English-language learner: Difference between revisions

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{{short description|Person learning the English language}}

'''English-language learner''' (often abbreviated as '''ELL''') is a term used in some English-speaking countries such as the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] to describe a person who is learning the [[English language]] and has a native language that is not English. Some [[Education in the United States|educational]] advocates, especially in the United States, classify these students as non-native English speakers or emergent bilinguals.<ref>{{cite book |id={{ERIC|ED524002}} |last1=Garcia |first1=Ofelia |last2=Kleifgen |first2=Jo Anne |last3=Falchi |first3=Lorraine |title=From English Language Learners to Emergent Bilinguals. Equity Matters. Research Review No. 1 |date=January 2008 |publisher=Campaign for Educational Equity, Teachers College, Columbia University }}{{pn|date=June 2023}}</ref> Various other terms are also used to refer to students who are not proficient in English, such as [[English as a second or foreign language|English as a second language (ESL)]], English as an additional language (EAL), limited English proficient (LEP), culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD), non-native English speaker, bilingual students, heritage language, emergent bilingual, and language-minority students. The legal term that is used in federal legislation is 'limited English proficient'.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wright|first=Wayne|title=Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners|publisher=Caslon|year=2010|___location=Philadelphia|pages=3 and 4}}</ref>

{{multiple issues|{{Globalize|article|USA|2name=the United States|date=July 2016}}

{{essay-like|date=June 2011}}}}

'''English-language learner''' (often abbreviated as '''ELL''') is a term used in some English-speaking countries such as the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] to describe a person who is learning the [[English language]] and has a native language that is not English. Some [[Education in the United States|educational]] advocates, especially in the United States, classify these students as non-native English speakers or emergent bilinguals.<ref>{{cite book |id={{ERIC|ED524002}} |last1=Garcia |first1=Ofelia |last2=Kleifgen |first2=Jo Anne |last3=Falchi |first3=Lorraine |title=From English Language Learners to Emergent Bilinguals. Equity Matters. Research Review No. 1 |date=January 2008 |publisher=Campaign for Educational Equity, Teachers College, Columbia University }}{{pn|date=June 2023}}</ref> Various other terms are also used to refer to students who are not proficient in English, such as [[English as a second or foreign language|English as a second language (ESL)]], English as an additional language (EAL), limited English proficient (LEP), culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD), non-native English speaker, bilingual students, heritage language, emergent bilingual, and language-minority students. The legalmodels term that is used in federal legislation is 'limited English proficient'.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wright|first=Wayne|title=Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners|publisher=Caslon|year=2010|___location=Philadelphia|pages=3 and 4}}</ref> Theof instruction and [[Educational assessment|assessment]] of students, their [[cultural background]], and the attitudes of classroom [[teacher]]s towards ELLs have all been found to be factors in the achievement of these students. Several methods have been suggested to effectively teach ELLs, including integrating their home cultures into the classroom, involving them in language-appropriate [[content-area instruction]] early on, and integrating [[literature]] and technology into their learning programs. When teaching ELLs potential issues like assessment and teacher biases, expectations, and use of the language may also be present.

== History ==

The term "English-language learner" was first used by Mark LaCelle-Peterson and Charlene Rivera in their 1994 study. He defined ELL students as students whose first language is not English, including both limited and higher levels of language proficiency. The term ELL emphasizes that students are mastering another language, something many monolingual students in American schools may never attempt outside of the limited proficiency gained from foreign language class requirements. In adopting the term, LaCelle-Peterson and Rivera gave analogies of other conventional educational terms. The authors believed that just as we refer to advanced teaching candidates as "student teachers" rather than "limited teaching proficient individuals," the term ELL underscores what students are ''learning'' instead of their limitations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lacelle-Peterson |first1=Mark |last2=Rivera |first2=Charlene |title=Is It Real for All Kids? A Framework for Equitable Assessment Policies for English Language Learners |journal=Harvard Educational Review |date=1 April 1994 |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=55–76 |doi=10.17763/haer.64.1.k3387733755817j7 }}</ref>

Since 1872, an English-only instruction law had been in place in the United States. It was not until 1967, that the legislation was overturned by SB53, a policy signed for California public schools to allow other languages in instruction. A year later, after SB53 garnered support by the immigrant community, the [[Bilingual Education Act]] (Title VII) was passed. Nationally, public schools were then provided funding for programs that met the educational needs of ELL.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=IngersollHorsford |first1=RichardSonya M.|last2=Sampson |first2=Carrie |date=2013 |title=TeacherHigh-ELL-Growth TurnoverStates: Expanding Funding Equity and TeacherOpportunity Shortages:for AnEnglish OrganizationalLanguage AnalysisLearners |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1046135.pdf |journal=AmericanVoices Educationalin ResearchUrban Journal |date=2001Education |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=499–53449-52 |doi=10.3102/00028312038003499 |jstor=3202489 |s2cid=8630217 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1093&context=gse_pubs }}</ref>

Not long after the installment of [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|Title VII]], the "taxpayers revolt" came to fruition and California's Proposition 13 was drafted. It proposed funding cuts for large portions of California's public schools, backed by those who disapproved of immigrant progress. In opposition to this, cases like ''[[Castañeda v. Pickard|Castaneda v Pickard]]'' fought for educational equality and standards focused on developing ELL students, as well as an overall sound plan for school districts.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sutori|url=https://www.sutori.com/story/sf-cess-historical-timeline-of-public-education-in-the-u-s--R4BQwQWU9qnFGZQk3x1WAbcN|access-date=2021-05-12|website=www.sutori.com|language=en}}</ref> An additional setback occurred in California in 1998 when Proposition 227 passed, banning bilingual education yet again. To combat this, education advocates in the Bay Area began to open all-inclusive schools to promote the acceptance of ELL students.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Small Autonomous Schools as a District Policy: The Oakland Plan {{!}} Coalition of Essential Schools|url=http://essentialschools.org/horace-issues/small-autonomous-schools-as-a-district-policy-the-oakland-plan/|access-date=2021-05-12|language=en-US}}</ref>

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There are a wide variety of different program models that may be used to structure the education of English-language learners (ELLs). These program models vary depending on the goals of the program and the resources available. Some researchers describe program models as existing on a spectrum from more monolingual forms to more bilingual forms.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Baker |first1=Colin |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.21832/baker9899 |title=Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism |last2=Wright |first2=Wayne E. |date=2021-03-31 |publisher=Multilingual Matters |doi=10.21832/baker9899 |isbn=978-1-78892-988-2 |s2cid=241801261}}</ref> Others distinguish between English-only program models and bilingual program models.<ref>{{cite book |id={{ERIC|ED517794}} |last1=Moughamian |first1=Ani C. |last2=Rivera |first2=Mabel O. |last3=Francis |first3=David J. |title=Instructional Models and Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners |date=2009 |publisher=Center on Instruction }}{{pn|date=June 2023}}</ref>

[[File:Professional Development SIOP.jpg|thumb|At a professional development seminar, educators learn about the Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) model, a specific model of sheltered instruction used to accommodate English-language learners in mainstream classrooms.]]

Fast-track to English programs encourage students to use English as quickly as possible and offer little to no native language support. In [[Transitional bilingual education|transition-bilingual programs]], instruction begins in the student's native language and then switches to English in elementary or middle school. In [[Dual language|dual language programs]] (also known as two-way bilingual or two-way [[Language immersion|immersion]] programs), students become fluent simultaneously in their native language and English.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Learning and Thinking Differences in English Language Learners |date=5 August 2019 |url=https://www.understood.org/en/school-learning/special-services/english-language-learners/understanding-learning-and-thinking-differences-in-ells}}</ref> [[Sheltered instruction]] is another approach in which integrates language and content instruction in the mainstream classroom environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hansen-Thomas |first=Holly |date=2012-07-13 |title=Sheltered Instruction: Best Practices for ELLs in the Mainstream |journal=Kappa Delti Pi Record |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=165–69|doi=10.1080/00228958.2008.10516517 |s2cid=144305523 }}</ref> Program models utilizing sheltered instruction may also be referred to as content-based instruction (CBI) or content language integrated learning (CLIL).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ping |first1=Wang |title=Understanding bilingual education: an overview of key notions in the literature and the implications for Chinese university EFL education |journal=Cambridge Journal of Education |date=2 January 2017 |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=85–102 |doi=10.1080/0305764X.2015.1118439 |s2cid=147483836 }}</ref>

=== "Push-in" programs versus "pull-out" programs ===

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[[Scaffolding theory]] was introduced in 1976 by [[Jerome Bruner]], David Wood, and Gail Ross.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pea |first1=Roy D. |title=The Social and Technological Dimensions of Scaffolding and Related Theoretical Concepts for Learning, Education, and Human Activity |journal=Journal of the Learning Sciences |date=July 2004 |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=423–451 |doi=10.1207/s15327809jls1303_6 |s2cid=58282805 |url=https://telearn.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00190619/file/A117_Pea_04_JLS_Scaffolding.pdf }}</ref> Bruner adapts [[Lev Vygotsky]]'s [[zone of proximal development]] theory to child development. In the context of aiding ELL students, scaffolding is seen as a way to offer more support to ELL students initially through additional strategies and approaches, which are gradually removed as the student gains independence and proficiency. Different scaffolding strategies include associating English vocabulary to visuals, drawing back to a student's prior knowledge, pre-teaching difficult vocabulary before assigning readings they appear in, and encouraging questions from students, whether they be content-related or to ensure comprehension. All of these additional areas of support are to be gradually removed, so that students become more independent, even if that means no longer needing some of these associations or seeking them out for themselves.

=== Labor-based grading === <!-- [[Labor-based grading]] links here. Please do not change. -->

In Asao Inoue's "Labor-Based Grading Contracts", he proposes an alternative to traditional content-based or quality-based methods of assessment in writing classrooms.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Inoue|first=Asao B.|date=2019|title=Labor-Based Grading Contracts|url=https://wac.colostate.edu/docs/books/labor/contracts.pdf}}</ref> Inoue outlines his own innovative classroom design, which assigns grades based on set standards for how much work is put into each assignment through quantitative methods such as word counts. High marks are earned by students who go above the baseline requirements, which earn students a "B" on the A–F grading scale. The intent behind Inoue's design is that students are rewarded for their efforts rather than deterred, and students who traditionally score poorly when graded on quality (such as ELL students) are equally capable of receiving a certain grade as any other student, despite any educational setbacks or challenges they endure. A unique aspect to the labor-based grading design is that students collaborate as a class to decide what the terms on conditions of grading scales are. This way, all student's voices are heard and considered when developing a method of evaluation for their work.

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=== Assessment biases ===

[[File:No Child Left Behind Act.jpg|thumb|George W. Bush signing the No Child Left Behind Act.]]

The [[Every Student Succeeds Act]] or ESSA passed in 2015 replaced [[No Child Left Behind Act|No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)]], also requires all ELLs attending public schools from grades K–12 to be assessed in multiple language domains, such as listening, reading, writing, and speaking.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=U.S. Department of Education|date=September 23, 2016|title=Non-Regulatory Guidance: English Learners and Title III of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), as amended by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)|url=https://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/essa/essatitleiiiguidenglishlearners92016.pdf|archive-url=|access-date=October 14, 2021}}</ref> Current research in this area has found that assessments given to ELLs are culturally and linguistically inappropriate for reliable testing.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Macswan|first1=Jeff|last2=Rolstad|first2=Kellie|date=November 2006|title=How language proficiency tests mislead us about ability: Implications for english language learner placement in special education|journal=Teachers College Record |volume=108|issue=11|pages=2304–2328|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00783.x}}</ref> Assessments do not take into account the students' linguistic repertoire and what they know in their first language; therefore, content-based assessment outcomes might be confounded by language barriers, since they are not only being exposed to new material, but they are learning this new material in a language that they may still be gaining proficiency in.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abedi |first=Jamal|date=2006|title=Psychometric Issues in the ELL Assessment and Special Education Eligibility |url=https://www.ncaase.com/docs/Abedi_TCRE782_2006.pdf |journal=Teachers College Record |volume=108|issue=11|pages=2282–2303|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00782.x}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Klingner |first1=Janette K. |last2=Artiles |first2=Alfredo J. |last3=Barletta |first3=Laura Mendez |title=English Language Learners Who Struggle With Reading: Language Acquisition or LD? |journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities |date=March 2006 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=108–128 |doi=10.1177/00222194060390020101 |pmid=16583792 |s2cid=22687512 }}</ref> Research based on student feedback indicates that students have a difficult time associating the content presented to them in assessments with their personal lives. <ref>{{Cite journal |title=Achieving Assessment Equity and Fairness: Identifying and Eliminating Bias in Assessment Tools and Practices |url=https://kurdishstudies.net/menu-script/index.php/KS/article/view/1035/1085 |journal=Achieving Assessment Equity and Fairness: Identifying and Eliminating Bias in Assessment Tools and Practices |volume=11 |via=ERIC}}</ref> This lack of variety in assessments may restrict teachers' ability to accurately determine the academic progress of a student and introduce biases that may result in lower test scores.

=== Teacher biases and training ===

Attitudes of educators play a major role in the ESL classroom. Estimates suggest that approximately 45% of teachers in America have ELL students in their classrooms;<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=Anne |last2=Shafer |first2=Jill |last3=Iiams |first3=Michelle |date=2004 |title="Not In My Classroom": Teacher Attitudes Towards English Language Learners in the Mainstream Classroom |journal=NABE Journal of Research and Practice |volume=2 |citeseerx=10.1.1.579.2287}}</ref> however, it is not uncommon for teachers to have negative perceptions of the ELL students in their classrooms. These negative perceptions are informed by a bias that ELL students are not adequately trying or that they are personally at fault for their language barrier.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Carley Rizzuto |first=Kerry |date=22 June 2017 |title=Teachers' Perceptions of ELL Students: Do Their Attitudes Shape Their Instruction?|journal=The Teacher Educator |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=182–202 |doi=10.1080/08878730.2017.1296912|s2cid=219622420 }}</ref> Research shows that the negative attitudes of teachers may stem from lack of time to address unique ELL student classroom needs,<ref name="Youngs2001">{{cite journal |author1=Youngs, Cheryl S. |author2=Youngs, George A. Jr. |date=Spring 2001 |title=Predictors of Mainstream Teachers' Attitudes toward ESL Students |journal=TESOL Quarterly |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=97–120|doi=10.2307/3587861|jstor=3587861}}</ref> added teacher workload when working with ELL students in mainstream classrooms,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gitlin|first1=A.|last2=Buendia|first2=E.|last3=Crosland|first3=K.|last4=Doumbia|first4=F.|year=2003|title=The Production of Margin and Center: Welcoming-Unwelcoming of Immigrant Students|journal=American Educational Research Journal|volume=40|pages=91–122|doi=10.3102/00028312040001091|s2cid=144636531}}<!-- Gitlin, Buenda, Crosland & Doumbia, 2003. The Production of Margin and Center: Welcoming–Unwelcoming of Immigrant Students--></ref> and personal feelings of professional insufficiency to work with ELL students.<ref name="Verplaetse1998">{{cite journal|author=Verplaetse, Lorrie Stoops|date=Autumn 1998|title=How Content Teachers Interact with English Language Learners|journal=TESOL Journal|volume=7|issue=5|pages=24–28}}</ref><ref name="Reeves2006">{{cite journal |last1=Reeves |first1=Jenelle R. |title=Secondary Teacher Attitudes Toward Including English-Language Learners in Mainstream Classrooms |journal=The Journal of Educational Research |date=January 2006 |volume=99 |issue=3 |pages=131–143 |doi=10.3200/joer.99.3.131-143 |citeseerx=10.1.1.957.3133 |s2cid=146569899 }}</ref> Research indicates that onlynearly 12half (47.4%) of K–12 teachers inworking thewith UnitedELL Statesstudents felt as though they did not have the proper training into workingbest withsupport ELLthese studentslearners and about 39% of teachers did not feel prepared to support them in the classroom.<ref>{{Cite namejournal |last="Grenz |first=Gretchen |last2=Chitiyo |first2=George |last3=Fidan |first3=Perihan |date=2023 |title=Perceptions of Teachers towards English Language Learners (ELLs) and Content Accessibility |url=https:0"//files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1392499.pdf |journal=International Journal of Research in Education and Science |pages=830}}</ref>

These attitudes can also lead to biases in the way students are assessed and evaluated.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Stevenson |first1=Nathan A. |last2=Reed |first2=Deborah K. |last3=Tighe |first3=Elizabeth L. |title=Examining Potential Bias in Screening Measures for Middle School Students By Special Education and Low Socioeconomic Status Subgroups: Bias in Screening Measures in Middle School |journal=Psychology in the Schools |date=May 2016 |volume=53 |issue=5 |pages=533–547 |doi=10.1002/pits.21919 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garcia |first1=Elisa B. |last2=Sulik |first2=Michael J. |last3=Obradović |first3=Jelena |title=Teachers' perceptions of students' executive functions: Disparities by gender, ethnicity, and ELL status. |journal=Journal of Educational Psychology |date=July 2019 |volume=111 |issue=5 |pages=918–931 |doi=10.1037/edu0000308 |s2cid=150018433 }}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Downey |first=D. B. |date=2004 |title=When race matters: Teachers' evaluations of students' classroom behavior |journal=Sociology of Education |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=267–282 |doi=10.1177/003804070407700401 |s2cid=145521968}}</ref> ELL students tend underrate or under-evaluate academic skills of ELL students than English dominant peers, this can affect academic growth, ELL reclassification to English proficient, and even referral to [[Special education in the United States|special education services]].<ref name=":5" /> Some researchers state that more multicultural education or trainings for teachers can help change these biases, along with more teachers of color that are representative of their students can help with less biases and lead to better evaluations of ELLs.<ref name=":6" /> Teachers can also become more aware of the issues faced by ELLs along with how language is developed and the issues with language development.

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Aside from linguistic gaps, the adjustment to American scholarly expectations, writing genres, and prompts can all be jarring and even contradictory to an ELL individual's academic experiences from their home country. An example of this is how American writing prompts tend to be multiple pages long, with extensive details and examples. Many collegiate ELLs can be overwhelmed and confused by all of the additional information, making it difficult to decipher all of the different parts that their writing needs to address. Another example is found in how students from other countries may be unfamiliar with sharing their opinions,<ref>{{Citation|title=We No Speak Americano – Understanding International Students' Writing|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V7pYB6W049I |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/V7pYB6W049I |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|language=en|access-date=2021-04-29}}{{cbignore}}</ref> or criticizing the government in any form,<ref>{{Citation|title=Writing Across Borders Part 1 (High Quality Version)|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cv3uRPsskv0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/Cv3uRPsskv0 |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|language=en|access-date=2021-04-29}}{{cbignore}}</ref> even if this is a requirement for an essay or a speech. According to a survey by Lin (2015), "Many [ELL students] indicated that they had problems adjusting their ways of writing in their first language to American thought patterns. Students still thought in their first language and used the rhetorical patterns of their first language to write English essays… Because writing patterns or styles are not only cognitively but also culturally embedded, many ELL writers in this study found it takes a significant amount of time to adapt to different thinking patterns when communicating through written English."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lin|first=Show Mei|date=2015|title=A Study of ELL Students' Writing Difficulties: A Call for Culturally, Linguistically, and Psychologically Responsive Teaching|url=|journal=College Student Journal|volume=49|pages=237–250|via=EBSCO Host}}</ref>

=== Much useUse of native language ===

Most ELLs may find themselves using their native language most of the time, rather than practicing their newlynew language, and this dragsmay backimpede thetheir progress they had made earlier on.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-12-12|title=Who is an English language learner?|url=https://www.languageacademia.com/post/who-is-an-english-language-learner|access-date=2021-12-17|website=Language Academia |language=en}}</ref> When using the acquired second language, many ELLs enter a stage called "the silent period." During this period the ELL is familiar with the language but does not use it. This period of not speaking can last 6 weeks or more depending on the person.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gibbons |first=John |title=The Silent Period: An Examination |journal=Language Learning |volume=35 |issue=2}}</ref>

'''Once the ELLELLs begins to use the second language they typically use brief phrases and short words. With time, the individualthey may begin to feel more comfortable with using the new language. The length of duration for an ELL to become fluent in the second language depends on the individual themselves and their strength in their native language.''' <ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-08-27 |title=Language Acquisition: An Overview |url=https://www.colorincolorado.org/article/language-acquisition-overview |website=www.colorincolorado.org}}</ref>

== ELLs with disabilities ==

Of the 5 million ELL students in the 2019–2020 school year, 15.3% of these or 766,600 were identified with disabilities and qualified for special education services.<ref>{{Cite web|title=COE – English Language Learners in Public Schools|url=https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cgf|access-date=2021-10-16|website=nces.ed.gov|language=en}}</ref> ELLs with disabilities follow the same path to receiving services for special education: academic struggle is observed by those working with the student, the student is referred to a team of professionals for intervention and/or assessment, if a disability is found they are then placed in special education programming for support.<ref name=":3" /> Most ELL students with disabilities qualify under the [[specific learning disability]] or [[speech and language impairment]] categories.<ref name=":4" /><ref name="WIDA">{{Cite web |last=WIDA |date=May 2017 |title=Identifying Multilingual Learners with Specific Learning Disabilities: Data, Advice, and Resources for School Teams |url=https://wida.wisc.edu/sites/default/files/resource/FocusBulletin-Identifying-Multilingual-Learners-Specific-Learning-Disabilities.pdf |website=WIDA}}</ref>

Researchers have found that there is a disproportion in ELL students identified into special education.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> There can be an overrepresentation where ELL students can be qualified into special education services but do not truly have a disability, or there can be an underrepresentation where a disability exists but the ELL student is not qualified into special education because it is deemed a language development related issue.<ref name=":4" />'''<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-06-10|title=Challenges in Special Education Identification for ELLs|url=https://www.colorincolorado.org/special-education-ell/identification|access-date=2021-10-16|website=Colorín Colorado|language=en}}</ref>'''When determining the reasoning behind academic difficulties, areas such as standardized tests, observation and parent involvement have been considered to determine the struggle of the student.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Supporting Academic and Affective Learning Processes for English Language Learners with Universal Design for Learning |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44984766}}</ref>  Although assessments in schools are the common, the reliability of this in terms of language proficiency and learning disability can be questionable considering their limitations.

Most ELL students qualify under the [[specific learning disability]] or [[Emotional and behavioral disorders|emotional disturbance]] categories.<ref name=":4" /><ref name="WIDA">{{Cite web |last=WIDA |date=May 2017 |title=Identifying Multilingual Learners with Specific Learning Disabilities: Data, Advice, and Resources for School Teams |url=https://wida.wisc.edu/sites/default/files/resource/FocusBulletin-Identifying-Multilingual-Learners-Specific-Learning-Disabilities.pdf |website=WIDA}}</ref> According to [[WIDA Consortium|WIDA]], states with the highest identification of ELLs with disabilities, the specific learning disability category is the highest category for special education qualification. (See the "WIDA Focus On: ELLs with Specific Learning Disabilities" fact sheet]<ref name=WIDA/> for a detailed map breakdown by state on percentages of ELLs identified into this category.)

Although a language barrier is present, when classifying the disability or impairment intrinsic and extrinsic factors considered are:

Researchers have found that there isare adisproportionate disproportionnumbers of in ELL students identified intoas in need of special education.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> There can be an overrepresentation where ELL students can beare qualified into special education services due to underlying language issues but do not truly have a disability, or there can be an underrepresentation wherewhen a disability exists but the ELL student is not qualified into special education because ita disability is deemedassumed to be a language development related issue.<ref name=":4" />'''<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-06-10|title=Challenges in Special Education Identification for ELLs|url=https://www.colorincolorado.org/special-education-ell/identification|access-date=2021-10-16|website=Colorín Colorado|language=en}}</ref>'''WhenInformation determiningfrom thestandardized reasoningtests, behinddirect academic difficultiesobservation, areasand suchparent asfeedback standardizedare tests,used observationto anddiagnose parentthe involvementroot havecauses beenfor consideredlanguage tolearning determinestudents thewho struggle ofwith the studentacademics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Supporting Academic and Affective Learning Processes for English Language Learners with Universal Design for Learning |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44984766}}</ref>  AlthoughWhen assessmentsclassifying inthe schoolsdisability areor the commonimpairment, the reliability of this in terms of language proficiencyintrinsic and learningextrinsic disabilityfactors canconsidered be questionable considering their limitations.are:

* Environment

* The child as a whole

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== Enriching the classroom environment ==

To maintain an environment that is beneficial for both the teacher and the student, culture, literature, and other disciplines should be integrated systematically into the instruction. Postponing content-area instruction until CLD students gain academic language skills bridges the linguistic achievement gap between the learners and their native-English speaking peers.<ref name="Herrera2007"/>{{rp|173}} Relating to culture, teachers need to integrate it into the lesson, for the students to feel a sense of appreciation and a feeling of self-worth rather than ostracization. When working with English-language learners, it is suggested that teachers try to understand the cultural background of their students in relation to education. What might be incorrect in English, might be correct in one's native language. If this is the case, then the student may transfer information from their first language to the second.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|title=Literature Review {{!}} Teaching Diverse Learners|url=https://www.brown.edu/academics/education-alliance/teaching-diverse-learners/literature-review-1|access-date=2021-10-13|website=www.brown.edu}}</ref> Students will benefit substantially from the use of literature in instruction as well. "Reading texts that match learner interests and English proficiency provide learners with comprehensible language input—a chance to learn new vocabulary in context and to see the syntax of the language."<ref name="Rabideau1993">{{cite web|url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED358749 |id={{ERIC|ED358749}} |last1=Rabideau |first1=Dan |title=Integrating Reading and Writing into Adult ESL Instruction. ERIC Digest |date=March 1993 }}</ref> StudentsMotivation canand alsoenjoyment gaincan additionalbe motivationreached and enjoyment fromthrough the addition of literature. Students also can gain motivation inand writing by teachers allowing themthat tois writefocused abouton culturally relevant topics that allow students to express where they come from and aspects of their culture.<ref name=":02"/> By integrating other disciplines into the lesson, it will make the content more significant to the learners and will create higher order thinking skills across the areas. Introducing language in other contexts focuses not only on learning a second language, but using that language as a medium to learn mathematics, science, social studies, or other academic subjects.<ref name="Reilly1988">{{cite web|url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED296572 |id={{ERIC|ED296572}} |last1=Reilly |first1=Tarey |title=ESL through Content Area Instruction |date=May 1988 }}</ref> These varying approaches aid ELL students' awareness "that English is not just an object of academic interest nor merely a key to passing an examination; instead, English becomes a real means of interaction and sharing among people".<ref name="Oxford2001p5">{{cite magazine |last1=Oxford |first1=Rebecca |title=Integrated Skills in the ESL/EFL classroom |magazine=ESL Magazine |volume=6 |issue=1 |date=2001 |pages=1–7 }}</ref> Therefore, students will be able to communicate across the curriculum, acquire higher level skills, and be successful in their daily lives.

=== Strategies for supporting ELLs in the classroom and beyond ===

Allowing students to [[Translanguaging|translanguage]], or alternate, between English and their native language is an essential strategy for English-language learners. In the classroom, English-language learners can often feel intimidated when asked to speak or communicate complex ideas, so when students are allowed to use their first language to help produce their second language, it lessens some of the anxiety that can occur.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|first=Jennifer|last=Gonzalez|date=2014-12-11|title=12 Ways to Support English Learners in the Mainstream Classroom |url=https://www.cultofpedagogy.com/supporting-esl-students-mainstream-classroom/|access-date=2021-10-13|website=Cult of Pedagogy|language=en}}</ref> Oftentimes inIn thethese classroomcases, teachers askmay studentsbe to communicate complex ideas and translanguing helps students do this. In this case, teachers are notless concerned so much about theirstudents' language output, but ratherthan if they are able to communicateexpress their ideasthoughts.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|date=2016-07-26|title=What is translanguaging?|url=https://ealjournal.org/2016/07/26/what-is-translanguaging/|access-date=2021-10-13|website=EAL Journal|language=en}}</ref> ByThe allowinguse students toof translanguage in the classroom, it allows students to process and convey their ideas in a lower-risk output situation (worksheets) that can lead to more high-risk output situations (essays and projects).<ref name=":22" />

When it comes to writing, constant and a variety ofvaried feedback needs toshould be givenprovided. ThisFeedback couldcan be aboutgiven syntaxusing ora sentencerubric structures,that whichaddresses feedbackgrammatical couldconcepts besuch givenas on a rubricsyntax.<ref name=":02"/> Modeling effective writing is also an essential strategy, which can be done by vocalizing their reasoning for choice in vocabulary, sentence structure, and even purpose for writing.<ref name=":02" /> Teachers shouldcan chunk writing steps into manageable sections for English-language learners.<ref name=":02" />

[[File:Karvachar Armath Lab at work.jpg|thumb|Technology usage in the classroom can be beneficial for English-language learners.]]

Incorporating technology issupports onethe strategylanguage fordevelopment supportingof English-language learnersELLs in the classroom. The internet makes it possible for students to view videos of activities, events, and places around the world instantaneously. Viewing these activities can help English-language learners develop an understanding of new concepts while at the same time building topic related schema (background knowledge).<ref>{{Cite web|title=6 Essential Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners|url=https://www.edutopia.org/article/6-essential-strategies-teaching-english-language-learners|access-date=2020-06-11|website=Edutopia|language=en}}</ref> Introducing students to media literacy and accessible materials can also aid them in their future academic endeavors and establish research skills early on. This can also help students visually as well. For English-language learners, listening all the time can become very taxing, so teachers should add in visualvisuals as much as they can to support students.<ref name=":13"/> Technology allows teachers to dohelp thisstudents visually because images can be projected on the screen as well as text when learning new concepts.

Experiential learning is another strategy to support ELL students. The teacher can provide opportunities for English-language learners to acquire vocabulary and build knowledge through hands-on learning.<ref>Schecter, S. R. (2012). The predicament of generation 1.5 English language learners: Three disjunctures and a possible way forward. Canadian Journal of Education, 35(4), 322.</ref> This can include activities such as science experiments and art projects, which are tactile ways that encourage students to create solutions to proposed problems or tasks.

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== Future ==

While there have been several advancements in both the rights and the strategies and support offered in the United States and Canada for English-language learning students, there is still much work to be done. Despite International students (who often make up the bulk of ELL students in higher education, in addition to immigrants) being sought out as sources of profit and their boosts of collegiate diversity statistics, there are not always additional funding and resources curated to support these students at their respective institutions. With efforts like former U.S. president [[Donald Trump|Donald J. Trump's]] proposed deportation of international students as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the ongoing debate whether to continue to support pathways to citizenship and achievement by the children of undocumented immigrants, such as [[Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals|DACA]], there are still many hindrances to this group of students occurring today. Adoption of socially-just classroom pedagogies such as those proposed by Asao Inoue, and the re-examination of the privileges inherent in the existence of "[[Academic English|Standard Academic English]]" are current steps towards a trajectory of inclusion and tolerance for these groups of students in both K–12 and higher education.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Inoue |first1=Asao B. |title=Antiracist Writing Assessment Ecologies: Teaching and Assessing Writing for a Socially Just Future |date=2015 |publisher=Parlor Press LLC |isbn=978-1-60235-775-4 |doi=10.37514/PER-B.2015.0698 }}{{pn|date=June 2023}}</ref><ref>[https://www.wallstreet-english.co.il/ Wall Street English] – Award-Winning, Global & ISO-Certified English Learning Platform, Teaching Students Since 1972.</ref>

== References ==