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{{Short description|Field of research and study}}
'''Gender and development''' is an interdisciplinary field of research and applied study that implements a [[Feminism|feminist]] approach to understanding and addressing the disparate impact that [[economic development]] and [[globalization]] have on people based upon their ___location, gender, class background, and other socio-political identities. A strictly economic approach to development views a country's development in quantitative terms such as job creation, inflation control, and high employment – all of which aim to improve the
The history of this field dates back to the 1950s, when studies of economic development first brought women into its discourse,<ref name=":1">{{cite book|title=Gender Planning and Development. Theory, Practice and Training|last=Moser|first=Caroline|publisher=Routledge|year=1993|isbn=978-0-203-41194-0|___location=New York|page=3}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{cite book|title=Gender, development, and globalization : economics as if all people mattered|last=Lourdes|first=Benería|others=Berik, Günseli,, Floro, Maria|isbn=9780415537483|edition= Second|___location=New York|oclc=903247621|date = 2014-11-11}}</ref> focusing on women only as subjects of welfare policies – notably those centered on [[Aid#Emergency aid|food aid]] and [[family planning]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPRH/Resources/GlobalFamilyPlanningRevolution.pdf|title=The Global Family Planning Revolution|last1=Robinson|first1=Warren C.|last2=Ross|first2=John A.|date=2007|website=World Bank|access-date=10 November 2018}}</ref> The focus of women in development increased throughout the decade, and by 1962, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] called for the [[United Nations Commission on the Status of Women|Commission on the Status of Women]] to collaborate with the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary General]] and a number of other UN sectors to develop a longstanding program dedicated to women's advancement in developing countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGA/1962/36.pdf|title=United Nations Assistance for the Advancement of Women in Developing Countries
Since Boserup's consider that development affects men and women differently, the study of gender's relation to development has gathered major interest amongst scholars and international policymakers. The field has undergone major theoretical shifts, beginning with [[Women in Development]] (WID), shifting to Women and Development (WAD), and finally becoming the contemporary Gender and Development (GAD). Each of these frameworks emerged as an evolution of its predecessor, aiming to encompass a broader range of topics and [[social science]] perspectives.<ref name=":02" /> In addition to these frameworks, international financial institutions such as the [[World Bank]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) have implemented policies, programs, and research regarding gender and development, contributing a [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] and smart economics approach to the study. Examples of these policies and programs include [[Structural adjustment|Structural Adjustment Programs]] (SAPs), [[microfinance]], [[outsourcing]], and [[Privatization|privatizing public enterprises]],<ref name=":02" /> all of which direct focus towards economic growth and suggest that advancement towards gender equality will follow. These approaches have been challenged by alternative perspectives such as [[Marxism]] and [[ecofeminism]], which respectively reject international capitalism<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kiely|first=Ray|date=2005|title=Capitalist Expansion and the
'''Gender Roles in Childhood Development'''
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''Observations of Gender Identity Formation''
Educators have made abundant observations regarding children's expression of gender identity. From
''Teacher Research''
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''Early Acquisition of Gender Roles''
Children begin to internalize gender roles from a young age, often as early as infancy. By preschool age, many children have developed some form of understanding on gender stereotypes and expectations (King, 2021<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=King |first1=Tania L |last2=Scovelle |first2=Anna J |last3=Meehl |first3=Anneke |last4=Milner |first4=Allison J |last5=Priest |first5=Naomi |date=June 2021 |title=Gender stereotypes and biases in early childhood: A systematic review |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1836939121999849 |journal=Australasian Journal of Early Childhood |language=en |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=112–125 |doi=10.1177/1836939121999849 |issn=1836-9391|url-access=subscription }}</ref>). These stereotypes are established through various sources, including family, friends, media outlets, and cultural ideals, shaping children's understanding and behaviors related to gender. Education systems, parental influence, and media and store influence can contribute as many of these influences associated different colors with different genders, different influential figures, as well as different toys that are supposed to cater to a specific gender.
''Expressions and Behavior Reflecting Gender Development''
Children's expressions provide insights into their changing understanding of gender roles and relationships. However, it is necessary to be able to demonstrate processes of emotional regulation in situations where the individual needs an adjustment of the emotional response of larger intensity (Sanchis et
''Educational Strategies''
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'''Theoretical approach'''
The term
The focus of the 1970s [[feminist movements]] and their repeated calls for employment opportunities in the development agenda meant that particular attention was given to the productive labour of women, leaving aside reproductive concerns and social welfare.<ref name="Razavi1995p3"/> This approach was pushed forward by WID advocates, reacting to the general policy environment maintained by early colonial authorities and post-war development authorities, wherein inadequate reference to the work undertook by women as producers was made, as they were almost solely identified as their roles as wives and mothers.<ref name="Razavi1995p3"/> The WID's opposition to this
Reeves and Baden (2000) point out that the WID approach stresses the need for women to play a greater role in the development process. According to this perspective, women's active involvement in policymaking will lead to more successful policies overall.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reeves |first1=Hazel |last2=Baden |first2=Sally |title=Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions (Report 55) |url=https://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/re55.pdf |publisher=University of Sussex
'''Criticism'''
The WID movement faced a number of criticisms; such an approach had in some cases the unwanted consequence of depicting women as a unit whose claims are conditional on its productive value, associating increased female status with the value of cash income in women's lives.<ref name="Razavi1995pi">{{cite report |last1=Razavi |first1=Shahrashoub
===Women and development (WAD)===
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'''Theoretical approach'''
WAD arose out of a shift in thinking about women's role in development, and concerns about the explanatory limitations of [[modernization theory]].<ref name="Rathgeber, Eva M 1990">Rathgeber, Eva M. 1990.
'''Practical approach'''
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'''Theoretical approach'''
The Gender and Development (GAD) approach focuses on the socially constructed<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bertrand|first=Tietcheu|title=Being Women and Men in Africa Today: Approaching Gender Roles in Changing African Societies|year=2006|journal=Student World}}</ref>
GAD departs from WID, which discussed women's subordination and lack of inclusion in discussions of international development without examining broader systems of gender relations.<ref>{{cite report|last=Razavi|first=Shahrashoub|author2=Carol Miller|title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse|date=1 February 1995|page=3|hdl=10419/148819|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Influenced by this work, by the late 1970s, some practitioners working in the development field questioned focusing on women in isolation.<ref name="Razavi 1995 12">{{cite report|last=Razavi|first=Shahrashoub|author2=Carol Miller|title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse|date=1 February 1995|page=12|hdl=10419/148819|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
Unlike WID, the GAD approach is not concerned specifically with women, but with the way in which a society assigns roles, responsibilities and expectations to both women and men. GAD applies [[gender analysis]] to uncover the ways in which men and women work together, presenting results in neutral terms of economics and efficiency.{{sfn|Shifting views...}} In an attempt to create gender equality (denoting women having the same opportunities as men, including ability to participate in the public sphere),<ref>Development Assistance Committee (DAC), 1998, p.7</ref> GAD policies aim to redefine traditional gender role expectations. Women are expected to fulfill household management tasks, home-based production as well as bearing and raising children and caring for family members. In terms of children, they develop social constructions through observations at a younger age than most people think. Children tend to learn about the differences between male and female actions and objects of use in a specific culture of their environment through observation (Chung & Huang 2021<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Chung |first1=Yi |last2=Huang |first2=Hsin-Hui |date=2021-12-10 |title=Cognitive-Based Interventions Break Gender Stereotypes in Kindergarten Children |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=18 |issue=24 |
GAD has been largely utilized in debates regarding development but this trend is not seen in the actual practice of developmental agencies and plans for development.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Gender and the Political Economy of Development|last=Rai|first=Shirin M.|publisher=Polity|year=2002|isbn=0-7456-1490-6|___location=Malden|pages=44–83|chapter=Gender and Development}}</ref> [[Caroline Moser]] claims WID persists due to the challenging nature of GAD, but [[Shirin M. Rai]] counters this claim noting that the real issue lies in the tendency to overlap WID and GAD in policy. Therefore, it would only be possible if development agencies fully adopted GAD language exclusively.<ref name=":5" /> Caroline Moser developed the [[Moser Gender Planning Framework]] for GAD-oriented development planning in the 1980s while working at the Development Planning Unit of the [[University of London]]. Working with Caren Levy, she expanded it into a methodology for gender policy and planning.{{sfn|March|Smyth|Mukhopadhyay|1999|pp = 55}}
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'''Criticism'''
GAD has been criticized for emphasizing the social differences between men and women while neglecting the bonds between them and also the potential for changes in roles. Another criticism is that GAD does not dig deeply enough into social relations and so may not explain how these relations can undermine programs directed at women. It also does not uncover the types of trade-offs that women are prepared to make for the sake of achieving their ideals of marriage or motherhood.{{sfn|Shifting views...}} Another criticism is that the GAD perspective is theoretically distinct from WID, but in practice, programs seem to have elements of both. Whilst many development agencies are now committed to a gender approach, in practice, the primary institutional perspective remain focused on a WID approach.<ref name="Reeves 2000 33">{{cite book|last=Reeves|first=Hazel|title=Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions|year=2000|___location=Brighton|isbn=1-85864-381-3|page=33}}</ref> Specifically, the language of GAD has been incorporated into WID programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Andrea M.|date=2006-07-20|title=WID and GAD in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Reappraising Gender Planning Approaches in Theory and Practice|journal=Journal of Women, Politics & Policy|volume=28|issue=2|pages=57–83|doi=10.1300/J501v28n02_03|s2cid=144490955|issn=1554-477X}}</ref> There is a slippage in reality where gender mainstreaming is often based in a single normative perspective as synonymous to women.<ref>{{cite book|last=True|first=J|title=Feminist Strategies in Global Governance: Gender Mainstreaming|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|___location=New York|page=37}}</ref>
==Neoliberal approaches==
===Gender and neoliberal development institutions===
Neoliberalism consists of policies that will privatize public industry, deregulate any laws or policies that interfere with the free flow of the market and cut back on all social services. These policies were often introduced to many low-income countries through structural adjustment programs (SAPs) by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).<ref>{{cite book|title=Gender, Development, and Globalization:Economics as if All People Mattered.|last1=Beneria|first1=Lourdes|last2=Berik|first2=Gunseli|last3=Floro|first3=Maria S.|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=978-0-415-53748-3|___location=New York|
Gender mainstreaming
An argument made on the functions behind institutional financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank are that they support capitalist ideals through their means of economic growth of countries globally and their participation in the global economy and capitalist systems. The roles of banks as institutions and the creation of new
=== Gender and outsourcing ===
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One example of a popular place for factories to relocate is to China. In China the main people who work in these factories are women, these women move from their home towns to cities far away for the factory jobs. The reasons these women move is to be able to make a wage to take care of not only themselves but their families as well. Oftentimes these women are expected to get these jobs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Houseman |first1=Susan |title=Outsourcing, offshoring and productivity measurement in United States manufacturing |journal=International Labour Review |date=March 2007 |volume=A146 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–80 |doi=10.1111/j.1564-913X.2007.00005.x |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Another example of a country the garment industry outsources work to is Bangladesh, which has one of the lowest costs of labor compared to other third world countries (see the ILO data provided in figure 1).<ref>{{cite web |title=Wages and Working Hours in the Textiles, Clothing, Leather and Footwear Industries |url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_dialogue/@sector/documents/publication/wcms_300463.pdf |website=International Labour Organization |publisher=International Labour Office |access-date=November 15, 2019}}</ref>
[[File:ILO Graph of third world countries wages.png|thumb|Figure 1]]
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=== Gender and microfinance ===
Women have been identified by some development institutions as a key to successful development, for example through financial inclusion. Microcredit is giving small loans to people in poverty without collateral. This was first started by [[Muhammad Yunus]], who formed the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.microworld.org/en/about-microworld/about-microcredit|title=Story of the microcredit|website=www.microworld.org|access-date=2018-03-01|archive-date=2022-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006124626/https://www.microworld.org/en/about-microworld/about-microcredit|url-status=dead}}</ref> Studies have
There were numerous case studies done in Tanzania about the correlation of the role of [[Microfinance in Tanzania|SACCoS]] (savings and credit cooperative organization) and the economic development of the country. The research showed that the microfinance policies were not being carried out in the most efficient ways due to exploitation.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Brennan|first=James R.|date=November 2006|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=47|issue=3|pages=389–413|doi=10.1017/S0021853706001794|issn=1469-5138|title=Blood Enemies: Exploitation and Urban Citizenship in the Nationalist Political Thought of Tanzania, 1958–75|s2cid=144117250|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/4155/1/BloodEnemies.pdf}}</ref>
While there are such cases in which women were able to lift themselves out of poverty, there are also cases in which women fell into a [[poverty trap]] as they were unable to repay their loans.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2016/11/01/500093608/you-asked-we-answer-can-tiny-loans-lift-women-out-of-poverty|title=You Asked, We Answer: Can Microloans Lift Women Out Of Poverty?|work=NPR
Some arguments that microcredit is not effective insist that the structure of the economy, with large informal and agriculture sectors, do not provide a system in which borrowers can be successful. In Nigeria, where the informal economy is approximately 45–60% of economy, women working within it could not attain access to microcredit because of the high demand for loans triggered by high unemployment rates in the formal sector. This study found Nigerian woman are forced into
Although there is debate on how effective microcredit is in alleviating poverty in general, there is an argument that microcredit enables women to participate and fulfill their capabilities in society.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lott|first=Charlotte E.|date=2009-05-01|title=Why Women Matter: the Story of Microcredit |journal=Journal of Law and Commerce|volume=27|issue=2|doi=10.5195/jlc.2009.28|issn=2164-7984|doi-access=free}}</ref> For example, a study conducted in Malayasia showed that their version of microcredit, AIM, had a positive effect on Muslim women's empowerment in terms of allowing them to have more control over family planning and over decisions that were made in the home.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Al-Shami|first1=Sayed Samer Ali|last2=Razali|first2=Muhammad M.|last3=Majid|first3=Izaidin|last4=Rozelan|first4=Ahmed|last5=Rashid|first5=Nurulizwa|date=2016-07-02|title=The effect of microfinance on women's empowerment: Evidence from Malaysia|journal=Asian Journal of Women's Studies|volume=22|issue=3|pages=318–337|doi=10.1080/12259276.2016.1205378|s2cid=156110946|issn=1225-9276}}</ref>
In contrast, out of a study conducted on 205 different MFIs, they concluded that there is still gender discrimination within microfinance institutions themselves and microcredit which impact the existing discrimination within communities as well. In Bangladesh, another outcome seen for some of the Grameen recipients was that they faced domestic abuse as a result of their husbands feeling threatened about women bringing in more income.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2010|title=Supplemental Material for Assessing the Impact of the Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 2000–2008.|journal=Psychology of Men & Masculinity|doi=10.1037/a0018033.supp|issn=1524-9220}}</ref> A study in Uganda also noted that men felt threatened through increased female financial dominance, increasing women's vulnerability at home.<ref>{{cite book|title=Provincial Board of Finance, 1978 (May-December)|doi = 10.1163/9789004252448.cua-8_009_004}}</ref>
Through the
Another example is the Women's Development Business (WDB) in South Africa, a [[Grameen Bank]] microfinance replicator. According to WDB, the goal is to ensure
Diving into another example regarding Microfinance and women from ''Women Entrepreneurship Promotion in Developing Countries: What explains the gender gap in entrepreneurship and how to close it?''is Vossenberg (2013) describes how although there has been an increase in entrepreneurship for women, the gender gap still persists. The author states
As a reaction, a current topic in the feminist literature on economic development is the
Therefore, the critique is that the assumption of economic development through microfinance does not take into account all possible outcomes, especially the ones affecting women.
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===Gender, financial crises, and neoliberal economic policy===
The [[
There are different views among feminists on whether neoliberal economic policies have more positive or negative impacts on women. In the post-war era, feminist scholars such as Elizabeth Wilson<ref name="Wilson1977">{{cite book |author=Elizabeth Wilson |title= Women and the Welfare State
Therefore, some scholars in the field argue that [[feminism]], especially during its [[second-wave feminism|second wave]], has contributed key ideas to Neoliberalism that, according to these authors, creates new forms of inequality and exploitation.<ref name="Fraser2012">{{cite journal |last=Fraser |first=Nancy |year=2012 |title= Feminism, Capitalism, and the Cunning of History |url= http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/72/50/55/PDF/FMSH-WP-2012-17_Fraser1.pdf |journal=Working Paper |publisher=Fondation Maison des sciences de l'homme
As a reaction to the phenomenon that some forms of feminism are increasingly interwoven with capitalism, many suggestions on how to name these movements have emerged in the feminist literature. Examples are
===Smart economics===
'''Theoretical approaches'''
Advocated chiefly by the [[World Bank]], smart economics is an approach to define gender equality as an integral part of economic development and it aims to spur development through investing more efficiently in women and girls. It stresses that the gap between men and women in [[human capital]], economic opportunities, and voice/agency is a chief obstacle in achieving more efficient development. As an approach, it is a direct descendant of the efficiency approach taken by WID which
The thinking behind smart economics dates back, at least, to the lost decade of the [[Structural adjustment|Structural Adjustment]] Policies (SAPs) in the 1980s.<ref name="Chant and Sweetman (2012)"/> In 1995, World Bank issued its flagship publication on gender matters of the year Enhancing Women's Participation in Economic Development (World Bank 1995). This report marked a critical foundation to the naissance of Smart Economics; in a chapter entitled
Other [[international organizations]], particular [[UN]] families, have so far endorsed the approach of smart economics. Examining the relationship between child well-being and gender equality, for example, [[UNICEF]] also referred to the
'''Criticisms'''
From the mid-2000s, the approach of smart economics and its chief proponent
The World Bank's gender policy aims to eliminate poverty and enhance economic growth by addressing gender disparities and inequalities that hinders development. A critique{{by whom|date=May 2021}} on the World Bank's gender policy is it being
Smart
A wide range of scholars and practitioners has criticized that smart economics rather endorse the current status-quo of gender inequality and keep silence for the demand of institutional reform. Its approach
Sylvia Chant (2008) discredited its approach as
Chant is concerned that
Chant emphasize that
==Alternative Approaches==
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===Marxism and Neo-Marxism===
The structuralist debate was first triggered by [[Marxist]] and [[socialist feminist]]s. Marxism, particularly through alternative models of [[state socialist]] development practiced in [[China]] and [[Cuba]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Huang|first=Philip C.C.|date=2012-09-17|title=Profit-Making State Firms and China's Development Experience|journal=Modern China|volume=38|issue=6|pages=591–629|doi=10.1177/0097700412455839|s2cid=153846930|issn=0097-7004}}</ref> challenged the dominant liberal approach over time. [[Neo-Marxist]] proponents focused on the role of the [[post-colonial]] state in development in general and also on localized class struggles.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pearce|first=Samir Amin. Transl. by Brian |title=Unequal development : an essay on the social formations of peripheral capitalism|year=1976|publisher=Harvester Pr.|___location=Hassocks|isbn=978-0901759467 |edition=al-Ṭabʻah 4.|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/unequaldevelopme0000amin}}</ref> [[Marxist feminist]]s advanced these criticisms towards liberal approaches and made significant contribution to the contemporary debate.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mies |first1=Maria |last2=Bennholdt-Thomsen |first2=Veronika |last3=Werlhof |first3=Claudia von |date=1988 |title=Women: the last colony |publisher=Zed Books |___location=London |isbn=978-0862324551 |url=https://archive.org/details/womenlastcolony00mies }}</ref>
===Dependency theory===
Dependency theorists opposed that liberal development models, including the attempt to incorporate women into the existing global capitalism, was, in fact, nothing more than the "development of [[underdevelopment]]."<ref>{{cite book|last=Frank |first=Andre Gunder|title=Capitalism and underdevelopment in Latin America : historical studies of Chile and Brazil |url=https://archive.org/details/capitalismunderd00fran|url-access=registration |year=1969|publisher=Monthly Review P. |___location=New York |isbn=978-0853450931|edition=
In the 1980s, there also emerged "a sustained questioning by [[post-structuralist]] critics of the development paradigm as a narrative of progress and as an achievable enterprise."<ref>{{cite book |last=Ghosh |first=Jayati |title=The Women, Gender and Development Reader |publisher=Zed Books |year=2011 |isbn=9781780321387 |editor-last=Visvanathan |editor-first=Nalini |edition=2nd |___location=London |page=29 |chapter=Financial crises and the impact on woman: a historical note |editor-last2=Duggan |editor-first2=Lynn |editor-last3=Wiegersma |editor-first3=Nan |editor-last4=Nisonoff |editor-first4=Laurie}}</ref>
===Basic Needs Approach, Capability Approach, and Ecofeminism===
Within the liberal paradigm of women and development, various criticism have emerged. The [[Basic Needs]] (BN) approach began to pose questions to the focus on growth and income as indicators of development. It was heavily influenced by [[Amartya Sen|Sen]] and Nussbaum's [[capability approach]], which was more gender sensitive than BN and focused on expanding human freedom.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sen|first=Amartya|title=Development as freedom|year=2001|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|___location=Oxford [u.a.]|isbn=978-0192893307|edition=1st publ. as an Oxford Univ. Press paperback|url=https://archive.org/details/developmentasfre00sena}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-first=Martha|editor-last=Nussbaum|title=The quality of life a study prepared for the World Institute for Development Economics Research (WIDER) of the United Nations University|year=1995|publisher=Clarendon Press|___location=Oxford|isbn=9780198287971|edition=
==References==
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* Moser, Caroline (1993). Gender Planning and Development. Theory, Practice and Training. New York: Routledge. p. 3.
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