de Cervantes (Modern Critical Views)''.
==References==
* {{cite book |last=Cervantes |first=Miguel de |author-link=Miguel de Cervantes |translator-last=Kelly |translator-first=Walter K. |orig-year=1613 |edition=2017 |title=Novelas ejemplares |trans-title=The Exemplary Novels of Cervantes |isbn=978-1-374-95727-5 |publisher=Pinnacle Books}}
===Printed sources===
* {{cite book |last=Eisenberg |first=Daniel |title=Siglos dorados: homenaje a Augustin Redondo |___location=Madrid |publisher=[[Castalia]] |year=2004 |volume=1 |isbn=84-9740-100-X |contribution=La supuesta homosexualidad de Cervantes}}
<div class="references-small">
* El Saffar, Ruth S. (ed.) 1986. ''Critical Essays on Cervantes''. Boston: G. K. Hall.
*{{cite book|last=Armas|first=Frederick A. de|title=The Cambridge Companion to Cervantes By Anthony Joseph Cascardi|year=2002 | publisher=Cambridge University|id=ISBN 0-521-66387-3|chapter=Cervantes and the Italian Renaissance}}
* [[Roberto González Echevarría|González Echevarría, Roberto]] (ed.) 2005. ''Cervantes' Don Quixote: A Casebook''.
*{{cite book|last=Armas|first=Frederick A. de|title=Quixotic Frescoes: Cervantes and Italian Renaissance Art|year=2006 | publisher=University of Toronto Press|id=ISBN 0-802-09074-5|chapter=The Exhilaration of Italy}}
* Nelson, Lowry 1969. ''Cervantes: A Collection of Critical Essays''. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
*{{cite encyclopedia|title=Cervantes, Miguel de|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia Americana|date=1994|publisher=Grolier Incorporated}}
* Pérez, Rolando (2016). "[https://www.academia.edu/32654689/What_is_Don_Quijote_Don_Quixote_And...And...And_The_Disjunctive_Synthesis_of_Cervantes_and_Kathy_Acker What is Don Quijote/Don Quixote And…And…And the Disjunctive Synthesis of Cervantes and Kathy Acker.]" ''Cervantes ilimitado: cuatrocientos años del Quijote''. Ed. Nuria Morgado. ALDEEU. 75–100.
*{{cite encyclopedia|title=Cervantes, Miguel de|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica|date=2002}}
* Pérez, Rolando (2021). [https://www.ehumanista.ucsb.edu/sites/default/files/sitefiles/ehumanista/volume47/ehum47.perez.pdf "Cervantes's "Republic": On Representation, Imitation, and Unreason". ''eHumanista 47'': 89–111.]
*{{cite book|last=Calvo |first=Clara|title=Shifting the Scene: Shakespeare in European Culture By Ladina Bezzola Lambert, Balz Engler|year=2004 | publisher=University of Delaware Press|id=ISBN 0-874-13860-4|chapter=Shakespeare and Cervantes in 1916: The Politics of Language}}
* [[Manuel Vázquez Montalbán|Vázquez Montalbán, Manuel]] and [[Willi Glasauer]] (1988). ''Scenes from World Literature and Portraits of Greatest Authors'', Círculo de Lectores.
*{{cite book|last=Fitzmaurice-Kelly |first=James|title=The Life of Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra|year=2005 | publisher=Kessinger Publishing|id=ISBN 1-417-97000-6|chapter=The Youth of Cervantes}}
* [[Olivier Weber|Weber, Olivier]], [[Groupe Flammarion|Flammarion]] (2011). ''Le Barbaresque''.
*{{cite book|last=Garcés|first=María Antonia|title=Cervantes in Algiers: a Captive's Tale|year=2002 | publisher=Vanderbilt University Press|id=ISBN 0-826-51470-7|chapter=An Erotics of Creation}}
{{refend}}
*{{cite book|last=Lokos |first=Ellen|title=Cervantes and his Postomodern Consituencies by Ann J. Cruz|year=1998 | publisher=Routledge (UK)|id=ISBN 0-815-33206-8|chapter=The Politics of Identity and the Enigma of Cervantine Genealogy}}
*{{cite journal|last=Qualia|first=Charles B.|title=Cervantes, Soldier and Humanist |journal=The South Central Bulletin|volume=9|issue=No.1|pages=1+10-11|date=Januar 1949|url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0038-321X(194901)9%3A1%3C1%2B10%3ACSAH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press}}
*{{cite book|last=Slade|first=Carole|title=Don Quixote|year=2004 | publisher=Spark Publishing/SparkNotes|id=ISBN 1-59308-046-8|chapter=Introduction}}
</div>
===Online sources===
<div class="references-small">
* {{cite web
| title = Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616): Life and Portrait
| work = The Cervantes Project
| last = Canavaggio
| first = Jean
| url = http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/cervantes/biography/new_english_cerv_bio.html
| accessdate = 2007-01-04
}}
* {{cite web
| title = E-book of The Exemplary Novels of Cervantes (Translated by Walter K. Kelly)
| work = The Project Gutenberg
| last = Cervantes Saavedra
| first = Miguel de
| url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14420/14420-8.txt
| accessdate = 2007-01-01
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Don Quixote - Translator's Preface - About Cervantes And Don Quixote
| work = The University of Adelaide Library
| last = Ormsby
| first = John
| url = http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/c/cervantes/c41d/preface1.html
| accessdate = 2007-01-02
}}
* {{cite web
| title = World Book and Copyright Day - [[April 23]], [[2006]]
| work = United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
| url = http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=5125&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
| accessdate = 2006-10-17
}}
</div>
 
==External links==
* {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/miguel-de-cervantes-saavedra}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Miguel de Cervantes}}
* {{Librivox author |id=4220}}
* {{cite news |first=Ciaran |last=Giles |date=11 June 2015 |title=Spain formally buries Cervantes, 400 years later |url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/2ab3c6f5e8684cada0ce22819ecccc36/spain-gives-formal-burial-cervantes-400-years-later |agency=Associated Press |access-date=11 June 2015 |archive-date=13 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613045058/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/2ab3c6f5e8684cada0ce22819ecccc36/spain-gives-formal-burial-cervantes-400-years-later }}
* {{cite news|agency=Agence France-Presse |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jan/27/casket-find-could-lead-to-remains-of-don-quixote-author-miguel-de-cervantes |title=Casket find could lead to remains of Don Quixote author Miguel de Cervantes &#124; Books |work=The Guardian |access-date=17 March 2015}}
* {{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/euro/cash/national/spain_en.htm |title=Euro notes and coins: national sides |work=[[European Commission]] |access-date=25 June 2013 |date=8 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100207105016/http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/euro/cash/national/spain_en.htm |archive-date=7 February 2010}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/online-gallery/on-line-gallery/obra/a-nobleman-2/ |title=Portrait of a Gentleman |work=[[Museo del Prado]] |access-date=25 June 2013 |publisher=[[Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte]], [[Gobierno de España]] |language=es}}
* [http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/ Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes] Spanish web site with multiple Cervantes links and audio of whole of Don Quixote
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040912035140/http://coloquio.com/famosos/alpha.htm Famous Hispanics]
* [http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/cervantes/V2/CPI/index.html The Cervantes Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901185529/http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/cervantes/V2/CPI/index.html |date=1 September 2009 }} with biographies and chronology
* [http://www.donquichote.org/cervantes.php Information about Miguel de Cervantes]
* [http://cataleg.bnc.cat/search*spi/?searchtype=a&searcharg=Col%C2%B7lecci%C3%B3+Cervantina&sortdropdown=-&searchscope=13&searchscope2=13&SORT=D Cervantine Collection of the Biblioteca de Catalunya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612055604/http://cataleg.bnc.cat/search*spi/?searchtype=a&searcharg=Col%C2%B7lecci%C3%B3+Cervantina&sortdropdown=-&searchscope=13&searchscope2=13&SORT=D |date=12 June 2019 }}
* [http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/cervantes/biography/new_english_cerv_bio.html Miguel de Cervantes (1547–1616): Life and Portrait] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212060808/http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/cervantes/biography/new_english_cerv_bio.html |date=12 December 2009 }} The Cervantes Project. [[Jean Canavaggio|Canavaggio, Jean]].
* [http://www.museocasanataldecervantes.org/information/ Cervantes's Birthplace Museum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507223133/http://www.museocasanataldecervantes.org/information/ |date=7 May 2019 }}
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/cervantes.html Miguel de Cervantes Collection] From the Rare Book and Special Collection Division at the [[Library of Congress]]
* [https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.antakirasoftware.hablaconcervantes Cervantes chatbot in Spanish]
 
{{Miguel de Cervantes}}
*[http://www.lucafilms.es/Documentales.htm The secret of Don Quixote. '''El Secreto de Don Quixote'''. Film. Directed by Alberto Martínez Flechoso et Raúl Fernández Rincón The kabbalistical encodings in Don Quixote. Luca-films, Madrid 2005.]
{{Don Quixote}}
{{Authority control}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel De}}
{{wikisource}}
[[Category:Miguel de Cervantes| ]]
{{wikiquote}}
[[Category:1547 births]]
{{Commons|Miguel de Cervantes}}
[[Category:1616 deaths]]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Miguel+de+Cervantes+Saavedra | name=Miguel de Cervantes}}
[[Category:16th-century Spanish dramatists and playwrights]]
*[http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/index.shtml Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes] Spanish web site with multiple Cervantes links and audio of whole of Don Quixote
*[http://coloquio.com/famosos/alpha.htm Famous Hispanics]
*[http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/cervantes/V2/CPI/index.html The Cervantes Project] with biographies and chronology
*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/CAU_CHA/CERVANTES_SAAVEDRA_MIGUEL_DE_1.html Entry in the 1911 edition Encyclopedia Britannica]
*[http://www.donquichote.org Relevant information about Miguel de Cervantes]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20060425103107/http://www.members.shaw.ca/b-cia/EQuijote/Intro.htm Life and times before writing Don Quixote]
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/IbrAmerTxt Ibero-American Electronic Text Series] presented online by the [http://uwdc.library.wisc.edu/ University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center].
*[http://tirteafuera.blospot.com in Barataria, school mediatheka]
*[http://www.doubleedgetheatre.org/unpossessed.html The UnPOSSESSED: Double Edge Theatre's adaptation of Don Quixote]
*[http://www.thornton1.freeserve.co.uk/cervantes.htm Cervantes chapter from Spanish Literature by H. Butler Clarke 1893]
 
[[Category:16th-century Spanish male writers]]
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[[Category:Deaths from diabetes in Spain]]
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{{Persondata
|NAME= Cervantes, Miguel de
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de; De Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= Spanish [[novelist]], [[poet]] and [[playwright]]
|DATE OF BIRTH= [[September 29]], [[1547]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Alcalá de Henares]], [[Spain]]
|DATE OF DEATH= [[April 23]], [[1616]]
|PLACE OF DEATH= [[Madrid]], [[Spain]]
}}
 
[[Category:Spanish novelists|Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de]]
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes"