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'''Training and development''' involves improving [[Organizational effectiveness|the effectiveness of organizations]] and the individuals and teams within them.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Aguinis|first1=Herman|last2=Kraiger|first2=Kurt|date=January 2009|title=Benefits of Training and Development for Individuals and Teams, Organizations, and Society|journal=[[Annual Review of Psychology]]|volume=60|issue=1|pages=451–474|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163505|pmid=18976113|s2cid=45609735 |issn=0066-4308}}</ref> [[Training]] may be viewed as being related to immediate changes in effectiveness via organized instruction, while development is related to the progress of longer-term organizational and employee goals. While training and development technically have differing definitions, the terms are often used interchangeably. Training and development have historically been topics within adult education and applied psychology, but have within the last two decades become closely associated with [[Human resource management|human resources management]], [[talent management]], human resources development, [[instructional design]], [[Human factors and ergonomics|human factors]], and knowledge management.<ref name=":1" />
Skills training has taken on varying organizational forms across industrialized economies.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Thelen |first=Kathleen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I0afDJGPczwC |title=How Institutions Evolve: The Political Economy of Skills in Germany, Britain, the United States, and Japan |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-54674-4 |language=en}}</ref> Germany has an elaborate [[Vocational education|vocational training]] system, whereas the United States and the United Kingdom are considered to generally have weak ones.<ref name=":8" />
==History==
Aspects of training and development have been linked to ancient civilizations around the
By the 1960s and 70s, the field began developing theories and conducting theory-based research since
The 21st century
==Training practice and methods==
Training and development encompass three main activities: training, education, and development.<ref name="Harrison">{{cite book|title=Learning and Development|author=Rosemary Harrison|date=2005|publisher=CIPD Publishing|isbn=9781843980506|pages=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Management|author1=Patrick J. Montana |author2=Bruce H. Charnov |name-list-style=amp |pages=225|chapter=Training and Development|publisher=Barron Educationally Series|date=2000|isbn=9780764112768}}</ref><ref name=IITD>{{cite book|title=Training and Development in Ireland|author1=Thomas N. Garavan |author2=Pat Costine |author3=Noreen Heraty |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Cengage Learning EMEA|date=1995|pages=1|chapter=Training and Development: Concepts, Attitudes, and Issues|isbn=9781872853925}}</ref> Differing levels and types of development may be used depending on the roles of employees in an organisation.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Peacock |first1=Melanie |title=Understanding Human Resources Management |last2=Steward |first2=Eileen B. |last3=Belcourt |first3=Monica |publisher=Alexis Hood |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-17-679806-2 |pages=185}}</ref>
The "stakeholders" in training and development are categorized into several classes. The sponsors of training and development are senior managers, and line managers are responsible for coaching, resources, and performance. The clients of training and development are business planners, while the participants are those who
Since the 2000s, training has become more trainee-focused, which allows those being trained more flexibility and active learning opportunities.<ref name="Bell 2008 296–316">{{Cite journal|last1=Bell|first1=Bradford S.|last2=Kozlowski|first2=Steve W. J.|date=2008|title=Active learning: Effects of core training design elements on self-regulatory processes, learning, and adaptability.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=93|issue=2|pages=296–316|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.93.2.296|pmid=18361633|issn=1939-1854|url=https://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1417&context=articles|hdl=1813/75102|hdl-access=free}}</ref> These active learning techniques include exploratory/discovery learning,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McDaniel|first1=Mark A.|last2=Schlager|first2=Mark S.|date=June 1990|title=Discovery Learning and Transfer of Problem-Solving Skills|journal=Cognition and Instruction|volume=7|issue=2|pages=129–159|doi=10.1207/s1532690xci0702_3|issn=0737-0008}}</ref> error management training,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Keith|first1=Nina|last2=Frese|first2=Michael|date=2005|title=Self-Regulation in Error Management Training: Emotion Control and Metacognition as Mediators of Performance Effects.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=90|issue=4|pages=677–691|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.677|pmid=16060786|issn=1939-1854|url=http://fox.leuphana.de/portal/de/publications/selfregulation-in-error-management-training-emotion-control-and-metacognition-as-mediators-of-performance-effects(82a4fe6d-6219-40a6-abe7-fc21f6d2bbad).html}}</ref> guided exploration,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wood|first1=Robert|last2=Kakebeeke|first2=Bastiaan|last3=Debowski|first3=Shelda|last4=Frese|first4=Michael|date=April 2000|title=The Impact of Enactive Exploration on Intrinsic Motivation, Strategy, and Performance in Electronic Search|journal=Applied Psychology|volume=49|issue=2|pages=263–283|doi=10.1111/1464-0597.00014|issn=0269-994X}}</ref> and mastery training.<ref name="Bell 2008 296–316"/> Typical projects in the field include executive and supervisory/management development, new
The instructional systems design approach (often referred to as the ADDIE model) is often used for designing
# Needs assessment: problem identification. training needs analysis, determination of audience determined, identification of stakeholder's needs and required resources
# Program design: mapping of learning intervention/implementation outline and evaluation methods
# Program development: delivery method, production of learning outcomes, quality evaluation of learning outcome, development of communication strategy, required technology, and assessment and evaluation tools
# Training delivery
# Evaluation of training: formal evaluation, including the evaluation of learning and potential points of improvement
Many different training methods exist today, including both on- and off-the-job methods.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} Other training methods may include:
* [[Apprenticeship|Apprenticeship training]]: training in which a worker entering the skilled trades is given thorough instruction and experience both on and off the job in the practical and theoretical aspects of the work<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peacock|last2=Steward|last3=Belcourt|first1=Melanie|first2=Eileen B.|first3=Monica|title=Understanding Human Resources Management|publisher=Alexis Hood|year=2020|isbn=978-0-17-679806-2|pages=189}}</ref>
* Co-operative programs and internship programs: training programs that combine practical, on-the-job experience with formal education, and are usually offered at colleges and universities<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last1=Peacock|last2=Steward|last3=Belcourt|first1=Melanie|first2=Eileen B.|first3=Monica|title=Understanding Human Resources Management|publisher=Alexis Hood|year=2020|isbn=978-0-17-679806-2|pages=190}}</ref>
* Classroom instruction: information is presented in lectures, demonstrations, films, and videotapes or through computer instruction<ref name=":12" />
* Self-directed learning: individuals work at their own pace during programmed instruction, which may include books, manuals, or computers that break down subject-matter content into highly organized logical sequences that demand a continuous response on the trainee's part.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last1=Peacock|last2=Steward|last3=Belcourt|first1=Melanie|first2=Eileen B.|first3=Monica|title=Understanding Human Resources Management|publisher=Alexis Hood|year=2020|isbn=978-0-17-679806-2|pages=191}}</ref> It often includes the use of computer and/or online resources.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Peacock |first1=Melanie |title=Understanding Human Resources Management |last2=Steward |first2=Eileen B. |last3=Belcourt |first3=Monica |publisher=Alexis Hood |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-17-679806-2 |pages=192}}</ref>
* Audiovisual: methods used to teach the skills and procedures required for a number of jobs through audiovisual means<ref name=":13" />
* Simulation: used when it is not practical or safe to train people on the actual equipment or within the actual work environment<ref name=":13" />
There is significant importance in training as it prepares employees for higher job responsibilities, shows employees they are valued, improves IT and computer processes, and tests the efficiency of new performance management systems. However, some{{Who|date=September 2024}} believe training wastes time and money because, in certain cases, real life experience may be better than education, and organizations want to spend less, not more.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Say|first=My|title=Why Your Employee Training Is A Waste of Time And Money -- And What To Do About It|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/groupthink/2015/08/30/why-your-employee-training-is-a-waste-of-time-and-money-and-what-to-do-about-it/|access-date=2020-11-29|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Training Seminar.jpg|thumb|418x418px|Seminar training method]]
In the 1940s, Professor [[Reginald Revans]] introduced [[action learning]] development model, whereby training managers bring together organizational teams to improve organizational performance. According to Revans, the learning formula is: Learning (L) = Traditional Training Program (P) + Questioning (Q) to create development insights.In addition to traditional training methods (P), organizational questioning (Q) enables each employee to reflect on past experiences, the write down new insights to guide future actions to improve on the job performance and collective organizational performance. Action-learning based training models have become popular among many training managers and chief learning officers (CLOs). <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iim-edu.org/thinktank/papers/ceo/executive-action-learning.htm |title= Action-Learning Model for Training and Development - International Institute of Management Training}}</ref>.
=== Needs assessments ===
[[Needs assessment]]s, especially when the training is being conducted on a large-scale, are frequently conducted in order to gauge what needs to be trained, how it should be trained, and how extensively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Judith |date=December 2002 |title=Training Needs Assessment: A Must for Developing an Effective Training Program |journal=Public Personnel Management |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=569–578 |doi=10.1177/009102600203100412 |issn=0091-0260 |s2cid=154852480}}</ref> Needs assessments in the training and development context often reveal employee and management-specific skills to develop (e.g. for new employees), organizational-wide problems to address (e.g. performance issues), adaptations needed to suit changing environments (e.g. new technology), or employee development needs (e.g. career planning). The needs assessment can predict the degree of effectiveness of training and development programs and how closely the needs were met, the execution of the training (i.e. how effective the trainer was), and trainee characteristics (e.g. motivation, cognitive abilities).<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Tannenbaum |first1=S I |last2=Yukl |first2=G |date=January 1992 |title=Training and Development in Work Organizations |journal=[[Annual Review of Psychology]] |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=399–441 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ps.43.020192.002151}}</ref> Training effectiveness is typically done on an individual or team-level, with few studies investigating the impacts on organizations.<ref name=":1" />
== Principles ==
Aik and Tway (2006) estimated that only
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=== Motivation ===
Motivation is an internal process that
* Intrinsic factors
* Extrinsic factors
[[File:Training and Development Conference.jpg|thumb|Training and
Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators
=== Feedback ===
Traditional constructive feedback, also known as weakness-based feedback, can often be viewed as malicious from the employees' perspective. When interpreted negatively, employees lose motivation on the job, affecting their production level.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last1=Aguinis|first1=Herman|last2=Gottfredson|first2=Ryan K.|last3=Joo|first3=Harry|date=2012-03-01|title=Delivering effective performance feedback: The strengths-based approach|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007681311001509|journal=Business Horizons|language=en|volume=55|issue=2|pages=105–111|doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2011.10.004|s2cid=154034097 |issn=0007-6813|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
Reinforcement is another principle of employee training and development. Studies have shown that reinforcement directly influences employee learning, which is highly correlated with performance after training. Reinforcement-based training emphasizes the importance of communication between managers and trainees in the workplace. The more the training environment can be a positive, nurturing experience, the faster attendees are apt to learn.<ref name=":11">Nelson, Bob. "A Dose of Positive Reinforcement Can Go a Long Way". ''T+D'', vol. 67, no. 3, Mar. 2013, pp. 40–44. ''EBSCOhost'', library.macewan.ca/full-record/bth/85852296.</ref>
== Benefits ==
The benefits of the training and development of employees include:
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* improved customer valuation<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |title=The Importance of Training Employees: 11 Benefits |url=https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/importance-of-training |access-date=2020-11-29 |website=Indeed Career Guide |language=en-us}}</ref>
* Enhancements in public service motivation among public employees<ref name="cac">{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Chung-An |last2=Hsieh |first2=Chih-Wei |last3=Chen |first3=Don-Yun |date=March 2021 |title=Can Training Enhance Public Employees' Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19872244 |journal=Review of Public Personnel Administration |language=en |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=194–215 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19872244 |hdl=10356/149992 |issn=0734-371X|hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
However, training and development may lead to adverse outcomes if it is not strategic and goal-oriented.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Learning and development|last=Rebecca|first=Page-Tickell|isbn=9780749469894|edition= 1st|___location=London|oclc=883248797|date = 3 July 2014}}</ref> Additionally, there is a lack of consensus on the long-term outcomes of training investments;<ref name="sq">{{Cite journal |last1=Quratulain |first1=Samina |last2=Khan |first2=Abdul Karim |last3=Sabharwal |first3=Meghna |last4=Javed |first4=Basharat |date=June 2021 |title=Effect of Self-Efficacy and Instrumentality Beliefs on Training Implementation Behaviors: Testing the Moderating Effect of Organizational Climate |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19876676 |journal=Review of Public Personnel Administration |language=en |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=250–273 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19876676 |issn=0734-371X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and in the public sector, managers often hold conservative views about the effectiveness of training.<ref name="cac" />
== Barriers and access to training ==
Training and development are crucial to
Disparities in training can be caused by several factors, including societal norms and cultural biases that significantly impact the distribution of training opportunities. Stereotypes and implicit biases can undermine the confidence and performance of minority groups to seek out training, affecting their career development.<ref name="Woman and Public Organisation: An E">{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=HH |title=Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination |journal=Review of Public and Personnel Administration |date=2021 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=274–293 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19880578 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19880578|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
The impact of excluding or limiting a person's access to training and development opportunities can affect both the individual and the organization.
* Disparities in training opportunities can adversely affect individuals from underrepresented groups, leading to slower career progression, reduced employee engagement, and limited professional growth.<ref name="journals.sagepub.com"/> Individuals may experience lower self-esteem and decreased motivation due to perceived or actual access to development opportunities. For example, if a leadership training program does not have minority representation, individuals may lack the confidence to "break the glass ceiling" and seek out the opportunity for themselves.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=S |last2=Ng |first2=AG |title=The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management. |journal=Human Resource Management Journal |date=2017 |volume=27 |pages=133–151 |doi=10.1111/1748-8583.12135 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12135 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* When training opportunities are not equitably distributed, organizations may have reduced diversity in leadership and decision-making, which may stifle innovation and hinder organizational performance. Failure to address these disparities can lead to higher turnover rates and lower employee morale.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=CA |title=Can Training Enhance Public Employees' Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design |journal=American Society for Public Administration |date=2021 |volume=41 |pages=194–215 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19872244 |hdl=10356/149992 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19872244|hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Management teams that are not diverse can be self-replicating as senior leaders' demographic characteristics significantly impact the types of programs, policies and practices implemented in the organisation – i.e. there are more likely to be diversity programs if the management team is also diverse.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=S |last2=Ng |first2=AG |title=The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management |journal=Human Resource Management Journal |date=2017 |volume=27 |pages=133–151 |doi=10.1111/1748-8583.12135 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12135|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
To address these disparities, organizations can implement diversity policies, provide bias training, and establish mentorship programs to support underrepresented groups. These may include:
* implementing inclusive policies for addressing disparities: organizations should establish diversity and inclusion programs that specifically target training and development opportunities for underrepresented groups, which should focus on opportunities for future managers at the bottom of the hierarchy, as advancement to lower-level and middle-level positions is crucial for promotion to upper-level management.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=S |last2=Ng |first2=AG |title=The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management. |journal=Human Resource Management Journal |date=2017 |volume=27 |pages=133–151 |doi=10.1111/1748-8583.12135 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12135|url-access=subscription }}</ref> These policies can help ensure employees have equal access to career advancement resources and can increase the implementation of mechanisms for reporting discrimination or advancement barriers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=HH |title=Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination. |journal=Review of Public and Personnel AdministrationReview of Public and Personnel Administration |date=2021 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=274–293 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19880578 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19880578|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Some efforts to support diversity and exclusion commitments in workplaces may be enshrined in law, such as the New Zealand Public Service Act 2020.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Zealand Public Service Act 2020 |url=https://legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2020/0040/latest/LMS106159.html |publisher=Legislation New Zealand |access-date=17 September 2024}}</ref>
* Developing mentorship and sponsorship programs: these programs can support underrepresented groups by providing them with guidance, networking opportunities, and advocacy within the organisation. Creating supportive networks for minority and gender groups can provide safe spaces for people identifying as minorities to develop programs that are suited to them and to provide a united voice to report ongoing discrimination.<ref name="Woman and Public Organisation: An E"/>
* Using data to track and address disparities in training opportunities: this may include censuses<ref>{{cite web |title=Improving diversity and inclusion in the Public Service |url=https://www.publicservice.govt.nz/system/public-service-people/diversity-and-inclusion/improving-diversity-and-inclusion-in-the-public-service |website=Te Kawa Mataaho Public Service Commission |access-date=17 September 2024}}</ref> or regular pulse surveys or records of learning that are linked to a person's self-identified attributes.
The current political climate in the United States has intensified debates around Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) programs, leading to both challenges and shifts in corporate strategies. Increased political polarization, new state-level legislation, and public scrutiny have caused some companies to scale back or reframe DEI initiatives to avoid legal risks or reputational backlash. At the same time, many organizations remain committed to fostering inclusive workplaces, but are increasingly positioning DEI efforts under broader umbrellas like "talent development," "belonging," or "workplace culture" to navigate the evolving landscape. Overall, the environment has made DEI efforts more complex, requiring companies to be both strategic and resilient in advancing inclusive practices.
Occupation
The Occupational Information Network cites training and development specialists as having a bright outlook, meaning that the occupation will grow rapidly or have several job openings in the next few years. Related professions include training and development managers, (chief) learning officers, [[Industrial and organizational psychology|industrial-organizational psychologists]], and [[organization development]] consultants. Training and development specialists are equipped with the tools to conduct needs analyses, build training programs to suit the organization's needs by using various training techniques, create training materials, and execute and guide training programs.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=13-1151.00 – Training and Development Specialists |url=https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/13-1151.00?redir=13-1073.00 |access-date=2019-03-01 |website=onetonline.org}}</ref>
== See also ==
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*[[Andragogy]]
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== References ==
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