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{{Short description|Period of civil unrest in France in 1968}}
{{About|the 1968 civil unrest in France|other events|May 1968|the Joan Miró painting|May 1968 (Miró){{!}}''May 1968'' (Miró)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox civil conflict
| title = May 1968 events in France
| partof = the [[Protests of 1968]] and the [[Cold War]]
| image = {{multiple image
| perrow = 1/2
| border = infobox
| total_width = 300
| image1 = 11-12.06.68 Mai 68. Nuit d'émeutes. Manif. Barricades.Dégâts (1968) - 53Fi1037.jpg
| image2 = Paris July 1968.jpg
| image3 = 1968-05 Évènements de mai à Bordeaux - Rue Paul-Bert 2.jpg
}}
| caption = Top: Protest in [[Toulouse]], 12 June 1968; bottom left: posters in Paris; barricades in [[Bordeaux]], May 1968
| date = 2 May – 23 June 1968<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|year1=1968|month1=05|day1=02|year2=1968|month2=6|day2=23}})
| place = [[France]]
| coordinates =
| causes =
| goals =
| methods = [[Occupation (protest)|Occupation]]s, [[wildcat strike]]s, [[general strike]]s
| status =
| result = [[1968 French legislative election|Snap legislative election]]
| side1 = [[List of political parties in France|'''Opposition:''']]
* [[Anarchism in France|Anarchists]]
* [[French Communist Party]]
* [[Situationist International]]
* [[Council for Maintaining the Occupations]]
* [[Federation of the Democratic and Socialist Left]]
'''[[Student activism|Students:]]'''
*[[Union Nationale des Étudiants de France]]
*[[Sorbonne Occupation Committee]]
'''[[Trade union|Unions:]]'''
*[[General Confederation of Labour (France)|CGT]]
*[[Workers' Force|FO]]
| side2 = {{flagicon|France}} '''[[Government of France|Government]]'''
*[[Minister of the Interior (France)|Ministry of the Interior]]
**[[Police nationale]]
**[[Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité]]
*[[French Armed Forces]]
*[[Union of Democrats for the Republic]]
'''Supporter'''
*[[Occident (movement)|Occident]]
| side3 =
| leadfigures1 = '''Non-centralized leadership'''<br />Some notable people participating:<br />[[François Mitterrand]]<br />[[Pierre Mendès France]]
| leadfigures2 = '''[[Charles de Gaulle]]'''<br /><small>([[President of France]])</small><br />[[Georges Pompidou]]<br /><small>([[Prime Minister of France]])</small>
| leadfigures3 =
| howmany1 =
| howmany2 =
| howmany3 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
| casualties3 =
| fatalities = 2 (only 25 May)<ref name="Eugene Register-Guard – Google News Archive Search">{{cite news | url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=3rNVAAAAIBAJ&pg=6508%2C6329247 |title = France Feared On Brink of Civil War| newspaper=[[The Register-Guard]]|___location=[[Eugene, Oregon]]|date=May 25, 1968|volume=101|issue=124|via=[[Google News Archive]]|quote=Two persons were reported killed in the fighting Friday night and early today, more than 1,000 injured and more than 1,000 arrested.<br>Police said in Paris battles alone 795 persons were arrested and that the hospitals and the Red Cross treated 447 wounded civilians, 176 of whom were hospitalized. The University of Paris estimated another 400 injuries were not reported.}}</ref>
| injuries = 887+ (only 25 May)<ref name="Eugene Register-Guard – Google News Archive Search" />
| arrests = 1,000+ (only 25 May)<ref name="Eugene Register-Guard – Google News Archive Search" />
| detentions =
| casualties_label =
| notes =
}}
{{Campaignbox Protests of 1968}}
{{Students rights sidebar}}
'''May 68''' ({{langx|fr|Mai 68}}) was a period of widespread protests, [[Strike action|strikes]], and [[civil unrest]] in [[France]] that began in May 1968 and became one of the most significant social uprisings in modern European history. Initially sparked by student demonstrations against university conditions and government repression, the movement quickly escalated into a nationwide [[general strike]] involving millions of workers, bringing the country to the brink of [[revolution]]. The events have profoundly shaped French politics, labor relations, and cultural life, leaving a lasting legacy of radical thought and activism.
After [[World War II]], France underwent rapid modernization, economic growth, and urbanization, leading to increased social tensions. (The period from 1945 to 1975 is known as the ''[[Trente Glorieuses]]'', the "Thirty Glorious Years", but it was also a time of exacerbated inequalities and alienation, particularly among students and young workers.) By the late 1960s, France's university system was struggling to accommodate a growing student population, and the rigid structure of academia frustrated students amid a broader discontent with conservative social norms. Inspired by [[Counterculture of the 1960s|countercultural]], [[anti-imperialist]], [[Marxist]], and [[anarchist]] ideologies, students increasingly viewed themselves as part of a revolutionary struggle against capitalism and authoritarianism. At the same time, the French working class was dissatisfied with stagnant wages and poor working conditions, despite growth. The political order, dominated by President [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s [[French Fifth Republic|Fifth Republic]], was seen by many as outdated and repressive.
The movement began with student demonstrations in late March at [[Paris Nanterre University]]. After the police intervened to suppress ongoing activism, Nanterre was shut down on 2 May, and protests moved to the [[Sorbonne University|Sorbonne]] in central Paris. On 6 May, police violently dispersed a student gathering at the Sorbonne, leading to clashes with protesters and mass arrests. As the confrontations escalated, students erected [[barricade]]s, and the night of 10 May saw intense street battles between protesters and police. Public outrage fueled further mobilization, and by 13 May, the protests had evolved into a general strike. About 10 million workers, or two-thirds of the labor force,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-05-11 |title=May 1968: The protests that changed the world |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-05-12/may-1968-protests-changed-the-world-explainer/9752206 |access-date=2025-03-27 |work=ABC News |language=en-AU}}</ref> walked off the job in the largest general strike in French history, shutting down factories, transportation, and public services. Radical leftist groups gained influence, and calls for revolution grew louder. De Gaulle's government struggled to regain control, and on 29 May he briefly left to a French military base in [[West Germany]]. He returned on the next day, dissolved the [[National Assembly (France)|National Assembly]], and called for new elections. By this point, the movement had started to lose momentum. The government, business leaders, and union representatives had negotiated the [[Grenelle agreements]] on 27 May, securing wage increases and concessions. As de Gaulle reasserted authority, the revolutionary moment faded. In the [[1968 French legislative election|elections on 23 June]], his party won a resounding victory, signaling the collapse of the immediate movement.
Though it failed to bring about a revolution, May 68 had profound long-term consequences. The events weakened de Gaulle's authority, and he resigned the following year. The movement led to increased state investment in education and social policies, though radical leftist politics declined in electoral influence. The strikes forced major concessions in labor rights, including wage increases, better working conditions, and expanded social protections. The May 68 movement also contributed to the growth of [[Feminism in France|feminist]], [[environmentalist]], and [[LGBTQ history in France|LGBTQ activism]], and inspired radical thought in philosophy, media, and academia, influencing figures like [[Michel Foucault]] and [[Jean Baudrillard]]. In France, the movement's slogans and imagery remain touchstones of political and social discourse.
==Background==
===Political climate===
In February 1968, the [[French Communist Party]] and the [[French Section of the Workers' International]] formed an electoral alliance. Communists had long supported Socialist candidates in elections, but in the "February Declaration" the two parties agreed to attempt to form a joint government to replace [[President of France|President]] Charles de Gaulle and his Gaullist Party.{{r|mendel196901}}
===University demonstration===
On 22 March, far-left groups, a small number of prominent poets and musicians, and 150 students occupied an administration building at [[Paris X University Nanterre|Paris University at Nanterre]] and held a meeting in the university council room about class discrimination in French society and the political bureaucracy that controlled the university's funding. The university's administration called the police, who surrounded the university. After the publication of their wishes, the students left the building without any trouble. After this, some leaders of what was named the "[[Movement of 22 March]]" were called together by the disciplinary committee of the university.
==Events of May==
===Student protests===
[[File:Paris 75005 Place de la Sorbonne Sainte-Ursule 20041101.jpg|thumb|Public square of [[Sorbonne (building)|the Sorbonne]], in the Latin Quarter of Paris]]
After months of conflicts between students and authorities at the Nanterre campus of the [[University of Paris]] (now [[Paris Nanterre University]]), the administration shut the university down on 2 May 1968.<ref>Rotman, pp. 10–11; Damamme, Gobille, Matonti & Pudal, ed., p. 190.</ref> Students at the University of Paris's Sorbonne campus (today [[Sorbonne University]]) met on 3 May to protest the closure and the threatened expulsion of several Nanterre students.<ref>Damamme, Gobille, Matonti & Pudal, ed., p. 190.</ref> On 6 May, the national student union, the [[Union Nationale des Étudiants de France]] (UNEF, the National Union of Students of France)—still France's largest student union today—and the union of university teachers called a march to protest the police invasion of the Sorbonne. More than 20,000 students, teachers and supporters marched toward the Sorbonne, still sealed off by the police, who charged, wielding their batons, as soon as the marchers approached. While the crowd dispersed, some began to create barricades out of whatever was at hand, while others threw paving stones, forcing the police to retreat for a time. The police then responded with tear gas and charged the crowd again. Hundreds more students were arrested.
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| width = 180
| footer = [[University of Lyon]] during student occupation, May–June 1968
| image1 = Graffito_in_University_of_Lyon_classroom_during_student_revolt_of_1968.jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 = Graffiti in a classroom
| image2 = University_of_Lyon_Law_School_with_graffiti_June_1968.jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 = Graffiti on the school of law, "Vive de Gaulle" (''Long live [[De Gaulle]]'') with, at left, the word "A bas" (''down with'') written across "Vive"
| image3 =
| alt3 =
| caption3 =
| align =
| total_width =
}}
High school student unions spoke in support of the riots on 6 May. The next day, they joined the students, teachers and increasing numbers of young workers who gathered at the [[Arc de Triomphe]] to demand that (1) all criminal charges against arrested students be dropped, (2) the police leave the university, and (3) the authorities reopen Nanterre and Sorbonne.
===Escalating conflict===
Negotiations broke down, and students returned to their campuses after a false report that the government had agreed to reopen them, only to discover the police still occupying the schools. This led to near revolutionary fervor among the students.
On 10 May, another huge crowd congregated on the [[Rive Gauche]]. When the [[Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité]] again blocked them from crossing the river, the crowd again threw up barricades, which the police then attacked at 2:15 a.m. after negotiations once again floundered. The confrontation, which produced hundreds of arrests and injuries, lasted until dawn. The events were broadcast on radio as they occurred and the aftermath shown on television the next day. It was alleged that the police had participated in the riots, through ''[[agents provocateurs]]'', by burning cars and throwing [[Molotov cocktail]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/web/article/0,1-0@2-3476,36-885493,0.html |title=Michel Rocard |work=Le Monde.fr |access-date=21 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022053837/http://www.lemonde.fr/web/article/0,1-0@2-3476,36-885493,0.html |archive-date=22 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The government's heavy-handed reaction brought on a wave of sympathy for the strikers. Many of the nation's more mainstream singers and poets joined after the [[police brutality]] came to light. American artists also began voicing support of the strikers. The major left union federations, the [[Confédération Générale du Travail]] (CGT) and the [[Force Ouvrière]] (CGT-FO), called a one-day general strike and demonstration for Monday, 13 May.
Well over a million people marched through Paris that day; the police stayed largely out of sight. Prime Minister [[Georges Pompidou]] personally announced the release of the prisoners and the reopening of the Sorbonne. However, the surge of strikes did not recede. Instead, the protesters became even more active.
When the Sorbonne reopened, students occupied it and declared it an autonomous "people's university". Public opinion at first supported the students, but turned against them after their leaders, invited to appear on national television, "behaved like irresponsible utopianists who wanted to destroy the 'consumer society{{'"}}.{{r|dogan1984}} Nonetheless, in the weeks that followed, approximately 401 popular action committees were set up in Paris and elsewhere to take up grievances against the government and French society, including the [[Sorbonne Occupation Committee]].
===Worker strikes===
[[File:French workers with placard during occupation of their factory 1968.jpg|thumb|left|Strikers in [[Southern France]] with a sign reading "Factory Occupied by the Workers." Behind them is a list of demands, June 1968.]]
By the middle of May, demonstrations extended to factories, though workers' demands significantly varied from students'. A union-led general strike on 13 May included 200,000 in a march. The strikes spread to all sectors of the French economy, including state-owned jobs, manufacturing and service industries, management, and administration. Across France, students occupied university structures and up to one-third of the country's workforce was on strike.<ref name="Maclean2002">{{cite book|last=Maclean|first=M.|title=Economic Management and French Business: From de Gaulle to Chirac|url=https://archive.org/details/economicmanageme0000macl|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-0-230-50399-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/economicmanageme0000macl/page/104 104]}}</ref><!-- possibly see Touraine 1968 and Singer 2002 for more; Gastaut 1994 too; might be citogenesis with the content that was previously unsourced in this paragraph -->
On 24 May, two people died at the hands of rioters. In Lyon, Police Inspector Rene Lacroix died when he was crushed by a driverless truck rioters sent careering into police lines. In Paris, Phillipe Metherion, 26, was stabbed to death during an argument among demonstrators.<ref name="Eugene Register-Guard – Google News Archive Search" />
As the upheaval reached its apogee in late May, major trade unions met with [[employers' organizations]] and the French government to produce the [[Grenelle agreements]], which would increase the minimum wage 35% and all salaries 10%, and granted employee protections and a shortened working day. The unions were forced to reject the agreement, based on opposition from their members, underscoring a disconnect in organizations that claimed to reflect working class interests.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Howell |first1=Chris |chapter=The Importance of May 1968 |title=Regulating Labor: The State and Industrial Relations Reform in Postwar France |pages=67–68 |date=2011 |language=en |isbn=978-1-4008-2079-5 |via=[[Project MUSE]] |publisher=Princeton University Press |chapter-url=http://muse.jhu.edu/book/48288 }}</ref>
The UNEF student union and CFDT trade union held a rally in the [[Charléty stadium]] with about 22,000 attendees. Its range of speakers reflected the divide between student and Communist factions. While the rally was held in the stadium partly for security, the speakers' insurrectionist messages were dissonant with the relative amenities of the sports venue.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Robert W. |chapter=Stadium spectacle beyond 1945 |title=The Stadium Century |year=2016 |language=en |isbn=978-1-5261-0625-4 |publisher=Manchester University Press |chapter-url=http://www.manchesterhive.com/view/9781526106254/9781526106254.xml |page=71}}</ref>
===Calls for new government===
The Socialists saw an opportunity to act as a compromise between de Gaulle and the Communists. On 28 May, [[François Mitterrand]] of the [[Federation of the Democratic and Socialist Left]] declared that "there is no more state" and said he was ready to form a new government. He had received a surprisingly high 45% of the vote in the [[1965 French presidential election|1965 presidential election]]. On 29 May, [[Pierre Mendès France]] also said he was ready to form a new government; unlike Mitterrand, he was willing to include the Communists. Although the Socialists lacked the Communists' ability to form large street demonstrations, they had more than 20% of the country's support.{{r|dogan1984}}{{r|mendel196901}}
===De Gaulle flees===
On the morning of 29 May, de Gaulle postponed the meeting of the [[Council of Ministers of France|Council of Ministers]] scheduled for that day and secretly removed his personal papers from [[Élysée Palace]]. He told his son-in-law [[Alain de Boissieu]]: "I do not want to give them a chance to attack the Élysée. It would be regrettable if blood were shed in my personal defense. I have decided to leave: nobody attacks an empty palace." De Gaulle refused Pompidou's request that he dissolve the [[National Assembly of France|National Assembly]], as he believed that their party, the Gaullists, would lose the resulting election. At 11:00 am, he told Pompidou, "I am the past; you are the future; I embrace you."<ref name="dogan1984">{{Cite journal |last=Dogan |first=Mattei |title=How Civil War Was Avoided in France |journal=International Political Science Review |year=1984 |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=245–277 |jstor=1600894|doi=10.1177/019251218400500304|s2cid=144698270 }}</ref>
The government announced that de Gaulle was going to his country home in [[Colombey-les-Deux-Églises]] before returning the next day, and rumors spread that he would prepare his resignation speech there. However, the presidential helicopter did not arrive in Colombey, and de Gaulle had told no one in the government where he was going. For more than six hours the world did not know where he was.<ref name="singer2002">{{cite book |title=Prelude to Revolution: France in May 1968 |publisher=South End Press |last=Singer |first=Daniel |year=2002 |url=https://archive.org/details/preludetorevolut00sing |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-89608-682-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/preludetorevolut00sing/page/195 195–196], 198–201}}</ref> The canceling of the ministerial meeting and de Gaulle's mysterious disappearance stunned the French,{{r|dogan1984}} including Pompidou, who shouted, "He has fled the country!"<ref name="dogan2005">{{cite book |title=Political Mistrust and the Discrediting of Politicians |publisher=Brill |author=Dogan, Mattéi |year=2005 |page=218 |isbn=9004145303}}</ref>
=== Government collapse ===
With de Gaulle's closest advisors saying they did not know what he intended, Pompidou scheduled a tentative appearance on television at 8 p.m.{{r|singer2002}} The national government had effectively ceased to function. [[Édouard Balladur]] later wrote that as prime minister, Pompidou "by himself was the whole government", as most officials were "an incoherent group of confabulators" who believed that revolution would soon occur. A friend of Pompidou offered him a weapon, saying, "You will need it"; Pompidou advised him to go home. One official reportedly began burning documents, while another asked an aide how far they could flee by automobile should revolutionaries seize fuel supplies. Withdrawing money from banks became difficult, gasoline for private automobiles was unavailable, and some people tried to obtain private planes or fake [[National identity card (France)|national identity card]]s.{{r|dogan1984}}
Pompidou unsuccessfully requested that military radar be used to follow de Gaulle's two helicopters, but soon learned that he had gone to the headquarters of the [[French Forces in Germany]], in [[Baden-Baden]], to meet General [[Jacques Massu]]. Massu persuaded the discouraged de Gaulle to return to France; now knowing that he had the military's support, de Gaulle rescheduled the meeting of the Council of Ministers for the next day, 30 May,{{r|dogan1984}} and returned to Colombey by 6:00 pm.{{r|singer2002}} However, his wife [[Yvonne de Gaulle|Yvonne]] gave the family jewels to [[Philippe de Gaulle|their son and daughter-in-law]]—who stayed in Baden for a few more days—for safekeeping, indicating that the de Gaulles still considered Germany a possible refuge. Massu kept as a [[Classified information|state secret]] de Gaulle's loss of confidence until others disclosed it in 1982; until then most observers believed that his disappearance was intended to remind the French people of what they might lose. Although the disappearance was real and not intended as motivation, it indeed had such an effect on France.{{r|dogan1984}}
===Revolution prevented===
[[File:Pierre Messmer01.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Pierre Messmer]]]]
On 30 May, 400,000 to 500,000 protesters (many more than the 50,000 the police were expecting) led by the CGT marched through Paris, chanting: "''Adieu, de Gaulle!''" ("Farewell, de Gaulle!"). [[Maurice Grimaud]], head of the [[Prefecture of Police|Paris police]], played a key role in avoiding revolution by both speaking to and spying on the revolutionaries, and by avoiding the use of force. While Communist leaders later denied that they had planned an armed uprising, and extreme militants only comprised 2% of the populace, they had overestimated de Gaulle's strength, as shown by his escape to Germany.{{r|dogan1984}} Historian Arthur P. Mendel, otherwise skeptical of French Communists' willingness to maintain democracy after forming a government, claims that the "moderate, nonviolent and essentially antirevolutionary" Communists opposed revolution because they sincerely believed that the party must come to power through legal elections, not armed conflict that might provoke harsh repression from political opponents.<ref name="mendel196901">{{cite journal |jstor=1406452 |title=Why the French Communists Stopped the Revolution |last=Mendel |first=Arthur P. |journal=The Review of Politics |date=January 1969 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=3–27 |doi=10.1017/s0034670500008913|s2cid=145306210 }}</ref>
Not knowing that the Communists did not intend to seize power, officials prepared to position police forces at the Élysée with orders to shoot if necessary. That it did not also guard [[Paris City Hall]] despite reports that it was the Communists' target was evidence of governmental chaos.{{r|singer2002}} The Communist movement largely centered around the [[Paris metropolitan area]], and not elsewhere. Had the rebellion occupied key public buildings in Paris, the government would have had to use force to retake them. The resulting casualties could have incited a revolution, with the military moving from the provinces to retake Paris [[Paris Commune|as in 1871]]. [[Minister of Defence (France)|Minister of Defence]] Pierre Messmer and [[Chief of the Defence Staff (France)|Chief of the Defence Staff]] [[Michel Fourquet]] prepared for such an action, and Pompidou had ordered tanks to [[Issy-les-Moulineaux]].{{r|dogan1984}} While the military was free of revolutionary sentiment, using an army mostly of conscripts the same age as the revolutionaries would have been very dangerous for the government.{{r|mendel196901}}{{r|singer2002}} A survey conducted immediately after the crisis found that 20% of Frenchmen said they would have supported a revolution, 23% would have opposed it, and 57% would have avoided physical participation in the conflict. If there had been a military intervention, 33% said they would have fought against it, while only 5% would have supported it, and a majority of the country would have avoided any action.{{r|dogan1984}}
===Election called===
At 2:30 p.m. on 30 May, Pompidou persuaded de Gaulle to dissolve the National Assembly and call a new election by threatening to resign. At 4:30 pm, de Gaulle broadcast his refusal to resign. He announced an election, scheduled for 23 June, and ordered workers to return to work, threatening to institute a [[state of emergency]] if they did not. The government had leaked to the media that the army was outside Paris. Immediately after the speech, about 800,000 supporters marched through the Champs-Élysées waving the [[Flag of France|national flag]]; the Gaullists had planned the rally for several days, which attracted a crowd of diverse ages, occupations, and politics. The Communists agreed to the election, and the threat of revolution was over.{{r|dogan1984}}{{r|singer2002}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://membres.lycos.fr/mai68/degaulle/degaulle30mai1968.htm |title=Lycos |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422060607/http://membres.lycos.fr/mai68/degaulle/degaulle30mai1968.htm |archive-date=22 April 2009 }}</ref>
==Aftermath==
===Protest suppression and elections===
From that point, the revolutionary feeling of the students and workers faded away. Workers gradually returned to work or were ousted from their plants by police. The national student union called off street demonstrations. The government banned several leftist organizations. The police retook the Sorbonne on 16 June. Contrary to de Gaulle's fears, his party won the greatest victory in French parliamentary history in the [[1968 French legislative election|legislative election held in June]], taking 353 of 486 seats to the Communists' 34 and the Socialists' 57.{{r|dogan1984}} The February Declaration and its promise to include Communists in government likely hurt the Socialists in the election. Their opponents cited the example of the [[National Front (Czechoslovakia)|Czechoslovak National Front]] government of 1945, which led to a [[Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948|Communist takeover of the country]] in 1948. Socialist voters were divided; in a February 1968 survey a majority had favored allying with the Communists, but 44% believed that Communists would attempt to seize power once in government (30% of Communist voters agreed).{{r|mendel196901}}
On [[Bastille Day]], there were resurgent street demonstrations in the Latin Quarter, led by socialist students, leftists and communists wearing red armbands and anarchists wearing black armbands. The Paris police and the Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité (CRS) harshly responded starting around 10 pm and continuing through the night, on the streets, in police vans, at police stations, and in hospitals where many wounded were taken. There was, as a result, much bloodshed among students and tourists there for the evening's festivities. No charges were filed against police or demonstrators, but the governments of Britain and [[West Germany]] filed formal protests, including for the indecent assault of two English schoolgirls by police in a police station.
===National feelings===
Despite the size of de Gaulle's triumph, it was not a personal one. A post-crisis survey conducted by Mattei Dogan showed that a majority of the country saw de Gaulle as "'too sure of himself' (70%), 'too old to govern' (59%), 'too authoritarian' (64%), 'too concerned with his personal prestige' (69%), 'too conservative' (63%), and 'too anti-American' (69%)"; as the [[1969 French constitutional referendum|April 1969 referendum]] would show, the country was ready for "[[Gaullism]] without de Gaulle".{{r|dogan1984}}
==Legacy==
[[File:Mai 1968. Mai 68 début d'une lutte prolongée, Atelier populaire - affiche - non identifié - btv1b9018074c.jpg|thumb|200px|May 68 - Start of a prolonged struggle ({{lang|fr|Mai 68 - début d'une lutte prolongée}}) - poster by ''Atelier Populaire'' at the [[École des Beaux-Arts]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wells |first=Emily |date=2018-04-24 |title=The Struggle Continues: Atelier Populaire and the Posters of the Paris '68 Uprising |url=https://artillerymag.com/the-struggle-continues-atelier-populaire-and-the-posters-of-the-paris-68-uprising/ |website=Artillery Magazine}}</ref>]]
May 1968 is an important reference point in French politics, representing for some the possibility of liberation and for others the dangers of anarchy.<ref name="Erlanger 2008">{{cite news |last=Erlanger |first=Steven |title=May 1968 – a watershed in French life |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/29/world/europe/29iht-france.4.12440504.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all |access-date=31 August 2012 |newspaper=New York Times |date=29 April 2008}}</ref> For some, May 1968 meant the end of traditional collective action and the beginning of a new era to be dominated mainly by the so-called [[new social movements]].<ref>Staricco, Juan Ignacio (2012) https://www.scribd.com/doc/112409042/The-French-May-and-the-Roots-of-Postmodern-Politics</ref>
Someone who took part in or supported this period of unrest is known as a [[Wiktionary:soixante-huitard|soixante-huitard]] (a "68-er").
==Slogans and graffiti==
[[File:Situationist.jpg|thumb|200px|A slogan reading "[[Il est interdit d'interdire !|It is forbidden to forbid]],"]]
{{lang|fr|Sous les pavés, la plage!}} ("Under the paving stones, the beach!") is a slogan coined by student activist Bernard Cousin<ref name=CousinObit>[https://www.lanouvellerepublique.fr/indre-et-loire/commune/montresor/mai-68-le-createur-de-sous-les-paves-la-plage-est-mort Mai 68 : le créateur de "Sous les pavés, la plage" est mort], at ''[[La Nouvelle République du Centre-Ouest]]''; published April 15, 2014; retrieved June 13, 2018</ref> in collaboration with [[public relations]] expert Bernard Fritsch.<ref name=CNEWS>[http://www.cnews.fr/france/2018-01-26/sous-les-paves-la-plage-il-est-interdit-dinterdire-les-slogans-phares-de-mai-68 «Sous les pavés la plage», «Il est interdit d'interdire»... les slogans phares de mai 68], at [[CNews]]; published January 26, 2018; retrieved June 13, 2018</ref> The phrase became an emblem of the events and movement of the spring of 1968, when the revolutionary students began to build barricades in the streets of major cities by tearing up [[Pavers (flooring)|street pavement stone]]. As the first barricades were raised, the students recognized that the stone [[Sett (paving)|sett]]s were placed atop sand. The slogan encapsulated the movement's views on urbanization and modern society both literally and metaphorically.
Other examples:
*''{{lang|fr|[[Il est interdit d'interdire]]}}'' ("It is forbidden to forbid")<ref name="larousse.fr">{{cite web|url=http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/divers/%C3%A9v%C3%A9nements_de_mai_1968/131140|title=Encyclopédie Larousse en ligne – événements de mai 1968|author=Éditions Larousse|access-date=29 September 2015}}</ref>
*''{{lang|fr|L'imagination au pouvoir}}'' ("Power to the imagination")<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bopsecrets.org/French/graffiti.htm |title=Graffiti de Mai 1968 }}</ref>
*''{{lang|fr|Jouissez sans entraves}}'' ("Enjoy without hindrance")<ref name="larousse.fr"/>
*''{{lang|fr|Élections, piège à con}}'' ("Elections, a trap for idiots")<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tempsreel.nouvelobs.com/l-observateur-de-la-gauche-radicale/20120228.OBS2484/pour-la-gauche-radicale-elections-piege-a-cons.html|title=Pour la gauche radicale, "élections, piège à cons" ?|author=Par Sylvain Boulouque|date=28 February 2012|work=L'Obs|access-date=29 September 2015}}</ref>
* ''[[Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité|CRS]] = [[Waffen-SS|SS]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lexpress.fr/informations/crs-ss_628697.html|title=CRS = SS|access-date=29 September 2015|date = 16 April 1998}}</ref>
* ''{{lang|fr|Je suis Marxiste—tendance Groucho}}'' ("I'm a [[Marxist]]—of the [[Groucho]] persuasion")<ref>{{cite book |title=The Concise Dictionary of Foreign Quotations |last=Lejeune |first=Anthony |year=2001 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=0953330001 |page=74 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3KLz2QEdQaoC&pg=PA74 |access-date=1 December 2010}}</ref>
*''{{lang|fr|[[Marx]], [[Mao]], [[Marcuse]]!}}''<ref>{{cite book |title=Dialectical Imagination |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tTyHOxeCiG4C&q=%22Marx/Mao/Marcuse%22&pg=PR12 |page=xii |year=1996 |author=Martin Jay| publisher=University of California Press |isbn = 9780520917514}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=How Language, Ritual and Sacraments Work: According to John Austin, Jürgen Habermas and Louis-Marie Chauvet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJWTVXRnn00C&q=%22Marx,+Mao,+Marcuse%22&pg=PA80 |page=80 |author=[[Mervyn Duffy]] |access-date=9 March 2015 |isbn=9788878390386 |year=2005 |publisher=Gregorian Biblical BookShop}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Contemporary Social Theory: An Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ETnIAgAAQBAJ&q=%22Marx,+Mao+and+Marcuse%22&pg=66 |page=66 |author=Anthony Elliott |access-date=9 March 2015 |year=2014| publisher=Routledge |isbn = 9781134083237}}</ref> Also known as "3M".<ref>{{cite journal |title=''Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Détente'' by Jeremi Suri |first=Roberto |last=Franzosi |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=111 |pages=1589–1591 |number=5 |date=March 2006 |jstor=10.1086/504653 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |doi=10.1086/504653}}</ref>
* ''{{lang|fr|Cela nous concerne tous.}}'' ("This concerns all of us")
* ''{{lang|fr|Soyez réalistes, demandez l'impossible}}'' ("Be realistic, demand the impossible")<ref>{{cite book |title=The Language of Change: Elements of Therapeutic Communication |last=Watzlawick |first=Paul |year=1993 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=9780393310207 |page=83 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4U2ItyNGvecC&pg=PA83 |access-date=1 December 2010}}</ref>
* "When the National Assembly becomes a bourgeois theater, all the bourgeois theaters should be turned into national assemblies." (Written above the entrance of the occupied [[Odéon]] Theater)<ref>{{Cite book|title=Revolutionary rehearsals|date=2002|publisher=Haymarket Books|last=Barker|first=Colin|isbn=9781931859028|___location=Chicago, Il.|page=23|oclc=154668230}}</ref>
* "I love you!!! Oh, say it with paving stones!!!"<ref name="Knabb">{{cite book |title=Situationist International Anthology |editor=Ken Knabb |year=2006 |publisher=Bureau Of Public Secrets |isbn=9780939682041}}</ref>
* "Read [[Wilhelm Reich|Reich]] and act accordingly!" (University of Frankfurt; similar Reichian slogans were scrawled on the walls of the Sorbonne, and in Berlin students threw copies of Reich's ''[[The Mass Psychology of Fascism]]'' at the police)<ref>Turner, Christopher (2011). ''Adventures in the Orgasmatron''. HarperCollins, pp. 13–14.</ref>
* ''{{lang|fr|Travailleurs la lutte continue[;] constituez-vous en comité de base.}}'' ("Workers[,] the fight continues; form a basic committee.")<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gerrishfineart.com/mai-68,-%27travailleurs-la-lutte-continue%27,-screenprint,-1968~1795 |title=Mai 68, 'Travailleurs La Lutte Continue', Screenprint, 1968 £1,250.00 – Fine Art prints paintings drawings sculpture uk |publisher=Gerrishfineart.com |date= 8 November 2021|accessdate=2022-02-27}}</ref><ref name="libcom posters">{{cite web|url=https://libcom.org/gallery/paris-68-posters|title=Paris 68 posters|website=libcom.org|access-date=2 December 2019|date=3 June 2011}}</ref> or simply ''{{lang|fr|La lutte continue}}'' ("The struggle continues")<ref name="libcom posters"/>
== In popular culture ==
===Cinema===
* [[François Truffaut]]'s film ''[[Baisers volés]]'' (1968) ("Stolen Kisses") takes place in Paris during the time of the riots and while not overtly political, makes passing reference to and depicts the demonstrations.<ref name="Truffaut2008">{{cite book|last=Truffaut|first=François|title=François Truffaut: Interviews|url=https://archive.org/details/franoistruffauti0000truf|url-access=registration|year=2008|publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi|isbn=978-1-934110-14-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/franoistruffauti0000truf/page/13 13]}}</ref>
* [[André Cayatte]]'s film ''[[Mourir d'aimer]]'' (1971) ("To Die of Love") is based on the story of [[Suicide of Gabrielle Russier|Gabrielle Russier]], a classics teacher (played by [[Annie Girardot]]) who committed suicide after being sentenced for having had an affair with one of her students during the events of May 68.
* [[Jean-Luc Godard]]'s film ''[[Tout Va Bien]]'' (1972) examines the continuing [[class struggle]] within French society in the aftermath of May 68.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.timeout.com/london/film/tout-va-bien|title=Tout Va Bien, directed by Jean-Luc Godard and Jean-Pierre Gorin {{!}} Film review|website=Time Out London|date=10 September 2012 |language=en|access-date=9 March 2019}}</ref>
* [[Jean Eustache]]'s film ''[[The Mother and the Whore]]'' (1973), winner of the [[Grand Prix (Cannes Film Festival)|Cannes Grand Prix]], references the events of May 1968 and explores the aftermath of the social movement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sensesofcinema.com/2014/2014-melbourne-international-film-festival-dossier/the-mother-and-the-whore/ |title=The Mother and the Whore |last=Pierquin |first=Martine |date=July 2014 |access-date=1 June 2017 |work=[[Senses of Cinema]]}}</ref>
* [[Claude Chabrol]]'s film ''[[Nada (1974 film)|Nada]]'' (1974) is based symbolically on the events of May 1968.
* [[Diane Kurys]]'s film ''Cocktail Molotov'' (1980) tells the story of a group of French friends heading toward Israel when they hear of the May events and decide to return to Paris.
* [[Louis Malle]]'s film ''[[May Fools]]'' (1990) satirically depicts the effect of the revolutionary fervor of May 1968 on small-town bourgeoisie.
* [[Bernardo Bertolucci]]'s film ''[[The Dreamers (2003 film)|The Dreamers]]'' (2003), based on [[Gilbert Adair]]'s novel ''[[The Holy Innocents (Adair novel)|The Holy Innocents]]'', tells the story of an American university student in Paris during the protests.
* [[Philippe Garrel]]'s film ''[[Regular Lovers]]'' (2005) is about a group of young people participating in the Latin Quarter of Paris barricades and how they continue their life one year after.
* In the spy-spoof ''[[OSS 117: Lost in Rio]]'', the lead character Hubert ironically chides hippie students, "It's 1968. There will be no revolution. Get a haircut."
* [[Olivier Assayas]]'s film ''[[Something in the Air (2012 film)|Something in the Air]]'' (2012) tells the story of a young painter and his friends who bring the revolution to their local school and have to deal with the legal and existential consequences.
* ''[[Redoubtable (film)|Le Redoutable]]'' (2017), a biopic of Godard, covers the 1968 riots/Cannes festival, etc.
* Roman Coppola's film ''[[CQ (film)|CQ]]'' (2001), set in Paris in 1969, is about the making of a science-fiction film, ''Dragonfly'', and shows the director discovering his starring actress during the 1968 demonstrations. During ''Dragonfly'', set in the "future" Paris of 2001, the "1968 troubles" are explicitly mentioned.
* [[Wes Anderson]]'s film ''[[The French Dispatch]]'' (2021) includes a segment, ''Revisions to a Manifesto'', inspired by the protests.
===Music===
* Many of French anarchist singer-songwriter [[Léo Ferré]]'s writings were inspired by those events. Songs directly related to May 1968 include "L'Été 68", "Comme une fille" (1969), "[[Amour Anarchie|Paris je ne t'aime plus]]" (1970), "[[La Violence et l'Ennui]]" (1971), "[[Il n'y a plus rien]]" (1973), and "La Nostalgie" (1979).
* [[Claude Nougaro]]'s song "Paris Mai" (1969).<ref>{{Cite news|issn=0362-4331|last=Riding|first=Alan|title=Claude Nougaro, French Singer, Is Dead at 74|work=The New York Times|access-date=23 November 2015|date=22 March 2004|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/22/arts/claude-nougaro-french-singer-is-dead-at-74.html}}</ref>
* The imaginary Italian clerk described by [[Fabrizio De André]] in his album ''Storia di un impiegato'' is inspired to build a bomb set to explode in front of the Italian parliament by listening to reports of the May events in France, drawn by the perceived dullness and repetitiveness of his life compared to the revolutionary developments unfolding in France.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Giannini|first1=Stefano|title=Storia di un impiegato di Fabrizio De André|work=La Riflessione|date=2005|pages=11–16}}</ref>
* The [[Refused]] song "Protest Song '68" is about the May 1968 protests.<ref>{{Cite book|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-4276-9|last1=Kristiansen|first1=Lars J.|last2=Blaney|first2=Joseph R.|last3= Chidester|first3=Philip J.|last4=Simonds|first4=Brent K.|title=Screaming for Change: Articulating a Unifying Philosophy of Punk Rock| date = 10 July 2012}}</ref>
* [[The Stone Roses]]'s song "Bye Bye Badman", from their [[The Stone Roses (album)|eponymous album]], is about the riots. The album's cover includes the ''tricolore'' and lemons, which were used to nullify the effects of tear gas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.john-squire.com/art/gallery_byebyebadman.html |title=Bye Bye Badman |publisher=John Squire |author=John Squire |access-date=3 November 2009 |archive-date=15 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215100306/http://www.john-squire.com/art/gallery_byebyebadman.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* The music video for [[David Holmes (musician)|David Holmes]]'s song "I Heard Wonders" is based entirely on the May 1968 protests and alludes to the influence of the [[Situationist International]] on the movement.<ref>{{cite web| last = Cole| first = Brendan|title=David Holmes Interview|work=RTE.ie|format=Articles|access-date=23 November 2015|date=25 August 2008|url=http://www.rte.ie/ten/features/2008/0825/414398-davidholmes/}}</ref>
*[[The Rolling Stones]] wrote the lyrics to the song "[[Street Fighting Man]]" (set to music of an unreleased song they had already written with different lyrics) in reference to the May 1968 protests from their perspective, living in a "sleepy London town". The melody was inspired by French police car sirens.<ref>"I wanted the [sings] to sound like a French police siren. That was the year that all that stuff was going on in Paris and in London. There were all these riots that the generation that I belonged to, for better or worse, was starting to get antsy. You could count on somebody in America to find something offensive about something – you still can. Bless their hearts. I love America for that very reason." {{cite web|title=Keith Richards: 'These Riffs Were Built To Last A Lifetime'|work=NPR.org|date=13 November 2012 |access-date=23 November 2015|url= https://www.npr.org/2012/11/13/165033885/keith-richards-these-riffs-were-built-to-last-a-lifetime}}</ref>
*[[Vangelis]] released an album, ''[[Fais que ton rêve soit plus long que la nuit]]'' ("May you make your dreams longer than the night"), about the Paris student riots in 1968. It contains sounds from the demonstrations, songs, and a news report.<ref>{{Cite book|publisher=Lulu Press, Inc|isbn=978-1-4476-2728-9|last=Griffin|first=Mark J. T.|title=Vangelis: The Unknown Man|date=13 March 2013}}</ref>
*[[Ismael Serrano]]'s song "Papá cuéntame otra vez" ("Papa, tell me again") references the May 1968 events: "Papa, tell me once again that beautiful story, of gendarmes and fascists and long-haired students; and sweet urban war in flared trousers, and songs of the Rolling Stones and girls in miniskirts."<ref>{{cite web|last=Mucientes|first=Esther|title=Mayo del 68: La música de la revolución|work=elmundo.es|access-date=23 November 2015|url= http://www.elmundo.es/especiales/2008/04/internacional/mayo_68/canciones/cancion02.html}}</ref>
* The title of Brazilian singer [[Caetano Veloso]]'s "É Proibido Proibir" is a Portuguese translation of the slogan "It is forbidden to forbid". It is a protest song against the [[Brazilian military government|military regime]] that assumed power in Brazil in April 1964.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Brutality Garden: Tropicalia and the Emergence of a Brazilian Counterculture|first=Christopher|last=Dunn|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=2001|page=135}}</ref>
*Many of the slogans from the May 1968 riots were included in [[Luciano Berio]]'s seminal work ''[[Sinfonia (Berio)|Sinfonia]]''.
*The band [[Orchid (hardcore punk band)|Orchid]] references the events of May 68 as well as [[Debord]] in their song "Victory Is Ours".
*[[The 1975]]'s song "[[Love It If We Made It]]" makes reference to the Atelier Populaire's book supporting the events, ''[[Beauty Is in the Street]]''.
===Literature===
* [[James Jones (author)|James Jones]]'s 1971 novel ''[[The Merry Month of May (novel)|The Merry Month of May]]'' tells a story of (fictional) American expatriates caught up in Paris during the events.
* [[Gilbert Adair]]'s 1988 novel ''[[The Holy Innocents (Adair novel)|The Holy Innocents]]'' has a climactic finale on the streets of 1968 Paris. It was adapted for the screen as ''[[The Dreamers (2003 film)|The Dreamers]]'' (2003).
===Art===
*Spanish painter [[Joan Miró]]'s painting [[May 1968 (Miró)|''May 1968'']] was inspired by the events in May 1968 in France.
*''Liberté ? Égalité ? Fraternité ?''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://braunvega.com/picture?/1357/category/4-1968_1949_lima_paris |title=Liberté ? Égalité ? Fraternité ? |last=Braun-Vega |first=Herman |orig-date=1968 |type=Triptych, acrylic on canvas, 146 x 114 cm x 3}}</ref> is a [[triptych]] about May 68 events by Peruvian painter [[Herman Braun-Vega]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=Braun y sus series parisinas |date=1969-06-29 |magazine=El Comercio |url=https://braunvega.com/picture?/470/category/press |___location=Lima |language=es |quote=Un joven pintor peruano, Herman Braun, está alcanzando en París inusitados elogios de crítica mediante una original idea de trabajos seriados de titulos y temas atractivos y de muy buena factura. El primero fue ''Adán y Eva'', hace dos años, seguido al siguiente por ''Libertad, igualidad y fraternidad'', motivado por los conocidos sucesos de Mayo del 68.}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{Libertarian socialism sidebar|Events}}
{{div col}}<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in chronological/alphabetical order ♦♦♦--->
* [[1962 Rangoon University protests]]
* [[1968 Columbia University protests]]
* [[1968 Polish political crisis]]
* [[Strike of ORTF technicians and journalists in May-June 1968|1968 May-June strike of ORTF technicians and journalists]]
* [[1968–1969 Japanese university protests]]
* [[Mexican Movement of 1968]]
** [[Tlatelolco massacre]]
* [[1973 Thai popular uprising]], [[Thailand]]
* [[6 October 1976 massacre]], [[Thailand]]
* [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre]]
* [[Black May (1992)|1992 Black May]], [[Thailand]]
* [[2005 civil unrest in France]]
* [[2006 Thai coup d'état]]
* [[2006 youth protests in France]]
* [[anti-austerity movement in Spain|2011 anti-austerity movement in Spain]] (Movimiento 15-M).
* [[2020 Thai protests]]
* [[2020–21 Belarusian protests]]
* [[8888 Uprising]]
* [[Autonomism]]
* [[Enragés]]
* [[Euromaidan]]
* [[First Quarter Storm]]
* ''[[On the Poverty of Student Life]]''
* [[Report on the Construction of Situations]]
* [[Quiet Revolution]]
* [[Saffron Revolution]]
* [[Socialisme ou Barbarie]]
* [[Sunflower Student Movement]], [[Taiwan]]
* [[Taksim Gezi Park protests]]
* [[U Thant funeral crisis]]
* [[Yellow Vests Movement]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book |title=Mai-juin 68 |year=2008 |publisher=Éditions de l'Atelier |isbn=978-2708239760 |editor1=Damamme, Dominique |editor2=Gobille, Boris |editor3=Matonti, Frédérique |editor4=Pudal, Bernard |language=fr}}
*{{cite book |last=Rotman |first=Patrick |title=Mai 68 raconté à ceux qui ne l'ont pas vécu |year=2008 |publisher=Seuil |isbn=978-2021127089 |language=fr}}
{{Refend|colwidth=30em}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*Abidor, Mitchell. ''May Made Me. An Oral History of the 1968 Uprising in France'' (interviews).
*Adair, Gilbert. ''The Holy Innocents'' (novel).
*[[Julian Bourg|Bourg, Julian]]. ''From Revolution to Ethics: May 1968 and Contemporary French Thought''. (2nd ed 2017) [https://www.amazon.com/Revolution-Ethics-Second-Contemporary-Thought/dp/0773550453/ excerpt]
*Casevecchie, Janine. ''MAI 68 en photos:'', Collection Roger-Viollet, Editions du Chene – Hachette Livre, 2008.
*[[Cornelius Castoriadis|Castoriadis, Cornelius]] with [[Claude Lefort]] and [[Edgar Morin]]. ''Mai 1968: la brèche''.
*[[Tony Cliff|Cliff, Tony]] and [[Ian Birchall|Birchall, Ian]]. ''France – the struggle goes on''. [http://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1968/france/index.htm Full text at marxists.org]
*[[Cohn-Bendit, Daniel]]. ''Obsolete Communism: The Left-Wing Alternative''.
*Dark Star Collective. ''Beneath the Paving Stones: Situationists and the Beach, May 68''.
*DeRoo, Rebecca J. ''The Museum Establishment and Contemporary Art: The Politics of Artistic Display in France after 1968''.
*Feenberg, Andrew and Jim Freedman. ''When Poetry Ruled the Streets''.
*[[Ferlinghetti, Lawrence]]. ''Love in the Days of Rage'' (novel).
*Gregoire, Roger and [[Fredy Perlman|Perlman, Fredy]]. ''Worker-Student Action Committees: France May '68''. [https://libcom.org/files/Worker-student%20action%20committees,%20France%20May%20%2768%20-%20Roger%20Gregoire%20and%20Fredy%20Perlman.pdf PDF of the text]
*[[Harman, Chris]]. ''The Fire Last Time: 1968 and After''. London: Bookmarks, 1988.
*Jones, James. ''The Merry Month of May'' (novel).
*[[Ken Knabb|Knabb, Ken]]. ''[[Situationist International Anthology]]'' [http://www.bopsecrets.org/SI/index.htm Full text at bopsecrets.org].
*[[Kurlansky, Mark]]. ''1968: The Year That Rocked The World''.
* Perreau-Saussine, Emile. "Liquider mai 68?", in Les droites en France (1789–2008), CNRS Editions, 2008, p. 61–68, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110719141447/http://www.polis.cam.ac.uk/contacts/staff/eperreausaussine/liquider_mai_68.pdf PDF]
*[[Sadie Plant|Plant, Sadie]]. ''[[The Most Radical Gesture: The Situationist International in a Postmodern Age]]''.
*{{cite book |last1=Quattrochi |first1=Angelo |last2=Nairn |first2=Tom |title=The Beginning of the End |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-1859842904 |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningofendfr00quat}}
*[[Kristin Ross|Ross, Kristin]]. ''May '68 and its Afterlives''.
*Schwarz, Peter. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2008/may2008/may1-m28.shtml '1968: The general strike and the student revolt in France']. 28 May 2008. Retrieved 12 June 1010. [[World Socialist Web Site]].
*[[Seale, Patrick]] and Maureen McConville. ''Red Flag/Black Flag: French Revolution 1968''.
*Seidman, Michael. ''The Imaginary Revolution: Parisian Students and Workers in 1968'' (Berghahn, 2004).
*[[Daniel Singer (journalist)|Singer, Daniel]]. ''Prelude To Revolution: France In May 1968''.
*Staricco, Juan Ignacio. ''[https://www.scribd.com/doc/94247008/The-French-May-and-the-Shift-of-Paradigm-of-Collective-Action The French May and the Shift of Paradigm of Collective Action]''.
*[[Alain Touraine|Touraine, Alain]]. ''The May Movement: Revolt and Reform''.
*The Atelier Popularie. [[Beauty Is in the Street]]: A Visual Record of the May 68 Uprising.
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Sister project links |wikt=no |c=Category:May 1968 protests in France |n=no |q=May 1968 |s=no |b=no |v=no |d=y}}{{Portal|France|1960s}}
===Archival collections===
*[http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt196nc927/ Guide to the Paris Student Revolt Collection.] Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.
*[http://digitalcollections.vicu.utoronto.ca/RS/pages/search.php?search=special:paris%20posters Paris 1968 Posters] Digital Collections | Victoria University Library in the University of Toronto
*[https://digitalcollections.vicu.utoronto.ca/RS/pages/search.php?search=%22special:%20paris%20documents%22 Paris 1968 Documents] Digital Collections | Victoria University Library in the University of Toronto
*[http://library.vicu.utoronto.ca/collections/special_collections/paris_posters/ Paris, Posters of a Revolution Collection] Special Collections | Victoria University Library in the University of Toronto
*[http://edocs.lib.sfu.ca/projects/mai68/ May Events Archive of Documents]
*[https://www.marxists.org/history/france/may-1968/index.htm Paris May–June 1968 Archive] at [[marxists.org]]
===Others===
*[http://city-journal.org/2008/18_2_spring_1968.html May 1968: 40 Years Later, ''City Journal,'' Spring 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080505222323/http://www.city-journal.org/2008/18_2_spring_1968.html |date=5 May 2008 }}
*[http://libcom.org/library/May-68-Solidarity Maurice Brinton, Paris May 1968]
*[http://www.sens-public.org/spip.php?article472 Chris Reynolds, ''May 68: A Contested History'', ''Sens Public'']
*[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=90330162 Marking the French Social Revolution of 1968], an NPR audio report
*[https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/30/world/europe/30france.html?_r=1&oref=slogin Barricades of May '68 Still Divide the French] New York Times
{{1968 protests}}
{{Charles de Gaulle}}
{{Anarchism}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:May 1968 Events In France}}
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[[Category:Far-left politics]]
[[Category:Rebellions in France]]
[[Category:Trotskyism in France]]
[[Category:General strikes in France]]
[[Category:History of anarchism]]
[[Category:History of socialism]]
[[Category:Labor disputes in France]]
[[Category:Protests in France]]
[[Category:Political riots in France]]
[[Category:Socialism in France]]
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