Training and development: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 08:55, 29 September 2024

Latest revision as of 18:55, 12 August 2025

(9 intermediate revisions by 8 users not shown)

Line 1:

{{Short description|Improving the effectiveness of organizations and the individuals and teams within them}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=OctoberMarch 20132025}}

'''Training and development''' involves improving [[Organizational effectiveness|the effectiveness of organizations]] and the individuals and teams within them.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Aguinis|first1=Herman|last2=Kraiger|first2=Kurt|date=January 2009|title=Benefits of Training and Development for Individuals and Teams, Organizations, and Society|journal=[[Annual Review of Psychology]]|volume=60|issue=1|pages=451–474|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163505|pmid=18976113|s2cid=45609735 |issn=0066-4308}}</ref> [[Training]] may be viewed as being related to immediate changes in effectiveness via organized instruction, while development is related to the progress of longer-term organizational and employee goals. While training and development technically have differing definitions, the terms are often used interchangeably. Training and development have historically been topics within adult education and applied psychology, but have within the last two decades become closely associated with [[Human resource management|human resources management]], [[talent management]], human resources development, [[instructional design]], [[Human factors and ergonomics|human factors]], and knowledge management.<ref name=":1" />

Line 7:

==History==

Aspects of training and development have been linked to ancient civilizations around the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Alagaraja|first1=Meera|last2=Dooley|first2=Larry M.|date=March 2003|title=Origins and Historical Influences on Human Resource Development: A Global Perspective|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1534484303251170|journal=Human Resource Development Review|language=en|volume=2|issue=1|pages=82–96|doi=10.1177/1534484303251170|s2cid=143353567 |issn=1534-4843|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Early training-related articles appeared in journals marketed to enslavers in the [[Antebellum South]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Phillips|first=Lisa|date=2013-03-08|title=David R. Roediger and Esch Elizabeth. The Production of Difference. Race and the Management of Labor in US History. Oxford University Press, Oxford [etc.]2012. x, 286 pp. Ill. £22.50.|journal=International Review of Social History|volume=58|issue=1|pages=129–131|doi=10.1017/s0020859013000059|s2cid=144977591 |issn=0020-8590|doi-access=free}}</ref> and training approaches and philosophies were discussed extensively by [[Booker T. Washington]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Washington|first=Booker, T.|title=Up From Slavery}}</ref> Early academic publishing related to training included a 1918 article in the [[Journal of Applied Psychology]], which explored an undergraduate curriculum designed for applied psychologists.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Bell|first1=Bradford S.|last2=Tannenbaum|first2=Scott I.|last3=Ford|first3=J. Kevin|last4=Noe|first4=Raymond A.|last5=Kraiger|first5=Kurt|date=2017|title=100 years of training and development research: What we know and where we should go.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=305–323|doi=10.1037/apl0000142|pmid=28125262|issn=1939-1854|url=https://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2306&context=articles|hdl=1813/74878|s2cid=26505012|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

By the 1960s and 70s, the field began developing theories and conducting theory-based research since it was historically rooted in trial-and-error intervention research,<ref name=":0" /> and new training methods were developed, such as the use of computers, television, case studies, and role playing.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Campbell|first=J P|date=January 1971|title=Personnel Training and Development|journal=[[Annual Review of Psychology]]|volume=22|issue=1|pages=565–602|doi=10.1146/annurev.ps.22.020171.003025|issn=0066-4308}}</ref> The scope of training and development also expanded to include [[Cross-cultural communication|cross-cultural]] training, a focus on the development of the individual employee, and the use of new [[organization development]] literature to frame training programs.<ref name=":2" />

The 1980s focused on how employees received and implemented training programs, and encouraged the collection of data for evaluation purposes, particularly management training programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Burke|first1=Michael J.|last2=Day|first2=Russell R.|date=1986|title=A cumulative study of the effectiveness of managerial training.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=71|issue=2|pages=232–245|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.71.2.232|issn=0021-9010}}</ref> The development piece of training and development became increasingly popular in the 90s, with employees more frequently being influenced by the concept of [[lifelong learning]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Birdi|first1=Kamal|last2=Allan|first2=Catriona|last3=Warr|first3=Peter|date=1997|title=Correlates and perceived outcomes of 4 types of employee development activity.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=82|issue=6|pages=845–857|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.82.6.845|pmid=9638086|issn=0021-9010}}</ref> It was in this decade that research revealing the impact and importance of fostering a training and development-positive culture was first conducted.<ref name=":3" />

The 21st century brought more research in topics such as team-training, such as cross-training, which emphasizes training in coworkers' responsibilities.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Marks |first1=Michelle A. |last2=Sabella |first2=Mark J. |last3=Burke |first3=C. Shawn |last4=Zaccaro |first4=Stephen J. |date=2002 |title=The impact of cross-training on team effectiveness. |journal=Journal of Applied Psychology |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=3–13 |doi=10.1037/0021-9010.87.1.3 |issn=0021-9010 |pmid=11916213}}</ref>

Line 22:

Since the 2000s, training has become more trainee-focused, which allows those being trained more flexibility and active learning opportunities.<ref name="Bell 2008 296–316">{{Cite journal|last1=Bell|first1=Bradford S.|last2=Kozlowski|first2=Steve W. J.|date=2008|title=Active learning: Effects of core training design elements on self-regulatory processes, learning, and adaptability.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=93|issue=2|pages=296–316|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.93.2.296|pmid=18361633|issn=1939-1854|url=https://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1417&context=articles|hdl=1813/75102|hdl-access=free}}</ref> These active learning techniques include exploratory/discovery learning,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McDaniel|first1=Mark A.|last2=Schlager|first2=Mark S.|date=June 1990|title=Discovery Learning and Transfer of Problem-Solving Skills|journal=Cognition and Instruction|volume=7|issue=2|pages=129–159|doi=10.1207/s1532690xci0702_3|issn=0737-0008}}</ref> error management training,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Keith|first1=Nina|last2=Frese|first2=Michael|date=2005|title=Self-Regulation in Error Management Training: Emotion Control and Metacognition as Mediators of Performance Effects.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=90|issue=4|pages=677–691|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.677|pmid=16060786|issn=1939-1854|url=http://fox.leuphana.de/portal/de/publications/selfregulation-in-error-management-training-emotion-control-and-metacognition-as-mediators-of-performance-effects(82a4fe6d-6219-40a6-abe7-fc21f6d2bbad).html}}</ref> guided exploration,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wood|first1=Robert|last2=Kakebeeke|first2=Bastiaan|last3=Debowski|first3=Shelda|last4=Frese|first4=Michael|date=April 2000|title=The Impact of Enactive Exploration on Intrinsic Motivation, Strategy, and Performance in Electronic Search|journal=Applied Psychology|volume=49|issue=2|pages=263–283|doi=10.1111/1464-0597.00014|issn=0269-994X}}</ref> and mastery training.<ref name="Bell 2008 296–316"/> Typical projects in the field include executive and supervisory/management development, new employee orientation, professional skills training, technical/job training, customer-service training, sales-and-marketing training, and health-and-safety training. Training is particularly critical in [[High reliability organization|high-reliability organizations]], which rely on high safety standards to prevent catastrophic damage to employees, equipment, or the environment (e.g. nuclear power plants and operating rooms).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roberts|first=Karlene H.|date=July 1990|title=Managing High Reliability Organizations|journal=California Management Review|volume=32|issue=4|pages=101–113|doi=10.2307/41166631|issn=0008-1256|jstor=41166631|s2cid=154274951}}</ref>

The instructional systems design approach (often referred to as the ADDIE model) is often used for designing learning programs and used for instructional design, or the process of designing, developing, and delivering learning content. There are 5 phases in the ADDIE model:<ref name="digitalhrtech.com">{{Cite web|date=2020-11-02|title=The ADDIE Model for Instructional Design Explained|url=https://www.digitalhrtech.com/addie-model/|access-date=2020-11-29|website=AIHR Digital|language=en-US}}</ref>

# Needs assessment: problem identification. training needs analysis, determination of audience determined, identification of stakeholder's needs and required resources

Line 35:

* Co-operative programs and internship programs: training programs that combine practical, on-the-job experience with formal education, and are usually offered at colleges and universities<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last1=Peacock|last2=Steward|last3=Belcourt|first1=Melanie|first2=Eileen B.|first3=Monica|title=Understanding Human Resources Management|publisher=Alexis Hood|year=2020|isbn=978-0-17-679806-2|pages=190}}</ref>

* Classroom instruction: information is presented in lectures, demonstrations, films, and videotapes or through computer instruction<ref name=":12" />

* Self-directed learning: individuals work at their own pace during programmed instruction, which may include books, manuals, or computers that break down subject-matter content into highly- organized logical sequences that demand a continuous response on the trainee's part.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last1=Peacock|last2=Steward|last3=Belcourt|first1=Melanie|first2=Eileen B.|first3=Monica|title=Understanding Human Resources Management|publisher=Alexis Hood|year=2020|isbn=978-0-17-679806-2|pages=191}}</ref> It often includes the use of computer and/or online resources.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Peacock |first1=Melanie |title=Understanding Human Resources Management |last2=Steward |first2=Eileen B. |last3=Belcourt |first3=Monica |publisher=Alexis Hood |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-17-679806-2 |pages=192}}</ref>

* Audiovisual: methods used to teach the skills and procedures required for a number of jobs through audiovisual means<ref name=":13" />

* Simulation: used when it is not practical or safe to train people on the actual equipment or within the actual work environment<ref name=":13" />

There is significant importance in training as it prepares employees for higher job responsibilities, shows employees they are valued, improves IT and computer processes, and tests the efficiency of new performance management systems. However, some{{Who|date=September 2024}} believe training wastes time and money because, in certain cases, real life experience may be better than education, and organizations want to spend less, not more.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Say|first=My|title=Why Your Employee Training Is A Waste Ofof Time And Money -- And What To Do About It|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/groupthink/2015/08/30/why-your-employee-training-is-a-waste-of-time-and-money-and-what-to-do-about-it/|access-date=2020-11-29|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Training Seminar.jpg|thumb|418x418px|Seminar training method]]

In the 1940s, Professor [[Reginald Revans]] introduced [[action learning]] development model, whereby training managers bring together organizational teams to improve organizational performance. According to Revans, the learning formula is: Learning (L) = Traditional Training Program (P) + Questioning (Q) to create development insights.In addition to traditional training methods (P), organizational questioning (Q) enables each employee to reflect on past experiences, the write down new insights to guide future actions to improve on the job performance and collective organizational performance. Action-learning based training models have become popular among many training managers and chief learning officers (CLOs). <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iim-edu.org/thinktank/papers/ceo/executive-action-learning.htm |title= Action-Learning Model for Training and Development - International Institute of Management Training}}</ref>.

=== Needs assessments ===

Line 46 ⟶ 49:

== Principles ==

Aik and Tway (2006) estimated that only 20–30% of training given to employees are used within the next month.<ref name="Aik 28–32">{{Cite journal|last1=Aik|first1=Chong Tek|last2=Tway|first2=Duane C.|date=March 2006|title=Elements and principles of training as a performance improvement solution|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pfi.2006.4930450307|journal=Performance Improvement|volume=45|issue=3|pages=28–32|doi=10.1002/pfi.2006.4930450307|issn=1090-8811|url-access=subscription}}</ref> To mitigate the issue, they recommended some general principles to follow to increase the employees' desire to take part in the program. These include:

* improving [[self-efficacy]], which increases the learner's personal belief that they can fully comprehend the teachings<ref name="Aik 28–32"/>

Line 54 ⟶ 57:

=== Motivation ===

Motivation is an internal process that influences an employee's behavior and willingness to achieve organizational goals.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stack, Laura|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/852507794|title=Managing employee performance : motivation, ability, and obstacles|date=2013|publisher=Productivity Pro|isbn=978-1-62723-025-4|___location=[Highlands Ranch, CO]|oclc=852507794}}</ref> Creating a motivational environment within an organization can help employees achieve their highest level of productivity,<ref name="Aik 28–32" /> and can create an engaged workforce that enhances individual and organizational performance.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last=MacRae, Ian (Psychologist)|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/966315014|title=Motivation and performance : a guide to motivating a diverse workforce|others=Furnham, Adrian.|date=3 February 2017|isbn=978-0-7494-7814-8|___location=London|oclc=966315014}}</ref> The model for motivation is represented by motivators separated into two different categories:

* Intrinsic factors, which represent the internal factors of an individual, such as the {{Clarify span|difficulty of work|Sounds more like an extrinsic factor|date=September 2024}}, achievement recognition, responsibility, opportunity for meaningful work, involvement in decision making, and importance within the organization<ref name=":9" />

* Extrinsic factors, which are factors external to the individual, such as job security, salary, benefits, work conditions, and vacations<ref name=":9" />

[[File:Training and Development Conference.jpg|thumb|Training and Developmentdevelopment Conferenceconference]]

Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators associate with employee performance in the workplace. A company's techniques to motivate employees may change over time depending on the current dynamics of the workplace.<ref name=":9" />

=== Feedback ===

Traditional constructive feedback, also known as weakness-based feedback, can often be viewed as malicious from the employees’employees' perspective. When interpreted negatively, employees lose motivation on the job, affecting their production level.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last1=Aguinis|first1=Herman|last2=Gottfredson|first2=Ryan K.|last3=Joo|first3=Harry|date=2012-03-01|title=Delivering effective performance feedback: The strengths-based approach|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007681311001509|journal=Business Horizons|language=en|volume=55|issue=2|pages=105–111|doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2011.10.004|s2cid=154034097 |issn=0007-6813|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Reinforcement is another principle of employee training and development. Studies have shown that reinforcement directly influences employee learning, which is highly correlated with performance after training. Reinforcement-based training emphasizes the importance of communication between managers and trainees in the workplace. The more the training environment can be a positive, nurturing experience, the faster attendees are apt to learn.<ref name=":11">Nelson, Bob. “A"A Dose of Positive Reinforcement Can Go a Long Way".” ''T+D'', vol. 67, no. 3, Mar. 2013, pp. 40–44. ''EBSCOhost'', library.macewan.ca/full-record/bth/85852296.</ref>

== Benefits ==

Line 77 ⟶ 80:

* better knowledge of policies and organization's goals

* improved customer valuation<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |title=The Importance of Training Employees: 11 Benefits |url=https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/importance-of-training |access-date=2020-11-29 |website=Indeed Career Guide |language=en-us}}</ref>

* Enhancements in public service motivation among public employees<ref name="cac">{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Chung-An |last2=Hsieh |first2=Chih-Wei |last3=Chen |first3=Don-Yun |date=March 2021 |title=Can Training Enhance Public Employees' Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19872244 |journal=Review of Public Personnel Administration |language=en |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=194–215 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19872244 |hdl=10356/149992 |issn=0734-371X|hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

However, training and development may lead to adverse outcomes if it is not strategic and goal-oriented.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Learning and development|last=Rebecca|first=Page-Tickell|isbn=9780749469894|edition= 1st|___location=London|oclc=883248797|date = 3 July 2014}}</ref> Additionally, there is a lack of consensus on the long-term outcomes of training investments;<ref name="sq">{{Cite journal |last1=Quratulain |first1=Samina |last2=Khan |first2=Abdul Karim |last3=Sabharwal |first3=Meghna |last4=Javed |first4=Basharat |date=June 2021 |title=Effect of Self-Efficacy and Instrumentality Beliefs on Training Implementation Behaviors: Testing the Moderating Effect of Organizational Climate |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19876676 |journal=Review of Public Personnel Administration |language=en |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=250–273 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19876676 |issn=0734-371X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and in the public sector, managers often hold conservative views about the effectiveness of training.<ref name="cac" />

== Barriers and access to training ==

== How does training assist in retaining employees? ==

Training plays a crucial role in retaining employees for several reasons, including skill development, improved performance, positive work culture and job satisfaction. Employees who have adequate training will feel more confident in their jobs and have more job satisfaction, therefore resulting in employees wanting to stay in their jobs. Training also fosters a sense of engagement as employees feel valued and connected to their organisation and the organisation’s success, as well as their own. When employees feel valued and choose to stay with the organisation, the employers reap significant benefits. By providing adequate training, companies cultivate engaged employees who not only perform at a high standard, but also have adaptable skills that align with the organisation.

Training and development are crucial to organizational performance, employee career advancement and engagement.<ref name="journals.sagepub.com">{{cite journal |last1=Hassett |first1=MP |title=The Effect of Access to Training and Development Opportunities, on Rate of Work Engagement Within the U.S. Federal Workforce |journal=Public Personal Management |date=2022 |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=380–404 |doi=10.1177/00910260221098189 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00910260221098189|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

'''Social Exchange Theory'''

The Social Exchange Theory (SET) is a social psychology concept, which explores the dynamics of interpersonal relationships and is very relevant to understanding the employee-employer relationship <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xeucheng |first1=W |last2=Iqbal |first2=Q |last3=Saina |first3=B |title=Factors affecting employee’s retention: integration of situational leadership with social exchange theory. |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=2022 |volume=13 |page=1-3 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872105 |pmid=35899015 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9309793/}}</ref>. According to SET, “a person who benefits from someone feels obligated to repay that person through positive behaviours and devotion” <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xeucheng |first1=W |last2=Iqbal |first2=Q |last3=Saina |first3=B |title=Factors affecting employee’s retention: integration of situational leadership with social exchange theory. |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=2022 |volume=13 |page=1-3 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872105 |pmid=35899015 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9309793/}}</ref>, therefore, an employee who is provided with adequate training and development opportunities in their workplace will feel “obligated” to repay their employer with high performance and loyalty to the organisation.

Training and development programmes support employees’ skills and competencies which enable them to carry out their jobs more effectively. This means that employees who are adequately trained and supported by their employer will feel confident in their role and positive towards their employer, likely resulting in better performance and longer tenure <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xeucheng |first1=W |last2=Iqbal |first2=Q |last3=Saina |first3=B |title=Factors affecting employee’s retention: integration of situational leadership with social exchange theory. |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=2022 |volume=13 |page=1-3 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872105 |pmid=35899015 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9309793/}}</ref>. Employees who have invested time in their own training supported by their employer will be more likely to stay and continue investing their time in the organisation, to ‘give back’ and continue their development journey.

*Disparities Developingin mentorshiptraining andcan sponsorshipbe programs:caused theseby programsseveral canfactors, supportincluding underrepresentedsocietal groupsnorms byand providingcultural thembiases withthat guidance,significantly networkingimpact opportunities,the anddistribution advocacyof withintraining the organisationopportunities. Creating supportive networks for minorityStereotypes and genderimplicit groupsbiases can provideundermine safethe spacesconfidence forand peopleperformance identifyingof asminority minoritiesgroups to developseek programsout thattraining, areaffecting suitedtheir tocareer themdevelopment.<ref name="Woman and toPublic provideOrganisation: aAn united voice to report ongoing discrimination.<refE">{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=HH |title=Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination |journal=Review of Public and Personnel Administration |date=2021 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=274–293 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19880578 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19880578|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

'''Work Engagement Theory'''

The Work Engagement Theory, first theorised by Kahn (1990, 1992) refers to the psychological state in which employees present themselves at work and in their work performance. The theory is broken into a three-component model as outlined below <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hasset |first1=M |title=The effects of access to training and development opportunities, on rates of work engagement within the US federal workforce |journal=Public Personnel Management |date=2022 |volume=51 |issue=3 |page=385-398 |doi=10.1177/00910260221098 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00910260221098189}}</ref>:

Vigor: High levels of energy, mental resilience and sustained effort on the job

Dedication: Having a strong sense of commitment and pride in one’s work with enthusiasm and a sense of purpose

Absorption: Employees feel fully immersed in their work, often loosing track of time and feeling deep concentration

The theory suggests that organisations with high levels of work engagement have positive outcomes for both the organisation and the individual employees, even contributing to “lower rates of absenteeism, better health, lower rates of depressions and higher rates of life satisfaction and happiness” <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baker |first1=A |last2=Leiter |first2=M |title=Work engagement |journal=A handbook of essential theory and research |date=2010 |volume=1 |doi=10.4324/9780203853047 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780203853047/work-engagement-arnold-bakker-michael-leiter}}</ref>. Employers who look after their employees and provide a safe and happy work environment, coupled with sufficient training and development opportunities will benefit from employees who are happy, engaged, perform well and likely to stay within the organisation.

The impact of excluding or limiting a person’sperson's access to training and development opportunities can affect both the individual and the organization.

'''High-Performance Work Systems'''

High-Performance Work Systems (HPWS) is a theoretical framework that examines the relationship between human resources practices and organisational performance. This model posits that effective HR practices lead to a workforce of skilled, motivated, and dedicated employees who excel in both effectiveness and efficiency <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hasset |first1=M |title=The effects of access to training and development opportunities, on rates of work engagement within the US federal workforce |journal=Public Personnel Management |date=2022 |volume=51 |issue=3 |page=385-398 |doi=10.1177/00910260221098 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00910260221098189}}</ref>. HPWS consists of interconnected HR practices (HPWS) designed to develop employees’ talents and skills, enabling them to apply their abilities effectively in their roles. This approach fosters positive outcomes, including increased motivation, commitment and retention <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hasset |first1=M |title=The effects of access to training and development opportunities, on rates of work engagement within the US federal workforce |journal=Public Personnel Management |date=2022 |volume=51 |issue=3 |page=385-398 |doi=10.1177/00910260221098 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00910260221098189}}</ref>. HPWS contribute to employee retention as employees who are skilled at their jobs and feel a sense of motivation and dedication towards their jobs are likely to stay within the organisation. Whereas organisations that don’t implement HPWS will likely result in having employees who are less skilled, less confident and have less loyalty to the organisation, therefore likely resulting in lower employee retention.

* Disparities in training opportunities can adversely affect individuals from underrepresented groups, leading to slower career progression, reduced employee engagement, and limited professional growth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1name=Hassett |first1=MP |title=The Effect of Access to Training and Development Opportunities, on Rate of Work Engagement Within the U.S. Federal Workforce |journal=Public Personal Management |date=2022 |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=380–404 |doi=10.1177/00910260221098189 |url=https://"journals.sagepub.com"/doi/10.1177/00910260221098189}}</ref> Individuals may experience lower self-esteem and decreased motivation due to perceived or actual access to development opportunities. For example, if a leadership training program does not have minority representation, individuals may lack the confidence to “break"break the glass ceiling”ceiling" and seek out the opportunity for themselves.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=S |last2=Ng |first2=AG |title=The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management. |journal=Human Resource Management Journal |date=2017 |volume=27 |pages=133–151 |doi=10.1111/1748-8583.12135 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12135 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

'''Challenges'''

* When training opportunities are not equitably distributed, organizations may have reduced diversity in leadership and decision-making, which may stifle innovation and hinder organizational performance. Failure to address these disparities can lead to higher turnover rates and lower employee morale.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=CA |title=Can Training Enhance Public Employees' Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design |journal=American Society for Public Administration |date=2021 |volume=41 |pages=194–215 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19872244 |hdl=10356/149992 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19872244|hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Improving employee retention via training does pose some challenges for employers and organisations. Employees who actively engage with training provided by their employer might take the skills and knowledge they’ve acquired leave for better opportunities in another organisation. In competitive job markets, attracting and retaining employees can prove difficult, even if employers are provided adequate training. Organisations with limited resources or funding may find it difficult to provide adequate training for their employees and may struggle to meet the diverse needs and expectations of their workforce. Navigating these challenges requires a thoughtful and multifaceted approach to training in order to create a supportive and engaging workforce where employees want to stay.

Management teams that are not diverse can be self-replicating as senior leaders’leaders' demographic characteristics significantly impact the types of programs, policies and practices implemented in the organisation – i.e. there are more likely to be diversity programs if the management team is also diverse.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=S |last2=Ng |first2=AG |title=The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management |journal=Human Resource Management Journal |date=2017 |volume=27 |pages=133–151 |doi=10.1111/1748-8583.12135 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12135|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Barriers and access to training ==

To address these disparities, organizations can implement diversity policies, provide bias training, and establish mentorship programs to support underrepresented groups. These may include:

Training and development are crucial to organizational performance, employee career advancement and engagement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hassett |first1=MP |title=The Effect of Access to Training and Development Opportunities, on Rate of Work Engagement Within the U.S. Federal Workforce |journal=Public Personal Management |date=2022 |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=380–404 |doi=10.1177/00910260221098189 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00910260221098189}}</ref>

Disparities* inimplementing inclusive policies for addressing disparities: organizations should establish diversity and inclusion programs that specifically target training canand bedevelopment causedopportunities byfor severalunderrepresented factorsgroups, includingwhich societalshould normsfocus andon culturalopportunities biasesfor thatfuture significantlymanagers impactat the distributionbottom of trainingthe opportunities.hierarchy, Stereotypesas advancement to lower-level and implicitmiddle-level biasespositions canis underminecrucial for promotion to upper-level management.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=S |last2=Ng |first2=AG |title=The glass ceiling in context: the confidenceinfluence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and performancefirm internationalisation on the representation of minoritywomen groupsin tomanagement. seek|journal=Human outResource training,Management affectingJournal their|date=2017 |volume=27 |pages=133–151 |doi=10.1111/1748-8583.12135 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12135|url-access=subscription }}</ref> These policies can help ensure employees have equal access to career developmentadvancement resources and can increase the implementation of mechanisms for reporting discrimination or advancement barriers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=HH |title=Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination. |journal=Review of Public and Personnel AdministrationReview of Public and Personnel Administration |date=2021 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=274–293 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19880578 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19880578|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Some efforts to support diversity and exclusion commitments in workplaces may be enshrined in law, such as the New Zealand Public Service Act 2020.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Zealand Public Service Act 2020 |url=https://legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2020/0040/latest/LMS106159.html |publisher=Legislation New Zealand |access-date=17 September 2024}}</ref>

* Developing mentorship and sponsorship programs: these programs can support underrepresented groups by providing them with guidance, networking opportunities, and advocacy within the organisation. Creating supportive networks for minority and gender groups can provide safe spaces for people identifying as minorities to develop programs that are suited to them and to provide a united voice to report ongoing discrimination.<ref name="Woman and Public Organisation: An E"/>

* Using data to track and address disparities in training opportunities: this may include censuses<ref>{{cite web |title=Improving diversity and inclusion in the Public Service |url=https://www.publicservice.govt.nz/system/public-service-people/diversity-and-inclusion/improving-diversity-and-inclusion-in-the-public-service |website=Te Kawa Mataaho Public Service Commission |access-date=17 September 2024}}</ref> or regular pulse surveys or records of learning that are linked to a person’sperson's self-identified attributes.

The current political climate in the United States has intensified debates around Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) programs, leading to both challenges and shifts in corporate strategies. Increased political polarization, new state-level legislation, and public scrutiny have caused some companies to scale back or reframe DEI initiatives to avoid legal risks or reputational backlash. At the same time, many organizations remain committed to fostering inclusive workplaces, but are increasingly positioning DEI efforts under broader umbrellas like "talent development," "belonging," or "workplace culture" to navigate the evolving landscape. Overall, the environment has made DEI efforts more complex, requiring companies to be both strategic and resilient in advancing inclusive practices.

== Occupation ==

The impact of excluding or limiting a person’s access to training and development opportunities can affect both the individual and the organization.

* Disparities in training opportunities can adversely affect individuals from underrepresented groups, leading to slower career progression, reduced employee engagement, and limited professional growth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hassett |first1=MP |title=The Effect of Access to Training and Development Opportunities, on Rate of Work Engagement Within the U.S. Federal Workforce |journal=Public Personal Management |date=2022 |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=380–404 |doi=10.1177/00910260221098189 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00910260221098189}}</ref> Individuals may experience lower self-esteem and decreased motivation due to perceived or actual access to development opportunities. For example, if a leadership training program does not have minority representation, individuals may lack the confidence to “break the glass ceiling” and seek out the opportunity for themselves.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=S |last2=Ng |first2=AG |title=The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management. |journal=Human Resource Management Journal |date=2017 |volume=27 |pages=133–151 |doi=10.1111/1748-8583.12135 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12135 }}</ref>

* When training opportunities are not equitably distributed, organizations may have reduced diversity in leadership and decision-making, which may stifle innovation and hinder organizational performance. Failure to address these disparities can lead to higher turnover rates and lower employee morale.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=CA |title=Can Training Enhance Public Employees' Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design |journal=American Society for Public Administration |date=2021 |volume=41 |pages=194–215 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19872244 |hdl=10356/149992 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19872244}}</ref>

Management teams that are not diverse can be self-replicating as senior leaders’ demographic characteristics significantly impact the types of programs, policies and practices implemented in the organisation – i.e. there are more likely to be diversity programs if the management team is also diverse.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=S |last2=Ng |first2=AG |title=The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management |journal=Human Resource Management Journal |date=2017 |volume=27 |pages=133–151 |doi=10.1111/1748-8583.12135 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12135}}</ref>

To address these disparities, organizations can implement diversity policies, provide bias training, and establish mentorship programs to support underrepresented groups. These may include:

The Occupational Information Network cites training and development specialists as having a bright outlook, meaning that the occupation will grow rapidly or have several job openings in the next few years. Related professions include training and development managers, (chief) learning officers, [[Industrial and organizational psychology|industrial-organizational psychologists]], and [[organization development]] consultants. Training and development specialists are equipped with the tools to conduct needs analyses, build training programs to suit the organization's needs by using various training techniques, create training materials, and execute and guide training programs.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=13-1151.00 -– Training and Development Specialists |url=https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/13-1151.00?redir=13-1073.00 |access-date=2019-03-01 |website=www.onetonline.org}}</ref>

* implementing inclusive policies for addressing disparities: organizations should establish diversity and inclusion programs that specifically target training and development opportunities for underrepresented groups, which should focus on opportunities for future managers at the bottom of the hierarchy, as advancement to lower-level and middle-level positions is crucial for promotion to upper-level management.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=S |last2=Ng |first2=AG |title=The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management. |journal=Human Resource Management Journal |date=2017 |volume=27 |pages=133–151 |doi=10.1111/1748-8583.12135 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12135}}</ref> These policies can help ensure employees have equal access to career advancement resources and can increase the implementation of mechanisms for reporting discrimination or advancement barriers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=HH |title=Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination. |journal=Review of Public and Personnel AdministrationReview of Public and Personnel Administration |date=2021 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=274–293 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19880578 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19880578}}</ref> Some efforts to support diversity and exclusion commitments in workplaces may be enshrined in law, such as the New Zealand Public Service Act 2020.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Zealand Public Service Act 2020 |url=https://legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2020/0040/latest/LMS106159.html |publisher=Legislation New Zealand |access-date=17 September 2024}}</ref>

* Developing mentorship and sponsorship programs: these programs can support underrepresented groups by providing them with guidance, networking opportunities, and advocacy within the organisation. Creating supportive networks for minority and gender groups can provide safe spaces for people identifying as minorities to develop programs that are suited to them and to provide a united voice to report ongoing discrimination.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=HH |title=Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination |journal=Review of Public and Personnel Administration |date=2021 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=274–293 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19880578 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19880578}}</ref>

* Using data to track and address disparities in training opportunities: this may include censuses<ref>{{cite web |title=Improving diversity and inclusion in the Public Service |url=https://www.publicservice.govt.nz/system/public-service-people/diversity-and-inclusion/improving-diversity-and-inclusion-in-the-public-service |website=Te Kawa Mataaho Public Service Commission |access-date=17 September 2024}}</ref> or regular pulse surveys or records of learning that are linked to a person’s self-identified attributes.

== Occupation ==

The Occupational Information Network cites training and development specialists as having a bright outlook, meaning that the occupation will grow rapidly or have several job openings in the next few years. Related professions include training and development managers, (chief) learning officers, [[Industrial and organizational psychology|industrial-organizational psychologists]], and [[organization development]] consultants. Training and development specialists are equipped with the tools to conduct needs analyses, build training programs to suit the organization's needs by using various training techniques, create training materials, and execute and guide training programs.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=13-1151.00 - Training and Development Specialists |url=https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/13-1151.00?redir=13-1073.00 |access-date=2019-03-01 |website=www.onetonline.org}}</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Adult education]]