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{{Short description|Set of procedures, techniques, aids, or tools for designing}}
'''Design methods''' are procedures, techniques, aids, or tools for designing. They offer a number of different kinds of activities that a designer might use within an overall design process. Conventional procedures of design, such as drawing, can be regarded as design methods, but since the 1950s new procedures have been developed that are more usually grouped
''Design methodology'' is the broader study of method in design: the study of the principles, practices and procedures of designing.<ref name="Cross Methodology">{{cite book |last1=Cross |first1=Nigel |title=Developments in Design Methodology |date=1984 |publisher=Wiley |___location=UK |isbn=978-0471102489}}</ref>
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Design methods originated in new approaches to [[problem solving]] developed in the mid-20th Century, and also in response to industrialisation and mass-production, which changed the nature of designing.<ref>Cross, N. (1993) "A History Of Design Methodology", in de Vries, J., N. Cross and D. P. Grant (eds.), ''Design Methodology and Relationships with Science'', Kluwer Press, The Netherlands. 15–27.</ref> A "Conference on Systematic and Intuitive Methods in Engineering, Industrial Design, Architecture and Communications", held in London in 1962<ref>Jones, J. C. and D. G. Thornley, (eds) (1963) ''Conference on Design Methods'', Pergamon Press, UK.</ref> is regarded as a key event marking the beginning of what became known within design studies as the "design methods movement", leading to the founding of the [[Design Research Society]] and influencing design education and practice. Leading figures in this movement in the UK were [[John Christopher Jones|J. Christopher Jones]] at the [[University of Manchester]] and [[L. Bruce Archer]] at the [[Royal College of Art]].
The movement developed through further conferences on new design methods in the UK and USA in the 1960s.<ref>Gregory, S. A. (ed.) ''The Design Method''. Butterworth, UK.</ref><ref>Broadbent, G. and A. Ward (eds) (1969) ''Design Methods in Architecture'', Lund Humphries, UK</ref><ref>Moore, G. T. (ed.) (1970) ''Emerging Methods in Environmental Design and Planning'', MIT Press, USA.</ref> The first books on rational design methods,<ref>Asimow, M. (1962) ''Introduction to Design'', Prentice-Hall, USA.</ref><ref>Alexander, C. (1964) ''Notes on the Synthesis of Form'', Harvard University Press, USA.</ref><ref>Archer, L. B. (1965) ''Systematic Method for Designers'', The Design Council, UK</ref> and on creative methods<ref>Gordon, W. J. (1961) ''Synectics'', Harper & Row, USA.</ref><ref>Osborn, A. F. (1963) ''Applied Imagination: Principles and Procedures of Creative Thinking'', Scribener's Sons, USA.</ref> also appeared in this period.
New approaches to design were developing at the same time in Germany, notably at the [[Ulm School of Design]] (Hochschule für Gestaltung–HfG Ulm) (1953–1968) under the leadership of [[Tomás Maldonado]]. Design teaching at Ulm integrated design with science (including social sciences) and introduced new fields of study such as [[cybernetics]], [[systems theory]] and [[semiotics]] into design education.<ref>Krampen, M. and G. Hörman (2003) ''The Ulm School of Design'', Ernst & Sohn, Germany. p.85</ref> [[L. Bruce Archer|Bruce Archer]] also taught at Ulm, and another influential teacher was [[Horst Rittel]].<ref>Rith, C. and Dubberly, H. (2007) "Why Horst W J Rittel Matters", ''Design Issues'', '''23''', 72–91</ref> In 1963 Rittel moved to the School of Architecture at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], where he helped found the Design Methods Group, a society focused on developing and promoting new methods especially in architecture and planning.
At the end of the 1960s two influential, but quite different works were published: [[Herbert A. Simon]]'s ''The Sciences of the Artificial'' and [[John Christopher Jones|J. Christopher Jones]]'s ''Design Methods''.<ref>Simon, H. A. (1969) ''The Sciences of the Artificial'', MIT Press, USA.</ref><ref>Jones, J. C. (1970) ''Design Methods: Seeds of Human Futures'', Wiley, UK</ref> Simon proposed the "science of design" as "a body of intellectually tough, analytic, partly formalizable, partly empirical, teachable doctrine about the design process", whereas Jones catalogued a variety of approaches to design, both rational and creative, within a context of a broad, futures creating, systems view of design.
The 1970s saw some reaction against the rationality of design methods, notably from two of its pioneers, [[Christopher Alexander]] and [[John Christopher Jones|J. Christopher Jones]].<ref>Cross, N. (1984) ''Developments in Design Methodology'', Wiley, UK.</ref> Fundamental issues were also raised by Rittel, who characterised design and planning problems as [[wicked problems]], un-amenable to the techniques of science and engineering, which deal with "tame" problems.<ref>Rittel, H. and M. Webber (1973) "Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning", ''Policy Sciences'' '''4''', 155–169</ref> The criticisms turned some in the movement away from rationalised approaches to design problem solving and towards "argumentative", participatory processes in which designers worked in partnership with the problem stakeholders (clients, customers, users, the community). This led to [[participatory design]], [[user centered design]] and the role of [[design thinking]] as a creative process in problem solving and innovation.
However, interest in systematic and rational design methods continued to develop strongly in engineering design during the 1980s; for example, through the Conference on Engineering Design series of The Design Society and the work of the [[Verein Deutscher Ingenieure]] association in Germany, and also in Japan, where the Japanese Society for the Science of Design had been established as early as 1954.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://iasdr.net/member-societies/ | title=IASDR}}</ref> Books on systematic engineering design methods were published in Germany and the UK.<ref>Hubka, V. (1982) ''Principles of Engineering Design'', Butterworth Scientific Press, UK.</ref><ref>Pahl, G. and W. Beitz (1984) ''Engineering Design: a systematic approach'', Springer/Design Council, UK.</ref><ref>Hubka, V., Andreasen, M. M. and Eder, W. E. (1988) ''Practical Studies in Systematic Design'', Butterworth, UK</ref><ref>Cross, N. (1989) ''Engineering Design Methods'', Wiley, UK.</ref> In the USA the [[American Society of Mechanical Engineers]] Design Engineering Division began a stream on design theory and methodology within its annual conferences. The interest in systematic, rational approaches to design has led to [[design science]] and [[design science (methodology)]] in engineering and computer science.
==Methods and processes==
The development of design methods has been closely associated with prescriptions for a systematic process of designing. These process models usually comprise a number of phases or stages, beginning with a statement or recognition of a problem or a need for a new design and culminating in a finalised solution proposal. In his 'Systematic Method for Designers' [[L. Bruce Archer]] produced a very elaborate, 229 step model of a systematic design process for industrial design,<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.dubberly.com/concept-maps/archers-design-process.html | title=Bruce Archer's Design Process Checklist}}</ref> but also a summary model consisting of three phases: Analytical phase (programming and data collection, analysis), Creative phase (synthesis, development), and Executive phase (communication). The UK's [[Design Council]]
In the [[engineering design process]] systematic models tend to be linear, in sequential steps, but acknowledging the necessity of iteration. In architectural design, process models tend to be cyclical and spiral, with iteration as essential to progression towards a final design. In industrial and product design, process models tend to comprise a sequence of stages of divergent and convergent thinking. The Dubberly Design Office has compiled examples of more than 80 design process models,<ref>Dubberly, H. (2004) ''How do you design: a compendium of models''. Dubberly Design Office, San Francisco, USA. http://www.dubberly.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/ddo_designprocess.pdf</ref> but it is not an exhaustive list.
Within these process models
[[Nigel Cross]] outlined eight stages in a process of engineering product design, each with an associated method: Identifying Opportunities - User Scenarios; Clarifying Objectives - Objectives Tree; Establishing Functions - Function Analysis; Setting Requirements - Performance Specification; Determining Characteristics - Quality Function Deployment; Generating Alternatives - Morphological Chart; Evaluating Alternatives - Weighted Objectives; Improving Details - Value Engineering.<ref>Cross, N. (2008) ''Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design''. Wiley, UK.</ref>
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