|
[[File:Common components of models of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Diagram showing the most common components of models of communication|Many models of communication include the idea that a [[Sending|sender]] encodes a message and uses a channel to transmit it to a receiver. Noise may distort the message along the way. The receiver then decodes the message and gives some form of feedback.{{sfn|Fujishin|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sFrheqNL-ukC&pg=PA8 8]}}]]
'''Models of communication''' simplify or represent the process of [[communication]]. Most modelscommunication [[model]]s try to describe both [[Verbal communication|verbal]] and [[non-verbal communication]] and often understand it as an exchange of [[message]]s. Their function is to give a compact overview of the complex process of communication. This helps researchers formulate [[Hypothesis|hypotheses]], apply communication-related concepts to real-world cases, and test [[prediction]]s. Despite their usefulness, many models are criticized based on the claim that they are too simple because they leave out essential aspects. The components and their interactions are usually presented in the form of a diagram. Some basic components and interactions reappear in many of the models. They include the idea that a sender [[Code|encodes]] information in the form of a message and sends it to a [[Receiver (information theory)|receiver]] through a [[Communication channel|channel]]. The receiver needs to decode the message to understand the initial idea and provides some form of [[feedback]]. In both cases, [[Communication noise|noise]] may interfere and distort the message.
Models of communication are classified depending on their intended applications and on how they conceptualize the process. General models apply to all forms of communication while specialized models restrict themselves to specific forms, like [[mass communication]]. Linear transmission models understand communication as a one-way process in which a sender transmits an idea to a receiver. Interaction models include a feedback loop through which the receiver responds after getting the message. Transaction models see sending and responding as simultaneous activities. They hold that [[Meaning (philosophy)|meaning]] is created in this process and does not exist prior to it. Constitutive and [[Social constructionism|constructionist]] models stress that communication is a basic phenomenon responsible for how people understand and [[experience]] [[reality]]. [[Interpersonal communication|Interpersonal]] models describe communicative exchanges with other people. They contrast with [[Intrapersonal communication|intrapersonal]] models, which discuss communication with oneself. Models of non-human communication describe communication among other species. Further types include encoding-decoding models, hypodermic models, and relational models.
== Definition and function ==
Models of communication are representations of the process of [[communication]]. They try to provide a simple explanation of the process by highlighting its most basic characteristics and components. As simplified pictures, they only present the aspects that, according to the model's designer, are most central to communcationcommunication.{{sfn|Ruben|2001|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/models-communication Models Of Communication]}}{{sfn|West|2010}} Communication can be defined as the transmission of ideas. General models of communication try to describe all of its forms, including [[Verbal communication|verbal]] and [[non-verbal communication]] as well as [[visual]], [[Hearing|auditory]], and [[olfactory]] forms.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 1–8]|loc=Introduction}} In the widest sense, communication is not restricted to humans but happens also [[Animal communication|among animals]] and between species. However, models of communication normally focus on [[human communication]] as the [[paradigm|paradigmatic form]].{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-1-communication-history-and-forms/ 1.1 Communication: History and Forms]}} They usually involve some type of interaction between two or more parties in which messages are exchanged.{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 60]|loc=communication models}}{{sfn|Craig|1999}} The process as a whole is very complex, which is why models of communication only present the most salient features by showing how the main components operate and interact.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 10–12, 23–25]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} They usually do so in the form of a simplified visualization and ignore some aspects for the sake of simplicity.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}}{{sfn|Cobley|Schulz|2013|p=[https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110240450/html 7–10]|loc=Introduction}}
Some theorists, like Paul Cobley and Peter J. Schulz, distinguish models of communication from [[Communication theory|theories of communication]]. This is based on the idea that theories of communication try to provide a more abstract [[conceptual framework]] that is strong enough to accurately represent the underlying [[reality]] despite its complexity.{{sfn|Cobley|Schulz|2013|p=[https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110240450/html 7–10]|loc=Introduction}} Communication theorist Robert Craig sees the difference in the fact that models primarily represent communication while theories additionally explain it.{{sfn|Craig|2013|pp=46–47}} According to Frank Dance, there is no one fully comprehensive model of communication since each one highlights only certain aspects and distorts others. For this reason, he suggests that a family of different models should be adopted.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 23]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}
=== Linear transmission ===
[[File:Linearmodel.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Linear transmission model{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}]]
Linear transmission models describe communication as a one-way process. In it, a sender intentionally conveys a message to a receiver. The reception of the message is the endpoint of this process. Since there is no feedback loop, the sender may not know whether the message reached its intended destination. Most early models were transmission models. Due to their linear nature, they are often too simple to capture the dynamic aspects of various forms of communication, such as regular face-to-face conversation.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}} By focusing only on the sender, they leave out the audience's perspective. For example, listening usually does not just happen, but is an active process involving [[Understanding|listening skills]] and interpretation.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 15–17]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} However, some forms of communication can be accurately described by them, such as many types of [[computer-mediated communication]]. This applies, for example, to [[text messaging]], sending an email, posting a blog, or sharing something on social media.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}}{{sfn|Manuela|Clara|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FjFtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} Some theorists, like Uma Narula, talk of "action models" instead of linear transmission models to stress how they only focus on the actions of the sender.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 15]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} Linear transmission models include Aristotle's, [[Lasswell's model of communication|Lasswell]]'s, [[Shannon–Weaver model|Shannon-Weaver]]'s and [[Source-Message-Channel-Receiver model of communication|Berlo]]'s model.{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 438]|loc=transmission models}}{{sfn|Cobley|Schulz|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6xrNrpSZKxsC&pg=PA41 41]}}{{sfn|Hakanen|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oFHgZaiNhWUC&pg=PA28 28]}}
=== Interaction ===
=== Newcomb ===
[[File:Newcomb's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1|alt=Diagram of Newcomb's model of communication|The basic components of Newcomb's model are two communicators (A and B) and a topic (X). The arrows symbolize the orientations the communicators have toward each other and toward the topic.{{sfn|Newcomb|1953|p=[https://philpapers.org/rec/NEWAAT-4 394]}}]]
Newcomb's model was first published by [[Theodore_Newcomb|Theodore HM. Newcomb]] in his 1953 paper "An approach to the study of communicative acts".{{sfn|Newcomb|1953|p=[https://philpapers.org/rec/NEWAAT-4 393–404]}}{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=195–6|loc=Newcomb's ABX model of communication}} It is called the ABX model of communication since it understands communication in terms of three components: two parties (A and B) interacting with each other about a topic or object (X). A and B can be persons or groups, such as trade unions or nations. X can be any part of their shared environment like a specific thing or another person.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 33]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 31–32]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Feather|1967|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H4ardmrt5rkC&pg=PA135 135–7]}} The ABX model differs from earlier models by focusing on the [[social relation]] between the communicators in the form of the orientations or attitudes they have toward each other and toward the topic.{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=195–6|loc=Newcomb's ABX model of communication}}{{sfn|Gałajda|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FXkoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}}{{sfn|Fiske|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kfEtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29–32]}} The orientations can be favorable or unfavorable and include beliefs. They have a big impact on how communication unfolds. It is relevant, for example, whether A and B like each other and whether they have the same attitude towards X.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 33]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 31–32]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Ahmet|Can|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lffZDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 53–4]}}
Newcomb understands communication as a "learned response to strain" caused by discrepancies between orientations.{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hLpACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 27–8]}} The social function of communication is to maintain equilibrium in the [[social system]] by keeping the different orientations in balance.{{sfn|Fiske|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kfEtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29–32]}} In Newcomb's words, communication enables "two or more individuals to maintain simultaneous orientation to each other and towards objects of the external environment".{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=195–6|loc=Newcomb's ABX model of communication}} The orientations of A and B are subject to change and influence each other. Significant discrepancies between them, such as divergent opinions on X, cause a strain in the relation. In such cases, communication aims to reduce the strain and restore balance through the exchange of information about the object.{{sfn|Feather|1967|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H4ardmrt5rkC&pg=PA135 135–7]}}{{sfn|Gałajda|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FXkoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}}{{sfn|Ahmet|Can|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lffZDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 53–4]}} For example, if A and B are friends and X is someone both know, then equilibrium means that they have the same attitude towards X. However, there is a disequilibrium or strain if A likes X but B does not. This creates a tendency for A and B to exchange information about X until they arrive at a shared attitude. The more important X is to A and B, the more urgent this tendency is.{{sfn|Fiske|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kfEtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29–32]}}
[[File:Westley and MacLean's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Diagram of Westley and MacLean's model of communication|Westley and MacLean's expansion of Newcomb's model.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 33]}}]]
{{main|Schramm's model of communication}}
[[File:Schramm's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Schramm's model of communication differs from earlier models by including a feedback loop.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 8]|loc=How communication works}}]]
Schramm's model of communication is one of the earliest interaction models of communication.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC&pg=PA176 176]}}{{sfn|Steinberg|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VPs3kidEqXYC&pg=PA18 18]}}{{sfn|Bowman|Targowski|1987|p=21–34}} It was published by [[Wilbur Schramm]] in 1954 as a response to and an improvement over linear transmission models of communication, such as Lasswell's model and the Shannon–Weaver model.{{sfn|Liu|Volcic|Gallois|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QfSICwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 38]}}{{sfn|Schwartz|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=K92eBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA52 52]}} The main difference in this regard is that Schramm does not see the audience as passive recipients. Instead, he understands them as active participants that respond by sending their own message as a form of feedback.{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}{{sfn|Bowman|Targowski|1987|p=21–34}}{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 4, 7–9, 16]|loc=How communication works}} Feedback forms part of many types of communication and makes it easier for the participants to identify and resolve possible misunderstandings.{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}
[[File:Schramm's model - fields of experience.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|One requirement of successful communication is that the message is located in the overlap of the fields of experience of the participants.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 6]|loc=How communication works}}]]
For Schramm, communication is based on the relation between a source and a destination and consists in sharing ideas or information.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 3]|loc=How communication works}}{{sfn|Ruben|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Fm5QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} For this to happen, the source has to encode their idea in symbolic form as a message.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC&pg=PA176 176]}}{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 3–5]|loc=How communication works}}{{sfn|Moore|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=icMsdAGHQpEC&pg=PA90 90–1]}} This message is sent to the destination using a channel, such as sound waves or ink on paper.{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 3–5]|loc=How communication works}} The destination has to decode and interpret the message in order to reconstruct the original idea. The processes of encoding and decoding correspond to the roles of transmitter and receiver in the Shannon–Weaver model.{{sfn|SchwartzLiu|2010Volcic|pGallois|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=K92eBQAAQBAJQfSICwAAQBAJ&pg=PA52PA36 5236–38]}} According to Schramm, these processes are influenced by the fields of [[experience]] of each participant. A field of experience includes past life experiences and affects what the participant understands and is familiar with.{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 6–7]|loc=How communication works}}{{sfn|Dwyer|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xhHiBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10]}} Communication fails if the message is outside the receiver's field of experience. In this case, the receiver is unable to decode it and connect it to the sender's idea.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 6–8]|loc=How communication works}}{{sfn|Moore|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=icMsdAGHQpEC&pg=PA90 90–1]}}{{sfn|Meng|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b0HWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 120]}} Other sources of error are external noise or mistakes in the phases of decoding and encoding.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 3–5, 13–16]|loc=How communication works}} Schramm holds that successful communication is about realizing an intended effect. He discusses the conditions for this to be possible. They include making sure that one has the receiver's [[attention]], that the message is understandable, and that the audience is able and motivated to react to the message in the intended way.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 13]|loc=How communication works}}{{sfn|Babe|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YAKeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 90]}}
In the 1970s, Schramm proposed modifications to his original model to take into account the discoveries made in [[communication studies]] in the preceding decades.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 30–31]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}{{sfn|Schramm|1971|p=6}} His new approach gives special emphasis to the relation between the participants. The relation determines the goal of communication and the roles played by the participants.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 30–31]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 364]|loc=relational models}}{{sfn|Schramm|1971|p=7-8}}
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* {{cite book |last1=StraubhaarTengan |first1=JosephCallistus |last2=LaRoseAigbavboa |first2=RobertClinton |last3=DavenportThwala |first3=LucindaWellington Didibhuku |title=MediaConstruction Now:Project UnderstandingMonitoring Media,and Culture,Evaluation: andAn TechnologyIntegrated Approach |date=127 JanuaryApril 20152021 |publisher=Cengage LearningRoutledge |isbn=9781305533851 |pages=18–99781000381412 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jUR-BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT478nQhEAAAQBAJ |language=en }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite journalbook |last1=TaylorTrenholm |first1=Hal R.Sarah |title=AThinking ModelThrough forCommunication: An Introduction to the CommunicationStudy Processof |journal=STWPHuman ReviewCommunication |date=196223 |volume=9August 2020 |issuepublisher=3Routledge |pagesisbn=8–109781000164985 |jstorpage=4309368860 |url=https://wwwbooks.jstorgoogle.orgcom/stable/43093688books?id=M2r0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT60 |issnlanguage=2376-0761en }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |title=Communication in the Real World |date=2013 |publisher=University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing |isbn=9781946135070 |url=https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/ |language=en-us |author=UMN staff }}
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* {{cite book |last1=Trenholm |first1=Sarah |title=Thinking16.1 Through Communication: An Introduction to the Study of HumanIntrapersonal Communication |date=23 August 20202010 |publisher=RoutledgeUniversity of Minnesota Libraries Publishing |isbn=9781000164985 |page=609781946135056 |url=https://booksopen.googlelib.comumn.edu/businesscommunication/chapter/16-1-intrapersonal-communication/books?id=M2r0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT60 |language=en |author=UMN staff }}
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* {{cite book |lastlast1=WestWood |firstfirst1=RichardJulia LT. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/226356706 |title=Introducing communication theoryInterpersonal Communication: analysisEveryday and applicationEncounters |date=20101 January 2012 |publisher=McGraw-HillCengage |others=Lynn H. TurnerLearning |isbn=978-01-07133-33850771157-5 |editionpages=4th15–7 |___locationurl=Bostonhttps://books.google.com/books?id=9d4JAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT34 |oclclanguage=226356706en }}{{cbignore}}
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* {{cite book |last1=Zaharna |first1=R. S. |title=Boundary Spanners of Humanity: Three Logics of Communications and Public Diplomacy for Global Collaboration |date=2022 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190930271 |page=70 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSxTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA70 |language=en}}
{{refend}}
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