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The development of memory in children becomes evident within the first 3 years of a child's life as they show considerable advances in [[declarative memory]], a child's memory throughout their development.<ref name="Learning & memory">{{Cite book|title=Learning & memory|date=2003|publisher=Macmillan Reference USA|others=Byrne, John H.|isbn=0-02-865619-9|edition=2nd|___location=New York|oclc=49977789}}</ref> This enhancement continues into adolescence with major developments in [[short term memory]], [[working memory]], [[long term memory]] and [[autobiographical memory]].<ref name="bad">{{cite book|last=Siegler|first=R. S.|title=Children's Thinking|year=1998|publisher=Prentice Hall|___location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|edition=3rd|authorlink=Robert S. Siegler|isbn=978-0-13-397910-7}}{{page needed|date=August 2016}}</ref>
The development of memory in adults, especially older adults, is often seen more negatively. Most adults will face symptoms of memory loss in both their short- and long-term memory; Alzheimer's is a prime example of this.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jørgensen|first1=Isabella Friis|last2=
Recent research on the development of memory has indicated that declarative, or explicit memory, may exist in infants who are even younger than two years old. For example, newborns who are less than 3 days old demonstrate a preference for their mother's own voice, demonstrating the significance of a strong and powerful connection to the mother.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=DeCasper |first1=A. |last2=Fifer |first2=W. |title=Of human bonding: newborns prefer their mothers' voices |journal=Science |volume=208 |issue=4448 |pages=1174–6 |year=1980 |pmid=7375928 |doi=10.1126/science.7375928 |bibcode=1980Sci...208.1174D |citeseerx=10.1.1.553.1738 }}</ref>
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===Central executive===
Central executive is an integral of the working memory, and involves the all- inclusive attentional control of the working memory system.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> Initially Professor in Psychology Robert V. Kail and Professor Meghan Saweikis inferred that the central executive had an important role of storing some information and that the central executive reinforced long-term memory and has the potential to designate resources for focusing, dividing and switching attention.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> Currently the model of the central executive excludes the possibility of any type of memory storage.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> However, it does include the understanding that it does have a responsibility for the control and reinforcement of attention.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Baddeley, Alan D., 1934-|title=The psychology of memory|date=1976|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=0-465-06736-0|oclc=2118601}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Baddeley|first=Alan|title=Working Memory, Thought, and Action|chapter=What limits working memory span?|date=2007-03-15|pages=189–210|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198528012.003.0011|isbn=978-0-19-852801-2}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Baddeley|first=Alan|date=November 2000|title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=4|issue=11|pages=417–423|doi=10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01538-2|pmid=11058819|s2cid=14333234|issn=1364-6613|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Learning & memory"/> In children from 2–4, the memory storage capacity limitation constrains complex comprehension processes. As the child grows older however, less processing is necessary which opens more storage space for memory.<ref name="gather">{{cite journal |last1=Gathercole |first1=Susan E. |title=The Development of Memory |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=3–27 |year=1998 |pmid=9534084 |doi=10.1111/1469-7610.00301 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eacott |first1=M. J. |last2=Crawley |first2=R. A. |title=The offset of childhood amnesia: Memory for events that occurred before age 3 |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=127 |issue=1 |year=1998 |pages=22–33 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.127.1.22 |pmid=9503650}}</ref><ref name=pmid17654279>{{cite journal |last1=Jack |first1=Fiona |last2=Hayne |first2=Harlene |title=Eliciting adults' earliest memories: Does it matter how we ask the question? |journal=Memory |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=647–63 |year=2007 |pmid=17654279 |doi=10.1080/09658210701467087 |s2cid=5775522 }}</ref>
===Phonological loop===
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The episodic buffer is something that was added to Baddeley’ s working model in memory in the year 2000.<ref name=":1" /> It is believed to act as a connector of various sources within the memory process. The episodic buffer is a developing concept that is being researched and refined.
In his initial paper, Professor of Psychology Alan Baddeley detailed what he believes to be the biological functioning, ___location, and purpose of the episodic buffer.<ref name=":1" /> The purpose of the episodic buffer is to serve as a bridge between both Working memory and Long-Term-Memory, specifically Episodic Memory. It is believed to be more temporary in its storage capabilities, but nonetheless helps form new information and lasting memory. Since it combines several elements of memory, one could in theory say it is a distributed system.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baddeley|first=Alan|date=November 2000|title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|language=en|volume=4|issue=11|pages=417–423|doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2|pmid=11058819|s2cid=14333234|doi-access=free}}</ref> The limits of its abilities in storage have yet to be determined. Other issues include identifying the differences between the Episodic Buffer and Episodic Memory, as well as showing how important and essential the Episodic Buffer is to the Working Model of Memory.
==Long-term memory==
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A surprising finding was that within the same age group of 2 to 3 months, infants could also remember an event or memory that was forgotten over the years.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> The infant experienced this recollection by a certain factor that might have sparked that forgotten memory.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> These impressive findings were found by testing the kicking of infants. Researchers placed a mobile over the infant's crib and a ribbon that connects the infant's leg to the mobile.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> The infants demonstrated to the researchers that they were learning the connection between their kicking and the mobile's movement.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> Once the allotted time passed, the infant's leg was attached once more to the mobile.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> Two types of ideas were formed; supposing that the child could energetically start kicking, would lead to the assumption that the infant remembered the connection between the mobile's movement and the childs kicking. Now, if the infant's kicking gingerly become more energetic, that would presume that the infant is relearning the connection, which would suggest that the infant has forgotten the connection made.<ref name="Learning & memory"/>
The study also indicated that the infant could remember the connection for up to 14 days.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> However, once certain time has passed the infant's leg is once again connected to the mobile's movement with a ribbon to test of the infant recalled what to do.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> The infant did not remember what to do, and they were introduced to a certain factor that would aid the infant to remember.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> According to Professor Robert
Infants who are 5 months or older are able to use emotions to influence their memories. However, at this age, infants will be more likely to remember things that were characterized by positive emotions. Numerous mechanisms that are used to study and infer memory in children cannot be used on infants, due to the process the study is retrieved, which include writing or speaking.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> The way that researchers study the memory capabilities of infants in this age range is through measuring eye movements between test images presented. After doing this initial round of testing, the researchers would conduct follow-up tests both 5 minutes later and one day later. The follow-up tests shown to the infants included two geometric shapes: one from the original test, and a new shape. The researchers were able to record how long the infants looked at the images in the follow-up tests and measured how long the infants stared at each shape. The infants were more likely to gaze at the geometric shapes from the original tests if they had been paired with positive voices than if they had been paired with neutral or negative voices. This study indicated that infants at this age would be able to better remember shapes and patterns of things if they were associated with positive emotions because positivity would increase the infants' interest and attention.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Flom |first1=Ross |last2=Janis |first2=Rebecca B. |last3=Garcia |first3=Darren J. |last4=Kirwan |first4=C. Brock |title=The effects of exposure to dynamic expressions of affect on 5-month-olds' memory |journal=Infant Behavior and Development |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=752–9 |year=2014 |pmid=25459793 |doi=10.1016/j.infbeh.2014.09.006 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sullivan|first1=Margaret Wolan|last2=Lewis|first2=Michael|date=April 2003|title=Emotional Expressions of Young Infants and Children: A Practitionerʼs Primer|journal=Infants & Young Children|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=120–142|doi=10.1097/00001163-200304000-00005|s2cid=17383258|issn=0896-3746|doi-access=free}}</ref>
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Infants at as early as 7-months-old can conceptually differentiate between categories such as animals and vehicles. Although infants’ concepts may be crude by adult standards, they still allow infants to make meaningful semantic distinctions. An example is that infants can differentiate between items belonging to a kitchen and those items belonging to a bathroom.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mandler |first1=Jean M. |last2=Fivush |first2=Robyn |last3=Reznick |first3=J. Steven |title=The development of contextual categories |journal=Cognitive Development |volume=2 |issue=4 |year=1987 |pages=339–54 |doi=10.1016/S0885-2014(87)80012-6 }}</ref> At the very least, these categories lay a foundation for early knowledge development, organizing information in storage and influence future encoding. Infants from 16 months old are able to draw on their semantic knowledge in [[generalization]] and [[inference]]. This knowledge can also be used by older toddlers, 24-month-olds, to facilitate acquisition and retention of new information. Their knowledge of causal ordering of events can be used to help to recall the sequence of events.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Henry, Lucy.|title=The development of working memory in children|date=2011|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-84787-329-3|oclc=926809576}}</ref> Infants have the ability to recall experiences after some time or demonstrate that they have a forming cognitive process.<ref name="Henry, Lucy. 2012">{{Cite book|last=Henry, Lucy.|title=The development of working memory in children|date=2012|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-4462-5419-6|___location=Los Angeles|oclc=797817779}}</ref><ref name="Flavell 324–340">{{Cite journal|last1=Flavell|first1=John H|last2=Friedrichs|first2=Ann G|last3=Hoyt|first3=Jane D|date=October 1970|title=Developmental changes in memorization processes|journal=Cognitive Psychology|language=en|volume=1|issue=4|pages=324–340|doi=10.1016/0010-0285(70)90019-8}}</ref>
Pre-school children can be heavily inaccurate in recalling words or numbers they have just learned.<ref name="Flavell 324–340"/><ref name="Henry, Lucy. 2012"/> Children are more able to recall information, which according to Professor Lucy Henry (2011) children can “predict” memory performance if they have an online experience with a task.<ref name="Henry, Lucy. 2012"/> What led to this conclusion was the children were given a tape recorder with 10 words, the kids were asked to stop the tape recorder once they thought they could remember all the words mentioned.<ref name="Henry, Lucy. 2012"/> According to the study 17% children predicted that they knew all 10 words mentioned.<ref name="Henry, Lucy. 2012"/>
Knowledge itself will not alter retention performance, rather how well that knowledge is structured will alter performance. Better retention was shown with information that had greater cohesion and more elaborative elements. Familiarity and repetition of an experience can also influence the organization of information in storage for preschoolers and older children.<ref name="fivush" /> Children who experienced an event twice recalled the event better 3 months later than did children who only experienced it once and showed equally good recall at 3 months compared to recall at 2 weeks after experiences.<ref name="swrtc.nmsu.edu">{{Cite web|url=https://swrtc.nmsu.edu/cli-2/pastconferences/2017-2/agenda/childtraumatic/|title=Child Traumatic Memory and the Testimony of Children {{!}} Southwest Regional Training Center {{!}} New Mexico State University|language=en|access-date=2020-03-30}}</ref>
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=== Adults ===
Memory tends to begin to fade as when enter and go through adulthood. Professor Ane-Victoria Idland et al.,<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Idland|first1=Ane-Victoria|last2=Sala-Llonch|first2=Roser|last3=Watne|first3=Leiv Otto|last4=Brækhus|first4=Anne|last5=Hansson|first5=Oskar|last6=Blennow|first6=Kaj|last7=Zetterberg|first7=Henrik|last8=Sørensen|first8=Øystein|last9=Walhovd|first9=Kristine Beate|last10=Wyller|first10=Torgeir Bruun|last11=Fjell|first11=Anders Martin|date=September 2020|title=Biomarker profiling beyond amyloid and tau: cerebrospinal fluid markers, hippocampal atrophy, and memory change in cognitively unimpaired older adults|journal=Neurobiology of Aging|language=en|volume=93|pages=1–15|doi=10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.04.002|pmid=32438258|s2cid=215767584|doi-access=free|hdl=2445/177677|hdl-access=free}}</ref> investigated the biological factors that begin to form in a person's older life and examined biological markers that could help explain the decrease in memory. They focused on beta amyloid 1–42 (Aβ42), phosphorylated tau (P-tau), total tau, chitinase-3-like protein 1 (YKL-40), fatty acid binding protein 3 (FABP3), and neurofilament light (NFL),<ref name=":0" /> and their findings suggest that tauopathy and FABP3 tended to be associated with the most memory decline. As individuals age, the hippocampus appears to begin to lose its ability to make connections to life events and memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dahan|first1=Lionel|last2=Rampon|first2=Claire|last3=Florian|first3=Cédrick|date=August 2020|title=Age-related memory decline, dysfunction of the hippocampus and therapeutic opportunities|journal=Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry|language=en|volume=102|pages=109943|doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.109943|pmid=32298784|s2cid=215753906|doi-access=free}}</ref>
==Episodic memory==
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By school age, the typical child shows skill in recalling details of past experiences and in organizing those details into a [[narrative]] form with [[:wikt:cohesion|cohesion]]. Memories formed at this age and beyond are more likely to stand the test of time over the years and be recalled in adulthood, compared to earlier memories. Young children can sometimes retain information from specific episodes over very long periods of time, but the particular information a child of a particular age is likely to retain over different periods of time is unpredictable. This depends on the nature of the memory event and individual differences in the child such as gender, parental style of communication, and language ability.<ref name="fivush">{{cite journal |last1=Fivush |first1=Robyn |last2=Gray |first2=Jacquelyn T. |last3=Fromhoff |first3=Fayne A. |title=Two-year-old talk about the past |journal=Cognitive Development |volume=2 |issue=4 |year=1987 |pages=393–409 |doi=10.1016/S0885-2014(87)80015-1 }}</ref>
One of the most important aspects of episodic memory according to Psychologist Endel Tulving (1985, 1999) is the element of the individual to cognitively travel to both the past and the future.<ref name="John Wiley & Sons Ltd">{{Cite book|title=The Wiley Handbook on the Development of Children's Memory: Bauer/The Wiley|date=2013-10-07|publisher=John Wiley & Sons Ltd|isbn=978-1-118-59770-5|editor-last=Bauer|editor-first=Patricia J.|___location=Chichester, UK|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781118597705|editor-last2=Fivush|editor-first2=Robyn}}</ref> A studied yet still speculative thought about episodic memory in children is the lack of and anticipated episodic.<ref name="John Wiley & Sons Ltd"/> This suggests that children are more susceptible and successful in remembering certain events (e.g., what are you going to have for lunch, what will you play with in the park, etc.), not because they traveled in both past and future, but that parents are the ones’ who generally organize the day, meaning they are the ones who have control over their children's futures.<ref name="John Wiley & Sons Ltd"/>
As with all forms of memory, Episodic Memory is known to also decline with age. However, it can also be said that biological factors such as one's sex also affects how Episodic memory develops and degrades. In a study done by Professor Astri J. Lundervold et al.,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lundervold|first1=Astri J.|last2=Wollschläger|first2=Daniel|last3=Wehling|first3=Eike|date=June 2014|title=Age and sex related changes in episodic memory function in middle aged and older adults|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Psychology|language=en|volume=55|issue=3|pages=225–232|doi=10.1111/sjop.12114|pmc=4314696|pmid=24601911}}</ref> they decided to investigate the possible reasons behind this. Their findings through several longitudinal and cross-sectional studies found that as mentioned that Episodic memory does decrease with age. In regards to sex they found that women tend to have a slightly lower decrease rate of Episodic Memory than men, -.12 compared to -.14 units. They study however didn't go into other variables such as social-economical-status in regards to how this might affect the decrease rates in age and sex.
==Autobiographical memory==
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Difficulty in assessing memory in young children can be attributed to their level of language skills; this is because memory tests usually occur in the form of a verbal report. It is unclear whether performance on memory assessments is due to poor memory for the event or to the inability to express what they remember in words. However, memory tests assessing performance with a nonverbal photograph recognition test and behavioral re-enactment showed that children had signs of recall from 27 months, as opposed to 33 months using verbal recall testing.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Simcock|first1=Gabrielle|last2=Hayne|first2=Harlene|year=2003|title=Age-related changes in verbal and nonverbal memory during early childhood|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=39|issue=5|pages=805–14|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.39.5.805|pmid=12952395}}</ref>
Autobiographical memory development is related to the emotional state of both children and adults. Professor Leslie Rollins et al.(2018), <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rollins|first1=Leslie|last2=Gibbons|first2=Jeffrey A.|last3=Cloude|first3=Elizabeth B.|date=July 2018|title=Affective change greater for unpleasant than pleasant events in autobiographical memory of children and adults: A retrospective study|journal=Cognitive Development|language=en|volume=47|pages=46–52|doi=10.1016/j.cogdev.2018.03.002|s2cid=149260200 }}</ref> showed that particularly bad experiences tended to degrade, to be forgotten, and were more related to difficulties remembering than positive memories.
===Childhood amnesia===
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