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{{Short description|President of the United States from 1981 to 1989}}
{{Redirect|Reagan||Ronald Reagan (disambiguation)|and|Reagan (disambiguation)}}
{{Featured article}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=June 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image = <!-- DO NOT CHANGE this, see [[Talk:Ronald Reagan#Current consensus]], item 9. -->Official Portrait of President Reagan 1981.jpg
| alt = White House portrait of Reagan smiling in front of the U.S. and U.S. president flags, wearing a dark blue suit jacket with a white shirt and burgundy necktie.
| caption = Official portrait, 1981
| order = 40th
| office = President of the United States
| term_start = January 20, 1981
| term_end = January 20, 1989
| predecessor = [[Jimmy Carter]]
| successor = [[George H. W. Bush]]
| vicepresident = George H. W. Bush
| order1 = 33rd
| office1 = Governor of California
| lieutenant1 = {{plainlist|
* {{longitem|[[Robert Finch (American politician)|Robert Finch]]<br />(1967–1969)<ref>{{cite news |last=Oliver |first=Myrna |date=October 11, 1995 |title=Robert H. Finch, Lt. Gov. Under Reagan, Dies : Politics: Leader in California GOP was 70. He also served in Nixon's Cabinet and as President's special counselor and campaign manager. |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-10-11-mn-55826-story.html |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226174756/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-10-11-mn-55826-story.html |archive-date=December 26, 2022 |access-date=April 4, 2020}}</ref>}}
* {{longitem|[[Edwin Reinecke]]<br />(1969–1974)<ref>{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Cindy |date=December 25, 2016 |title=Ed Reinecke, who resigned as California's lieutenant governor after a perjury conviction, dies at 92 |url=https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-reinecke-obit-20161225-story.html |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226175029/https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-reinecke-obit-20161225-story.html |archive-date=December 26, 2022 |access-date=April 4, 2020}}</ref>}}
* {{longitem|[[John L. Harmer]]<br />(1974–1975)<ref>{{cite news |last=South |first=Garry |author-link=Garry South |date=May 21, 2018 |title=California's lieutenant governors rarely move up to the top job |url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/opinion/openforum/article/California-s-lieutenant-governors-rarely-move-12932482.php |newspaper=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226175111/https://www.sfchronicle.com/opinion/openforum/article/California-s-lieutenant-governors-rarely-move-12932482.php |archive-date=December 26, 2022 |access-date=April 4, 2020}}</ref>}}
}}
| term_start1 = January 2, 1967
| term_end1 = January 6, 1975{{sfn|Holmes|2020|p=210}}
| predecessor1 = [[Pat Brown]]
| successor1 = [[Jerry Brown]]
| office2 = <!-- DO NOT add any numbers, there is no citation for this. -->President of the [[Screen Actors Guild]]
| term_start2 = November 16, 1959
| term_end2 = June 7, 1960
| predecessor2 = [[Howard Keel]]
| successor2 = [[George Chandler]]
| term_start3 = March 10, 1947
| term_end3 = November 10, 1952
| predecessor3 = [[Robert Montgomery (actor)|Robert Montgomery]]
| successor3 = [[Walter Pidgeon]]
| birth_name = Ronald Wilson Reagan
| birth_date = {{birth date|1911|2|6}}
| birth_place = [[Tampico, Illinois]], U.S.
| death_date = {{death date and age|2004|6|5|1911|2|6}}
| death_place = Los Angeles, California,<!-- DO NOT LINK this, see [[MOS:OVERLINK]]. --> U.S.
| resting_place = [[Ronald Reagan Presidential Library]]
| party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] (from 1962)
| otherparty = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] (until 1962)
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Jane Wyman]]|January 26, 1940|July 19, 1949|end=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Nancy Davis]]|March 4, 1952}}
}}
| children = 5, including [[Maureen Reagan|Maureen]], [[Michael Reagan|Michael]], [[Patti Davis|Patti]], and [[Ron Reagan|Ron]]
| parents = {{plainlist|
* [[Jack Reagan]]
* [[Nelle Wilson Reagan|Nelle Wilson]]
}}
| occupation = {{hlist|Politician|actor|sports broadcaster|union leader}}
| relatives = [[Neil Reagan]] (brother)
| awards = [[List of awards and honors received by Ronald Reagan|Full list]]
| signature = Ronald Reagan Signature2.svg
| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
| allegiance = <!-- United States; obvious -->
| branch = {{tree list}}
* [[United States Army]]
** [[United States Army Reserve|Army Reserve]]
** [[United States Army Air Forces|Army Air Forces]]
{{tree list/end}}
| branch_label = Service
| serviceyears = {{plainlist|
* 1937–1942 (reserve)
* 1942–1945 (active)
}}
| rank = [[Captain (United States O-3)|Captain]]
| unit = {{plainlist|
* [[322nd Cavalry Regiment (United States)|322nd Cavalry Regiment]]
* [[323rd Cavalry Regiment (United States)|323rd Cavalry Regiment]]
* [[18th AAF Base Unit]]
}}
| battles = [[Military history of the United States during World War II|World War II]]
| battles_label = Wars
| footnotes = {{Collapsible list
|titlestyle=background:lavender;text-align:center;
|title=Other offices
|bullets=on
|1968<ref>{{cite book |title=The Chairman's Report – 1968: To the Members of the Republican National Committee Jan. 16–17, 1969 |date=January 1969 |publisher=[[Republican National Committee]] |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MoEcAQAAMAAJ |access-date=January 16, 2023}}</ref>–1969:<ref>{{cite book |title=Synergy, Volumes 13–30 |date=1969 |publisher=[[Bay Area Reference Center]] |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dLYqAQAAIAAJ |access-date=January 16, 2023 |quote=Governor Raymond Shafer of Pennsylvania was elected on December 13 to succeed Governor Ronald Reagan as Chairman of the Republican Governors Association.}}</ref> Chair of the [[Republican Governors Association]]
}}
| module = {{Listen voice
|filename=
Ronald Reagan on Civil Rights.ogg
|description=Reagan on civil rights
|recorded=June 15, 1985}}
| education = [[Eureka College]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])
}}
'''Ronald Wilson Reagan'''{{efn|Pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|eɪ|ɡ|ən|audio=en-us-Reagan.oga}} {{respell|RAY|gən}}{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=261}}}} (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American politician<!-- DO NOT CHANGE this, see [[Talk:Ronald Reagan#Current consensus]], item 1. --> and actor who served as the 40th [[president of the United States]] from 1981 to 1989. A member of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], he became an important figure in the [[American conservative movement]]. The period encompassing [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan|his presidency]] is known as the [[Reagan era]].
Born in Illinois, Reagan graduated from [[Eureka College]] in 1932 and was hired the next year as a sports broadcaster in Iowa. In 1937, he moved to California where he became a well-known film actor. During his acting career, Reagan was president of the [[Screen Actors Guild]] twice from 1947 to 1952 and from 1959 to 1960. In the 1950s, he hosted ''[[General Electric Theater]]'' and worked as a motivational speaker for [[General Electric]]. During the [[1964 United States presidential election|1964 presidential election]], Reagan's "[[A Time for Choosing]]" speech launched his rise as a leading conservative figure. After being [[1966 California gubernatorial election|elected governor of California in 1966]], he raised state taxes, turned the state budget deficit into a surplus and implemented harsh crackdowns on university protests. Following his loss to [[Gerald Ford]] in the [[1976 Republican Party presidential primaries]], Reagan won the Republican Party's nomination and then obtained a landslide victory over President [[Jimmy Carter]] in the [[1980 United States presidential election|1980 presidential election]].
In his first term as president, Reagan began implementing "[[Reaganomics]]", a policy involving economic deregulation and cuts in both taxes and government spending during [[Early 1980s recession in the United States|a period of stagflation]]. On the world stage, he [[Strategic Defense Initiative|escalated the arms race]], increased military spending, [[Reagan Doctrine|transitioned Cold War policy]] away from the policies of ''[[détente]]'' with the [[Soviet Union]], and ordered the [[1983 invasion of Grenada]]. Reagan also [[Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan|survived an assassination attempt]], fought public-sector labor unions, expanded the [[war on drugs]], and was [[Ronald Reagan and AIDS|slow to respond to the AIDS epidemic]]. In the [[1984 United States presidential election|1984 presidential election]], he defeated former vice president [[Walter Mondale]] in another landslide victory. Foreign affairs dominated Reagan's second term, including the [[1986 bombing of Libya]], the [[Iran–Contra affair|secret and illegal sale of arms to Iran to fund the Contras]], and engaging in negotiations with Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], which culminated in the [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty]].
Reagan left the presidency in 1989 with the American economy having seen a significant reduction of inflation, a fall in the unemployment rate, and the longest peacetime economic expansion in U.S. history at that time. Conversely, despite cuts to domestic discretionary spending, the national debt had nearly tripled since 1981 as a result of his tax cuts and increased military spending. [[Reagan's foreign policies]] also contributed to the end of the Cold War. Though he planned an active post-presidency, it was hindered after he was diagnosed with [[Alzheimer's disease]] in 1994, and his physical and mental capacities gradually deteriorated, leading to [[Death and state funeral of Ronald Reagan|his death]] in 2004. His tenure constituted a [[Realigning election|realignment]] toward conservative policies in the United States, and he is often considered an icon of American conservatism. [[Historical rankings of U.S. presidents]] have typically placed Reagan in the middle to upper tier, and [[Opinion polling on the Ronald Reagan administration|his post-presidential approval ratings by the general public]] are usually high.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Retrospective Approval of Presidents |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/508625/retrospective-approval-jfk-rises-trump.aspx |access-date=August 23, 2023 |publisher=[[Gallup, Inc.]] |date=July 17, 2023}}</ref>
==Early life==
[[File:Portrait of Ronald Reagan, Neil Reagan, Jack Reagan, and Nelle Reagan in Galesburg, Illinois.jpg|thumb|left|From left to right: [[Jack Reagan|Jack]] (father), [[Neil Reagan|Neil]] (elder brother), Ronald, and [[Nelle Wilson Reagan|Nelle]] (mother) ({{c.|1915}})]]
Ronald Wilson Reagan was born on February 6, 1911, in [[Birthplace of Ronald Reagan|an apartment]] in [[Tampico, Illinois]], as the younger son of [[Nelle Wilson Reagan|Nelle Clyde Wilson]] and [[Jack Reagan]].{{sfn|Kengor|2004|p=5}} Nelle was committed to the [[Disciples of Christ]],{{sfn|Kengor|2004|p=12}} which believed in the [[Social Gospel]].{{sfn|Spitz|2018|p=36}} She led [[prayer meeting]]s and ran mid-week prayers at her church when the pastor was out of town.{{sfn|Kengor|2004|p=12}} Reagan credited her spiritual influence{{sfn|Kengor|2004|p=48}} and he became a [[Christianity in the United States|Christian]].{{sfn|Kengor|2004|p=10}} According to American political figure [[Stephen Vaughn]], Reagan's values came from his pastor, and the First Christian Church's religious, economic and social positions "coincided with the words, if not the beliefs of the latter-day Reagan".{{sfn|Vaughn|1995|p=109}} Jack focused on making money to take care of the family,{{sfn|Kengor|2004|p=5}} but this was complicated by his alcoholism.{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=10}} Reagan had an older brother, [[Neil Reagan|Neil]].{{sfn|Kengor|2004|p=4}} The family lived in Chicago, [[Galesburg, Illinois|Galesburg]], and [[Monmouth, Illinois|Monmouth]] before returning to Tampico. In 1920, they settled in [[Dixon, Illinois]],{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=5}} living in [[Ronald Reagan Boyhood Home|a house]] near the [[H. C. Pitney Variety Store Building]].{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=4}}
Reagan attended [[Dixon High School (Illinois)|Dixon High School]], where he developed interests in drama and [[American football|football]].{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=14}} His first job was as a [[lifeguard]] at the [[Rock River (Mississippi River tributary)|Rock River]] in [[Lowell Park (Dixon, Illinois)|Lowell Park]].{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=16}} In 1928, Reagan began attending [[Eureka College]],{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=10}} which Nelle approved because of its affiliation with the Disciples of Christ.{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=17}} He was a mediocre student{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=21}} who participated in sports, drama, and campus politics. He became [[student body president]] and joined a student strike that resulted in the college president's resignation.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|pp=10–11}} Reagan was initiated as a member of [[Tau Kappa Epsilon]] fraternity and served as president of the local chapter.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Redeske |first=Heather |date=Summer 2004 |title=Remembering Reagan |url=https://my.tke.org/theteke/2004-Summer.pdf |magazine=The Teke |publisher=[[Tau Kappa Epsilon]] |pages=8–13 |volume=97 |issue=3 |access-date=November 11, 2023}}</ref> Reagan played at the [[Guard (American football)|guard]] position for the [[1930 Eureka Red Devils football team|1930]] and [[1931 Eureka Red Devils football team]]s and recalled a time when two Black teammates were refused service at a [[Racial segregation in the United States|segregated]] hotel; he invited them to his parents' home nearby in Dixon and his parents welcomed them. At the time, his parents' stance on racial questions was unusually [[Progressivism in the United States|progressive]] in Dixon.{{sfnm|1a1=Cannon|1y=2000|1p=457|2a1=Mayer|2y=2015|2p=73}} Reagan himself had grown up with very few [[Black Americans]] and was oblivious to racial discrimination.{{sfn|Primuth|2016|p=42}}
==Entertainment career==
{{Further|Ronald Reagan filmography}}
===Radio and film===
{{Multiple image|total_width=400|align=left|image1=Ronald Reagan in Dark Victory trailer.jpg|alt1=A frame of Ronald Reagan in the 1939 film Dark Victory|caption1=''[[Dark Victory]]'' (1939)|image2=Ronald Reagan in The Bad Man (1941).png|alt2=A frame of Reagan in the 1941 film The Bad Man|caption2=''[[The Bad Man (1941 film)|The Bad Man]]'' (1941)}}
{{Ronald Reagan series}}
After obtaining a [[Bachelor of Arts]] in economics and sociology from [[Eureka College]] in 1932,{{sfn|Mullen|1999|p=207}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://reagan.eureka.edu/visit-reagans-campus.html |title=Visit Reagan's Campus |website=The Ronald W. Reagan Society of Eureka College |access-date=February 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418015423/https://reagan.eureka.edu/visit-reagans-campus.html |archive-date=April 18, 2023}}</ref> Reagan took a job in [[Davenport, Iowa]], as a sports broadcaster for four football games in the [[Big Ten Conference]].{{sfn|Brands|2015|pp=24–26}} He then worked for [[WHO (AM)|WHO radio]] in [[Des Moines]] as a broadcaster for the [[Chicago Cubs]]. His specialty was creating play-by-play accounts of games using only basic descriptions that the station received by wire as the games were in progress.{{sfn|Brands|2015|pp=29–30}} Simultaneously, he often expressed his opposition to racism.{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=458}} In 1936, while traveling with the Cubs to their spring training in California, Reagan took a screen test that led to a seven-year contract with [[Warner Bros.]]{{sfn|Woodard|2012|pp=18–19}}
Reagan arrived at [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]] in 1937, debuting in ''[[Love Is on the Air]]'' (1937).{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=39–40}} Using a simple and direct approach to acting and following his directors' instructions,{{sfn|Freie|2015|pp=43–44}} he made thirty films, mostly [[B films]], before beginning [[Military history of the United States during World War II|military service]] in April 1942.{{sfn|Vaughn|1994|p=30}} He broke out of these types of films by portraying [[George Gipp]] in ''[[Knute Rockne, All American]]'' (1940), which would be rejuvenated when reporters called Reagan "the Gipper" while he campaigned for president.{{sfn|Cannon|2001|pp=13–15}} Reagan starred in ''[[Kings Row]]'' (1942) as a leg amputee;{{sfn|Woodard|2012|pp=25–26}} this performance was considered his best by many critics.{{sfn|Vaughn|1994|p=37}} Reagan became a star,{{sfn|Friedrich|1997|p=89}} with [[Gallup polls]] placing him "in the top 100 stars" from 1941 to 1942.{{sfn|Vaughn|1994|p=37}}
[[World War II]] interrupted the movie stardom that Reagan would never be able to achieve again{{sfn|Friedrich|1997|p=89}} as Warner Bros. became uncertain about his ability to generate ticket sales. Reagan, who had a limited acting range, was dissatisfied with the roles he received. [[Lew Wasserman]] renegotiated his contract with his studio, allowing him to also make films with [[Universal Pictures]], [[Paramount Pictures]], and [[RKO Pictures]] as a freelancer. Reagan appeared in multiple [[western film]]s, something that had been denied to him while working at Warner Bros.{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=59}} In 1952, he ended his relationship with Warner Bros.,{{sfn|Vaughn|1994|p=236}} but went on to appear in a total of 53 films,{{sfn|Vaughn|1994|p=30}} his last being ''[[The Killers (1964 film)|The Killers]]'' (1964).{{sfn|Vaughn|1994|p=312}}
===Military service===
[[File:Reagan FMPU.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Captain Reagan in the Army Air Force working for the 1st Motion Picture Unit in Culver City, California, between 1943 and 1944|Reagan at [[First Motion Picture Unit#Life at Fort Roach|Fort Roach]], between 1943 and 1944]]
In April 1937, Reagan enlisted in the [[United States Army Reserve]]. He was assigned as a [[Private (rank)|private]] in Des Moines' [[322nd Cavalry Regiment (United States)|322nd Cavalry Regiment]] and reassigned to [[second lieutenant]] in the Officers Reserve Corps.{{sfn|Oliver|Marion|2010|p=148}} He later became a part of the [[323rd Cavalry Regiment (United States)|323rd Cavalry Regiment]] in California.{{sfn|Vaughn|1994|p=96}} As relations between the United States and [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] worsened, Reagan was ordered for active duty while he was filming ''[[Kings Row]]''. Wasserman and Warner Bros. lawyers successfully sent draft deferments to complete the film in October 1941. However, to avoid accusations of Reagan being a [[draft dodger]], the studio let him go in April 1942.{{sfnm|1a1=Woodard|1y=2012|1p=26|2a1=Brands|2y=2015|2pp=54–55}}
Reagan reported for duty with severe [[near-sightedness]]. His first assignment was at [[Fort Mason]] as a [[liaison officer]], a role that allowed him to transfer to the [[United States Army Air Forces]] (AAF). Reagan became an AAF [[public relations officer]] and was assigned to the [[18th AAF Base Unit]] in [[Culver City]]{{sfn|Oliver|Marion|2010|pp=148–149}} where he felt that it was "impossible to remove an incompetent or lazy worker" due to what he felt was "the incompetence, the delays, and inefficiencies" of the federal [[bureaucracy]].{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=27}} Despite this, Reagan participated in the Provisional Task Force Show Unit in [[Burbank, California|Burbank]]{{sfn|Oliver|Marion|2010|p=149}} and continued to make theatrical films.{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=57}} He was also ordered to temporary duty in New York City to participate in the [[Series E bond|sixth War Loan Drive]] before being reassigned to [[Fort MacArthur]] until his discharge on December 9, 1945, as a [[Captain (United States O-3)|captain]]. Throughout his military service, Reagan produced over 400 [[training film]]s.{{sfn|Oliver|Marion|2010|p=149}}
===Screen Actors Guild presidency===
[[File:Telephone conference during 1946 CSU strike.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|Seven actors and studio workers during a telephone conference held in the aftermath of [[Hollywood Black Friday]] in which [[American Federation of Labor]] officials denied issuing a "clarification" which set off the film strike, October 26, 1946.<br /><small>'''(L-R):''' James Skelton, [[Herbert Sorrell]], '''Ronald Reagan''', [[Edward Arnold (actor)|Edward Arnold]], Roy Tindall, [[George Murphy]], and [[Gene Kelly]].</small>]]
When [[Robert Montgomery (actor)|Robert Montgomery]] resigned as president of the [[Screen Actors Guild]] (SAG) on March 10, 1947, Reagan was elected to that position in a special election.{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=86}} Reagan's first tenure saw various labor–management disputes,{{sfn|Vaughn|1994|p=133}} the [[Hollywood blacklist]],{{sfn|Vaughn|1994|p=146}} and the [[Taft–Hartley Act]]'s implementation.{{sfn|Vaughn|1994|p=154}} Reagan aligned the union with the studios against the Conference of Studio Unions in the aftermath of the [[Hollywood Black Friday]] strike. In ''The Invisible Bridge,'' [[Rick Perlstein]] wrote that Reagan's actions lent legitimacy to the studio's efforts to crush the more radical union by giving liberals in SAG who did not want to strike "a story that turned them into moral innocents instead of scabs".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Perlstein |first=Rick |url=https://archive.org/details/invisiblebridgef0000perl |title=The invisible bridge : the fall of Nixon and the rise of Reagan |date=2014 |publisher=New York : Simon & Schuster |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-1-4767-8241-6 |pages=365}}</ref> On April 10, the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) interviewed Reagan and he provided the names of actors whom he believed to be [[communist sympathizers]].{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=32}} During a [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] hearing, Reagan testified that some guild members were associated with the [[Communist Party USA|Communist Party]]{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=97}} and that he was well-informed about a "jurisdictional strike".{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=98}} When asked if he was aware of communist efforts within the [[Screen Writers Guild]], he called information about the efforts "hearsay".{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=89}} Reagan resigned as SAG president November 10, 1952, but remained on the board.{{sfn|Eliot|2008|p=266}}
The SAG fought with film producers for the right to receive [[Residual (entertainment industry)|residual payments]],{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=35}} and on November 16, 1959, the board elected Reagan SAG president for the second time.<ref>{{cite news |date=November 17, 1959 |title=Reagan Heads Actors Guild |url=https://newspaperarchive.com/celebrity-clipping-nov-17-1959-4623386/ |newspaper=[[The Arizona Republic]] |agency=[[United Press International]] |page=47 |access-date=August 15, 2024}}</ref> Reagan managed to secure payments for actors whose theatrical films had been released between 1948 and 1959 and subsequently televised. The producers were initially required to pay the actors fees, but they ultimately settled instead for providing pensions and paying residuals for films made after 1959. Reagan resigned from the SAG presidency on June 7, 1960, and also left the board.{{sfn|Cannon|2003|pp=111–112}}
===Marriages and children===
{{Multiple image|total_width=400|image1=Wyman & Reagan.jpg|alt1=Actors Jane Wyman and Ronald Reagan at a Los Angeles premiere for the 1942 film Tales of Manhattan|caption1=Reagan and Jane Wyman, 1942|image2=The Reagan's at the Stork Club in New York City.jpg|alt2=The Reagans at The Stork Club in New York City, 1952|caption2=Ronald and Nancy Reagan, 1952}}
In January 1940, Reagan married [[Jane Wyman]], his co-star in the 1938 film ''[[Brother Rat]]''.{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=43}}{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=23}} Together, they had two biological daughters: [[Maureen Reagan|Maureen]] in 1941,{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=25}} and Christine in 1947 (born prematurely and died the following day).{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=29}} They adopted one son, [[Michael Reagan|Michael]], in 1945.{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=27}} Wyman filed for divorce in June 1948. She was uninterested in politics, and occasionally recriminated, reconciled and [[Marital separation|separated]] with him. Although Reagan was unprepared,{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=29}} the divorce was finalized in July 1949. Reagan would remain close to his children.{{sfn|Cannon|2003|pp=73–74}} Later that year, Reagan met [[Nancy Davis]] after she contacted him in his capacity as the SAG president about her name appearing on a communist [[blacklist in Hollywood]]; she had been mistaken for another Nancy Davis.{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=109}} They married in March 1952,{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=113}} and had two children, [[Patti Davis|Patti]] in October 1952, and [[Ron Reagan|Ron]] in May 1958.{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=199}} Reagan has three grandchildren.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ronald Reagan's Family |url=https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/reagans/ronald-reagan/ronald-reagans-family |access-date=June 27, 2024 |website=Ronald Reagan |language=en}}</ref>
===Television===
Reagan became the host of [[MCA Inc.]] television production ''[[General Electric Theater]]''{{sfn|Vaughn|1994|p=236}} at Wasserman's recommendation. It featured multiple guest stars,{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=120}} and Ronald and Nancy Reagan, continuing to use her stage name Nancy Davis, acted together in three episodes.{{sfn|Metzger|1989|p=26}} When asked how Reagan was able to recruit such stars to appear on the show during television's infancy, he replied, "Good stories, top direction, production quality".{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=122}} However, the viewership declined in the 1960s and the show was canceled in 1962.{{sfn|Brands|2015|pp=131–132}} In 1965, Reagan became the host{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=145}} of another MCA production, ''[[Death Valley Days]]''.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=36}}
==Early political activities==
[[File:Goldwater-Reagan in 1964.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Reagan speaking for presidential candidate Barry Goldwater in Los Angeles, 1964|Reagan [[Barry Goldwater 1964 presidential campaign|campaigning]] with [[Barry Goldwater]], 1964]]
Reagan began his political career as a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]], viewing [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] as "a true hero".{{sfn|Yager|2006|pp=12–13}} He joined the [[American Veterans Committee (1943–2008)|American Veterans Committee]] and [[Hollywood Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions]] (HICCASP), worked with the [[AFL–CIO]] to fight [[right-to-work law]]s,{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=28}} and continued to speak out against racism when he was in Hollywood.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=139}} In 1945, Reagan planned to lead an HICCASP anti-nuclear rally, but Warner Bros. prevented him from going.{{sfn|Lettow|2006|pp=4–5}} In 1946, he appeared in a radio program called ''Operation Terror'' to speak out against rising [[Ku Klux Klan]] activity, calling it a "capably organized systematic campaign of fascist violence and intimidation and horror".<ref name="Racism">{{cite journal |last=Vaughn |first=Stephen |year=2002 |title=Ronald Reagan and the Struggle for Black Dignity in Cinema, 1937–1953 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1562493 |journal=The Journal of African American History |volume = The Past Before Us(Winter, 2002) |issue = 87 |pages = 83–97 |doi=10.1086/JAAHv87n1p83 |jstor=1562493 |s2cid=141324540 |access-date=May 1, 2023 |issn = 1548-1867 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Reagan supported [[Harry S. Truman]] in the [[1948 United States presidential election|1948 presidential election]],{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=49}} and [[Helen Gahagan Douglas]] for the [[1950 United States Senate election in California|U.S. Senate in 1950]]. It was Reagan's belief that communism was a powerful backstage influence in Hollywood that led him to rally his friends against them.{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=28}}
Reagan began shifting to the right when he supported the presidential campaigns of [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in 1952 and [[Richard Nixon]] in 1960.{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=53}} When Reagan was contracted by [[General Electric]] (GE), he gave speeches to their employees. His speeches had a positive take on [[free market]]s.{{sfn|Woodard|2012|pp=42–43}} In 1961, Reagan adapted his speeches into [[Ronald Reagan Speaks Out Against Socialized Medicine|another speech]] to criticize [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]].{{sfn|Skidmore|2008|p=103}} In his view, its legislation would have meant "the end of [[individual freedom]] in the United States".{{sfn|Onge|2017|p=240}} In 1962, Reagan was dropped by GE,{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=112}} and he formally registered as a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]].{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=53}}
In the [[1964 U.S. presidential election]], Reagan gave a speech for presidential contender [[Barry Goldwater]]{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=55}} that was eventually referred to as "[[A Time for Choosing]]".{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=132}} Reagan argued that the [[Founding Fathers]] "knew that governments don't control things. And they knew when a government sets out to do that, it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose"{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=27}} and that "We've been told increasingly that we must choose between left or right".{{sfn|Reagan|1990|pp=99–100}} Even though the speech was not enough to turn around the faltering [[Barry Goldwater 1964 presidential campaign|Goldwater campaign]], it increased Reagan's profile among conservatives. [[David S. Broder]] and [[Stephen H. Hess]] called it "the most successful national political debut since [[William Jennings Bryan]] electrified the [[1896 Democratic National Convention|1896 Democratic convention]] with his famous [[Cross of Gold speech|'Cross of Gold' address]]".{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=55}}
===1966 California gubernatorial election===
{{further|1966 California gubernatorial election}}
[[File:Ronald Reagan and Nancy Reagan at victory celebration for 1966 Governor's election (cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=The Reagans celebrating Ronald's victory in the 1966 California gubernatorial election at The Biltmore Hotel in Los Angeles|Ronald and Nancy Reagan celebrating his gubernatorial election victory, November 1966]]
In January 1966, Reagan announced his candidacy for the [[governor of California|California governorship]],{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=141}} repeating his stances on individual freedom and [[big government]].{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=148}} When he met with black Republicans in March,{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=149}} he was criticized for opposing the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]. Reagan responded that bigotry was not in his nature{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=142}} and later argued that certain provisions of the act infringed upon the rights of property owners.{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=150}} After the [[Supreme Court of California]] ruled that the initiative that repealed the [[Rumford Act]] was unconstitutional in May, he voiced his support for the act's repeal,{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=147}} but later preferred amending it.{{sfn|Putnam|2006|p=27}} In the Republican primary, Reagan defeated [[George Christopher (mayor)|George Christopher]],{{sfn|Cannon|2003|pp=147–148}} a moderate Republican{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=135}} who [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] thought had painted Reagan as extreme.{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=148}}
Reagan's general election opponent, incumbent governor [[Pat Brown]], attempted to label Reagan as an extremist.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=69}} Reagan portrayed himself as a political outsider,{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=149}} and charged Brown as responsible for the [[Watts riots]] and lenient on crime.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=69}} In numerous speeches, Reagan "hit the Brown administration about high taxes, uncontrolled spending, the radicals at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], and the need for [[accountability]] in government".{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=59}} Meanwhile, many in the press perceived Reagan as "monumentally ignorant of state issues", though [[Lou Cannon]] said that Reagan benefited from an appearance he and Brown made on ''[[Meet the Press]]'' in September.{{sfn|Cannon|2003|pp=158–159}} Reagan won the governorship with 57 percent of the vote compared to Brown's 42 percent.{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=60}}
== California governorship (1967–1975) ==
{{Main|Governorship of Ronald Reagan}}
[[File:Ronald Reagan and Nancy Reagan at airport, 1972 restored.jpg|thumb|alt=The Reagans at an airport, 1972|The Reagans in 1972]]
Brown had spent much of California's funds on new programs, prompting them to use [[accrual accounting]] to avoid raising taxes. Consequently, it generated a larger deficit,{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=5}} and Reagan called for reduced government spending and tax hikes to [[balance the budget]].{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=64}} He worked with [[Jesse M. Unruh]] on securing tax increases and promising future property tax cuts. This caused some conservatives to accuse Reagan of betraying his principles.{{sfn|Brands|2015|pp=157–159}} As a result, taxes on sales, banks, corporate profits, inheritances, liquor, and cigarettes jumped. [[Kevin Starr]] states Reagan "gave Californians the biggest tax hike in their history—and got away with it".{{sfn|Putnam|2006|p=26}} In [[1970 California gubernatorial election|the 1970 gubernatorial election]], Unruh used Reagan's tax policy against him, saying it disproportionally favored the wealthy. Reagan countered that he was still committed to reducing property taxes.{{sfn|Schuparra|2015|pp=47–48}} By 1973, the budget had a surplus, which Reagan preferred "to give back to the people".{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=370}}
In 1967, Reagan reacted to the [[Black Panther Party]]'s strategy of [[copwatch]]ing by signing the [[Mulford Act]]{{sfn|Hayes|Fortunato|Hibbing|2020|p=819}} to prohibit the public carrying of firearms. The act was California's most restrictive piece of [[Gun politics in the United States|gun control legislation]], with critics saying that it was "overreacting to the political activism of organizations such as the Black Panthers".{{sfn|Carter|2002|p=493}} The act marked the beginning of both modern legislation and [[Public opinion on gun control in the United States|public attitude studies]] on gun control.{{sfn|Hayes|Fortunato|Hibbing|2020|p=819}} Reagan also signed the 1967 Therapeutic Abortion Act that allowed abortions in the cases of rape and incest when a doctor determined the birth would impair the physical or mental health of the mother. He later expressed regret over signing it, saying that he was unaware of the mental health provision. He believed that doctors were interpreting the provision loosely, resulting in more abortions.{{sfn|Cannon|2003|pp=209–214}}
After Reagan won the 1966 election, he and his advisors planned a run in the [[1968 Republican Party presidential primaries|1968 Republican presidential primaries]].{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=76}} He ran as an unofficial candidate to cut into Nixon's southern support and be a compromise candidate if there were to be a [[brokered convention]]. He won California's delegates,{{sfn|Gould|2010|pp=92–93}} but Nixon secured enough delegates for [[1968 Republican National Convention|the nomination]].{{sfn|Gould|2010|pp=96–97}}
Reagan had previously been critical of former governor Brown and university administrators for tolerating student demonstrations in the city of [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], making it a major theme in his campaigning.{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=271}}
On February 5, 1969, Reagan declared a state of emergency in response to [[Free Speech Movement#1966–1970|ongoing protests]] and violence at the University of California, Berkeley, and sent in the [[California Highway Patrol]]. In May 1969, these officers, along with local officers from Berkeley and Alameda county, [[1969 People's Park protest|clashed with protestors]] over a site known as the [[People's Park (Berkeley)|People's Park]].{{sfn|Cannon|2003|pp=291–292}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Remembering "Bloody Thursday:" 1969 People's Park Riot |url=https://dailycal.org/2017/04/21/remembering-bloody-thursday-1969-peoples-park-riot |website=The Daily Californian |date=April 21, 2017 |access-date=May 25, 2023}}</ref> One student was shot and killed while many police officers and two reporters were injured. Reagan then commanded the [[California National Guard|state National Guard troops]] to occupy Berkeley for seventeen days to subdue the protesters, allowing other students to attend class safely. In February 1970, violent protests broke out near the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]], where he once again deployed the National Guard. On April 7, Reagan defended his policies regarding campus protests, saying, "If it takes a bloodbath, let's get it over with. No more appeasement".{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=295}}
[[File:Francisco Franco Ronald Reagan 1972.jpg|thumb|right|Governor Reagan meets [[Francisco Franco|Generalísimo Francisco Franco]] during his visit to Spain, July 11, 1972]]
During his victorious reelection campaign in 1970, Reagan, remaining critical of government, promised to prioritize [[welfare reform]].{{sfn|Woodard|2012|pp=73, 75}} He was concerned that the programs were disincentivizing work and that the growing welfare rolls would lead to both an unbalanced budget and another big tax hike in 1972.{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=75}} At the same time, the [[Federal Reserve]] increased interest rates to combat inflation, putting the American economy in [[Recession of 1969–1970|a mild recession]]. Reagan worked with [[Bob Moretti]] to tighten up the eligibility requirements so that the financially needy could continue receiving payments. This was only accomplished after Reagan softened his criticism of Nixon's [[Family Assistance Plan]]. Nixon then lifted regulations to shepherd California's experiment.{{sfn|Brands|2015|pp=179–181}} In 1976, the [[Employment Development Department]] published a report suggesting that the experiment that ran from 1971 to 1974 was unsuccessful.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rich |first=Spencer |date=March 30, 1981 |title=Reagan's Workfare Program Failed in California, Report Reveals |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1981/03/30/reagans-workfare-program-failed-in-california-report-reveals/c18ec063-e9e0-4f85-a1cf-30260b89a9be/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221224225533/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1981/03/30/reagans-workfare-program-failed-in-california-report-reveals/c18ec063-e9e0-4f85-a1cf-30260b89a9be/ |archive-date=December 24, 2022 |access-date=December 24, 2022}}</ref>
Reagan declined to run for the governorship [[1974 California gubernatorial election|in 1974]] and it was won by Pat Brown's son, [[Jerry Brown|Jerry]].{{sfn|Cannon|2000|pp=754–755}} Reagan's governorship, as professor Gary K. Clabaugh writes, saw public schools deteriorate due to his opposition to additional basic education funding.{{sfn|Clabaugh|2004|p=257}} As for higher education, journalist William Trombley believed that the budget cuts Reagan enacted damaged Berkeley's student-faculty ratio and research.{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=296}} The homicide rate doubled and armed robbery rates rose by even more during Reagan's eight years, even with the many laws Reagan signed to try toughening criminal sentencing and reforming the criminal justice system.{{sfn|Cannon|2003|p=388}} Reagan strongly supported capital punishment, but his efforts to enforce it were thwarted by ''[[People v. Anderson]]'' in 1972.{{sfn|Cannon|2003|pp=223–224}} According to his son, Michael, Reagan said that he regretted signing the Family Law Act that granted [[no-fault divorce]]s.{{sfn|Reagan|2011|p=67}}
== Seeking the presidency (1975–1981) ==
===
{{
[[File:1976 Republican National Convention.jpg|thumb|alt=Reagan and Gerald Ford shaking hands on the podium after Reagan narrowly lost the nomination at the 1976 Republican National Convention|Reagan and Gerald Ford shaking hands on the podium after Reagan narrowly lost the nomination at the [[1976 Republican National Convention]]]]
Insufficiently conservative to Reagan{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=78}} and many other Republicans,{{sfn|Primuth|2016|p=45}} President [[Gerald Ford]] suffered from multiple political and economic woes. Ford, running for president, was disappointed to hear him also run.{{sfn|Woodard|2012|pp=84–87}} Reagan was strongly critical of ''détente'' and Ford's policy of ''détente'' with the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Kengor|2006|p=48}} He repeated "A Time for Choosing" around the country{{sfn|Brands|2015|pp=193–194}} before announcing his campaign on November 20, 1975, when he discussed economic and social problems, and to a lesser extent, foreign affairs.{{sfn|Primuth|2016|p=47}} Both candidates were determined to knock each other out early in the primaries,{{sfn|Witcover|1977|p=433}} but Reagan would devastatingly lose the first five primaries beginning with New Hampshire,{{sfn|Woodard|2012|pp=89–90}} where he popularized the [[welfare queen]] narrative about [[Linda Taylor]], exaggerating her misuse of welfare benefits and igniting voter resentment for welfare reform,{{sfn|Boris|2007|pp=612–613}} but never overtly mentioning her name or race.{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=457}}
In Florida, Reagan used [[dog whistle politics|racially coded rhetoric]] to undermine [[Food Stamps]], referring to recipients as "strapping young buck[s]",{{sfn|Primuth|2016|p=48}}{{sfn|Haney López|2014|p=4}} and attacked Ford for handing the [[Panama Canal]] to Panama's government, while Ford implied that Reagan would [[Social Security debate in the United States|end Social Security]].{{sfn|Woodard|2012|pp=89–90}} Then, in Illinois, Reagan again criticized Ford's policy and his secretary of state, [[Henry Kissinger]].{{sfn|Witcover|1977|p=404}} Losing the first five primaries prompted Reagan to desperately win North Carolina's by running a grassroots campaign and uniting with the [[Jesse Helms]] political machine that viciously attacked Ford. Reagan won an upset victory, convincing party delegates that Ford's nomination was no longer guaranteed.{{sfnm|1a1=Woodard|1y=2012|1p=91|2a1=Primuth|2y=2016|2p=48}} Reagan won subsequent victories in Texas, Alabama, Georgia, and Indiana with his attacks on social programs, opposition to [[forced busing]] to achieve school [[Desegregation in the United States|desegregation]],{{sfn|Primuth|2016|pp=49–50}} and repeated criticisms of Ford and Kissinger's policies, including ''détente''.{{sfn|Patterson|2005|p=104}}
[[File:Ronald Reagan remarks Republican National Convention 1976.ogv|thumb|thumbtime=06:22|right|300px|Reagan's concession speech at the 1976 convention]]
The result was a seesaw battle for the 1,130 delegates required for their party's nomination that neither would reach before the [[1976 Republican National Convention|Kansas City convention]]{{sfn|Woodard|2012|pp=92–93}} in August{{sfn|Boller|2004|p=345}} and Ford replacing mentions of ''détente'' with Reagan's preferred phrase, "[[peace through strength]]".{{sfn|Kengor|2006|p=49}} Reagan took [[John Sears (political strategist)|John Sears]]' advice of choosing liberal [[Richard Schweiker]] as his running mate, hoping to pry loose of delegates from Pennsylvania and other states, and distract Ford. Instead, conservatives were left alienated, and Ford picked up the remaining uncommitted delegates, earning 1,187 to Reagan's 1,070.{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=204}}
After giving his acceptance speech, Ford invited Reagan to address the convention. Reagan gave an eloquent and stirring speech that overshadowed Ford's own acceptance address, despite being little more than five minutes long. Some delegates later stated that they left the convention wondering if they had voted for the wrong candidate.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n-p-Nuu8hYQ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/n-p-Nuu8hYQ |archive-date=2021-12-22 |url-status=live|title=Reagan's Impromptu Speech at 1976 GOP Convention |publisher=YouTube |date=1980-07-17 |access-date=2015-08-25}}{{cbignore}}</ref> A contemporary media account stated that if a motion to reconsider the nomination had been in order, it might have passed.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dickenson |first1=James R. |title=Hearts Are with Reagan |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=rRsaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jCQEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5374%2C5704418 |access-date=2015-07-06 |work=[[Times-News (Hendersonville, North Carolina)|The Times-News]] |agency=[[Washington Star]] |date=1976-08-21 |___location=Hendersonville, N.C. |page=2}}</ref>
In 1977, Ford told Cannon that Reagan's primary challenge contributed to his own narrow loss to Democrat [[Jimmy Carter]] in the [[1976 United States presidential election|1976 presidential election]].{{sfn|Cannon|2003|pp=432, 434}}
===
{{
{{Further|1980 Republican Party presidential primaries|1980 United States presidential election}}
[[File:ElectoralCollege1980.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=Results for the 1980 United States presidential election|1980 electoral vote results. Reagan won 489–49.]]
Reagan emerged as a vocal critic of President Carter in 1977. The [[Panama Canal Treaty]]'s signing, the [[1979 oil crisis]], and rise in the interest, [[misery index (economics)|inflation and unemployment rates]] helped set up his 1980 presidential campaign,{{sfn|Woodard|2012|pp=99–101}} which he announced on November 13, 1979{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|pp=86}} with an indictment of the federal government.{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=102}} His announcement stressed his fundamental principles of tax cuts to stimulate the economy and having both a [[small government]] and a strong [[national defense]],{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|pp=86–87}} since he believed the United States was behind the Soviet Union militarily.<ref name="Bowman 2004" /> Heading into 1980, his age became an issue among the press, and the United States was in [[Early 1980s recession|a severe recession]].{{sfn|Woodard|2012|pp=102–103}}
In the [[1980 Republican Party presidential primaries|primaries]], Reagan unexpectedly lost the [[Iowa caucus]] to [[George H. W. Bush]]. Three days before the [[New Hampshire primary]], the Reagan and Bush campaigns agreed to a one-on-one debate sponsored by ''[[The Telegraph (Nashua, New Hampshire)|The Telegraph]]'' at [[Nashua, New Hampshire]], but hours before the debate, the Reagan campaign invited other candidates including [[Bob Dole]], [[John B. Anderson]], [[Howard Baker]] and [[Phil Crane]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=February 24, 1980|title=GOP Debate fires tempers|work=[[San Bernardino Sun]]|url=https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a=d&d=SBS19800224.1.1&e=-------en--20--1--txt-txIN--------1|access-date=May 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522132624/https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a=d&d=SBS19800224.1.1&e=-------en--20--1--txt-txIN--------1|archive-date=May 22, 2021|via=[[California Digital Newspaper Collection]]}}</ref> Debate moderator Jon Breen denied seats to the other candidates, asserting that ''The Telegraph'' would violate federal campaign contribution laws if it sponsored the debate and changed the ground rules hours before the debate.{{Sfn|Birkner|1987|pp=283–289}} As a result, the Reagan campaign agreed to pay for the debate. Reagan said that as he was funding the debate, he could decide who would debate.<ref>{{Cite news|date=February 24, 1980|title=GOP flaps over rules, overshadows debate|work=[[Toledo Blade]]|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=bDBPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=lgIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7096%2C3793431|access-date=May 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522134110/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=bDBPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=lgIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7096%2C3793431|archive-date=May 22, 2021}}</ref> During the debate, when Breen was laying out the ground rules and attempting to ask the first question, Reagan interrupted in protest to make an introductory statement and wanted other candidates to be included before the debate began.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Dufresne|first1=Louise|date=February 11, 2016|title=Ronald Reagan's testy moment in the 1980 GOP debate|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/reagans-testy-moment-in-the-1980-gop-debate/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522141237/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/reagans-testy-moment-in-the-1980-gop-debate/|archive-date=May 22, 2021|access-date=May 22, 2021|website=[[CBS News]]|language=en}}</ref> The moderator asked Bob Malloy, the volume operator, to mute Reagan's microphone. After Breen repeated his demand to Malloy, Reagan furiously replied, "I am paying for this microphone, Mr. Green!{{sic}}".{{Efn|Reagan misstated Breen's last name as "Mr. Green".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Marquard|first=Bryan|date=October 2, 2017|title=Jon Breen, 81, editor who moderated famous Reagan-Bush debate|work=[[The Boston Globe]]|url=http://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/obituaries/2017/10/02/jon-breen-editor-who-moderated-famous-reagan-bush-debate/HAk6qLLqMdBxp01NOnMSuL/story.html|access-date=July 20, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171008145920/http://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/obituaries/2017/10/02/jon-breen-editor-who-moderated-famous-reagan-bush-debate/HAk6qLLqMdBxp01NOnMSuL/story.html|archive-date=October 8, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=November 11, 2015|title=RealClearSports – Ronald Reagan: "I am paying for this microphone."|url=https://www.realclearpolitics.com/lists/debatemoments/reagan.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024602/https://www.realclearpolitics.com/lists/debatemoments/reagan.html|archive-date=April 15, 2021|access-date=May 22, 2021|website=[[RealClearPolitics]]}}</ref> This turned out to be the turning point of the debate and the primary race.<ref>{{Cite news|date=February 25, 1980|title=N.H. Campaign at fever pitch before primary|work=[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]]|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=r5JKAAAAIBAJ&sjid=820DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6707%2C2996060|access-date=May 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522140355/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=r5JKAAAAIBAJ&sjid=820DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6707%2C2996060|archive-date=May 22, 2021}}</ref> Ultimately, the four additional candidates left, and the debate continued between Reagan and Bush. Reagan's polling numbers improved, and he won the New Hampshire primary by more than 39,000 votes.<ref>{{Cite news|date=February 27, 1980|title=Reagan scores landslide win in Hew Hampshire|work=[[Toledo Blade]]|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=bzBPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=lgIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6171%2C5394771|access-date=May 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522140831/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=bzBPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=lgIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6171%2C5394771|archive-date=May 22, 2021}}</ref> Soon thereafter, Reagan's opponents began dropping out of the primaries, including Anderson, who left the party to become an independent candidate. Reagan easily captured the presidential nomination and chose Bush as his running mate at the [[1980 Republican National Convention|Detroit convention]] in July.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|pp=87–89}}
The general election pitted Reagan against Carter amid the multitude of domestic concerns and ongoing [[Iran hostage crisis]] that began on November 4, 1979.{{sfnm|1a1=Pemberton|1y=1998|1pp=89–90|2a1=Woodard|2y=2012|2p=101}} Reagan's campaign worried that Carter would be able to secure the release of the American hostages in [[Iran]] as part of the [[October surprise]],{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=110}} Carter "suggested that Reagan would wreck [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]" and portrayed him as a warmonger,{{sfn|Cannon|2001|pp=83–84}} and Anderson carried support [[Rockefeller Republican|from liberal Republicans]] dissatisfied with Reagan's conservatism.{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=110}}{{efn|John B. Anderson questioned how realistic Reagan's budget proposals were, saying: "The only way Reagan is going to cut taxes, increase defense spending, and balance the budget at the same time is to use blue smoke and mirrors."{{sfn|Anderson|1990|p=126}}}} One of Reagan's key strengths was his appeal to the rising conservative movement. Though most conservative leaders espoused cutting taxes and budget deficits, many conservatives focused more closely on social issues like abortion and [[LGBT rights in the United States|gay rights]].<ref>Patterson, pp. 130–134</ref> Evangelical Protestants became an increasingly important voting bloc, and they generally supported Reagan.<ref>Patterson, pp. 135–141, 150</ref> Reagan also won the backing of [[Reagan Democrat]]s.<ref>Patterson, p. 131</ref> Though he advocated socially conservative viewpoints, Reagan focused much of his campaign on attacks against [[Foreign policy of the Jimmy Carter administration|Carter's foreign policy]].<ref>Patterson, pp. 145–146</ref>
In August, Reagan gave a [[States' rights speech|speech at the Neshoba County Fair]], stating his belief in [[states' rights]]. Historians like [[Joseph Crespino]] argue that the visit was designed to incite racial animus in white Southern voters,{{sfn|Crespino|2021|p=1}} and some{{Who|date=November 2024}} also saw these actions as an extension of the [[Southern strategy]] to garner white support for Republican candidates.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/06/opinion/impossible-ridiculous-repugnant.html |url-access=subscription |title=Impossible, Ridiculous, Repugnant |last=Herbert |first=Bob |author-link=Bob Herbert |date=October 6, 2005 |website=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=December 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229211801/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/06/opinion/impossible-ridiculous-repugnant.html |archive-date=December 29, 2022}}</ref> Allies and supporters of Reagan have said that this was his typical anti-big government rhetoric, without racial context or intent.{{sfn|Bennett|Livingston|2021|p=279}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaillard |first1=Frye |last2=Tucker |first2=Cynthia |title=The Southernization of America: A Story of Democracy in the Balance| year=2022| publisher=NewSouth Books| isbn=9781588384560| page=25,28}}</ref> In the [[1980 United States presidential debates|October 28 debate]], Carter chided Reagan for being against national health insurance. Reagan replied, "[[There you go again]]", though the audience laughed and viewers found him more appealing.{{sfn|Brands|2015|pp=228–229}} Reagan later asked the audience if they were better off than they were four years ago, slightly paraphrasing Roosevelt's words in 1934.{{sfn|Cannon|2001|p=83}} In 1983, Reagan's campaign managers were revealed to having [[Debategate|obtained Carter's debate briefing book]] before the debates.{{sfn|Boller|2004|p=368}} On November 4, 1980, Reagan won in a decisive victory in the [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]] over Carter, carrying 44 states and receiving 489 electoral votes to Carter's 49 in six states and the District of Columbia. He won the popular vote by a narrower margin, receiving nearly 51 percent to Carter's 41 percent and Anderson's 7 percent. Republicans [[1980 United States Senate elections|won a majority of seats in the Senate]] for the first time since 1952{{sfn|Cannon|2001|p=87}} while Democrats [[1980 United States House of Representatives elections|retained the House of Representatives]].{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=755}}
== Presidency (1981–1989) ==
{{Main|Presidency of Ronald Reagan}}
{{for timeline|Timeline of the Ronald Reagan presidency}}
{{Further|Domestic policy of the Ronald Reagan administration|Foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration}}
===First inauguration===
{{Main|First inauguration of Ronald Reagan}}{{Multiple image
| align = right
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| width = 220
| image1 = President Ronald Reagan making his inaugural address from the United States Capitol.jpg
| alt1 = Reagan speaking at the podium with dignartaries behind
| image2 = Ronald Reagan First Inaugural.ogg
| footer = Reagan delivers his inaugural address from the [[U.S. Capitol]] (audio only)
}}
Reagan was inaugurated as the 40th president of the United States on January 20, 1981.{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=xiv}} [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[Warren E. Burger]] administered the [[Oath of office of the president of the United States|presidential oath of office]].<ref name="JCCIC">{{cite web |title=49TH INAUGURAL CEREMONIES |url=https://www.inaugural.senate.gov/49th-inaugural-ceremonies/ |access-date=June 15, 2021 |publisher=United States Senate}}</ref> In his {{ws2|Ronald Reagan's First Inaugural Address|inaugural address}}, Reagan commented on the country's economic malaise, arguing, "In this present crisis, government is not the solution to our problem, government is the problem".{{sfn|Woodard|2012|pp=116–117}} As a final insult to President Carter, Iran waited until Reagan had been sworn in before announcing the release of their American hostages.<ref>{{cite book |last=Moody |first=Sidney C. |url=https://archive.org/details/444daysamericanh0000mood |title=444 days : the American hostage story |publisher=Rutledge Press |year=1981 |___location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{sfn|Patterson|2005|p=126}}
==="Reaganomics" and the economy===
{{Main|Reaganomics}}
Reagan advocated a ''[[laissez-faire]]'' philosophy,{{sfn|Karaagac|2002|p=113}} and promoted a set of [[neoliberal]] reforms dubbed "Reaganomics", which included [[monetarism]] and [[supply-side economics]].{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2013|1p=221|2a1=Gerstle|2y=2022|2p=150|3a1=Roy|3y=2012|3p=155}}
====Taxation====
{{Missing information|section|analysis|date=November 2023}}
[[File:President Ronald Reagan addresses the nation from the Oval Office on tax reduction legislation.jpg|thumb|alt=Reagan addressing the nation from the Oval Office on tax reduction legislation, 1981|Reagan outlining his plan for tax cuts, 1981]]
Reagan worked with the [[boll weevil Democrats]] to pass tax and budget legislation in a Congress led by [[Tip O'Neill]], a liberal who strongly criticized Reaganomics.{{sfnm|1a1=Cannon|1y=2001|1p=100|2a1=Pemberton|2y=1998|2pp=99–102}}{{efn|Despite their various disagreements, Reagan and O'Neill developed a friendship across party lines. O'Neill told Reagan that Republican opponents were friends "after six o'clock". Reagan would sometimes call O'Neill at any time and ask if it was after six o'clock to which O'Neill would invariably respond, "Absolutely, Mr. President".{{sfn|Cannon|2001|pp=100, 102}}}} He lifted federal oil and gasoline price controls on January 28, 1981,{{sfn|Graetz|2012|p=34}} and in August, he signed the [[Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981]]{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=103}} to dramatically lower federal [[income tax in the United States|income tax rates]] and require exemptions and brackets to be indexed for inflation starting in 1985.{{sfn|Steuerle|1992|p=42}} Amid growing concerns about [[National debt of the United States|the mounting federal debt]], Reagan signed the [[Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982]],{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|pp=127–128}} one of the eleven times Reagan raised taxes.{{sfn|Bartlett|2012|p=44}} The bill doubled [[Cigarette taxes in the United States|the federal cigarette tax]], rescinded a portion of the corporate tax cuts from the 1981 tax bill,{{sfn|Rossinow|2015|p=62}} and according to [[Paul Krugman]], "a third of the 1981 cut" overall.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/08/opinion/the-great-taxer.html |url-access=subscription |title=The Great Taxer |last=Krugman |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Krugman |date=June 8, 2004 |website=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=August 30, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220114428/https://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/08/opinion/the-great-taxer.html |archive-date=December 20, 2022}}</ref> Many of his supporters condemned the bill, but Reagan defended his preservation of cuts on individual income tax rates.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=128}} By 1983, the amount of federal tax had fallen for all or most taxpayers, with taxes for higher-income people decreasing the most.{{sfn|Rossinow|2015|p=63}}
The [[Tax Reform Act of 1986]] reduced the number of tax brackets and top tax rate, and almost doubled [[personal exemption]]s.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998||p=145}}
To Reagan, [[Reagan tax cuts|the tax cuts]] would not have increased the deficit as long as there was enough economic growth and spending cuts. His policies proposed that economic growth would occur when the tax cuts spurred investments. This theoretical relationship has been illustrated by some with the controversial [[Laffer curve]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pemberton|1y=1998|1p=96|2a1=Woodard|2y=2012|2p=119}} Critics labeled this "[[trickle-down economics]]", the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will spread to the poor.{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=222}} [[Milton Friedman]] and [[Robert Mundell]] argued that these policies invigorated America's economy and contributed to the [[1990s United States boom|economic boom of the 1990s]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2004-06-20/reagans-economic-legacy |url-access=subscription |title=Reagan's Economic Legacy |date=June 21, 2004 |website=[[Bloomberg Businessweek]] |access-date=December 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626061110/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_25/b3888032_mz011.htm |archive-date=June 26, 2012}}</ref>
====Inflation and unemployment====
[[File:1981–1989 monthly unemployment, inflation, and interest rates.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=Line charts showing Bureau of Labor Statistics and Federal Reserve Economic Data information on the monthly unemployment, inflation, and interest rates from January 1981 to January 1989|Monthly unemployment, inflation, and interest rates from January 1981 to January 1989 according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics and [[Federal Reserve Economic Data]]]]
Reagan took office in the midst of [[stagflation]].{{sfn|Li|2013|p=221}} The economy briefly experienced growth before plunging into a recession in July 1981.{{sfn|Rossinow|2015|p=90}} As Federal Reserve chairman, [[Paul Volcker]] fought inflation by pursuing [[Shock therapy (economics)|a tight money policy of high interest rates]],{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=318}} which restricted lending and investment, raised unemployment, and temporarily reduced economic growth.{{sfn|Rossinow|2015|pp=89–90}} In December 1982, the [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] (BLS) measured the unemployment rate at 10.8 percent.{{sfn|DeGrasse|1983|p=14}} Around the same time, economic activity [[List of economic expansions in the United States|began to rise until its end in 1990]], setting the record for the (then) longest peacetime expansion.{{sfn|Sinai|1992|p=1}}{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=235}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Collins |first=Robert |year=2002 |title=More: The Politics of Economic Growth in Postwar America |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0195152630|page=211}}</ref> In 1983, the recession ended{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=452}} and Reagan nominated Volcker to a second term in fear of damaging confidence in the economic recovery.{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=668}}
Reagan appointed [[Alan Greenspan]] to succeed Volcker in 1987. Greenspan raised interest rates in another attempt to curb inflation, setting off the [[Black Monday (1987)|Black Monday]] stock market crash, although the markets eventually recovered.{{sfn|Brands|2015|pp=669–671}} By 1989, the BLS measured unemployment at 5.3 percent.{{sfn|Li|2013|p=219}} The inflation rate dropped from 12 percent during the 1980 election to under 5 percent in 1989. Likewise, the interest rate dropped from 15 percent to under 10 percent.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=206}} Yet, not all shared equally in the economic recovery, and both [[Income inequality in the United States|economic inequality]]{{sfn|Patterson|2005|pp=166–167}} and the number of [[Homelessness in the United States|homeless individuals]] increased during the 1980s.{{sfn|Rossinow|2015|pp=144–145}} Critics have contended that a majority of the jobs created during this decade paid the minimum wage.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=207}}
====Government spending====
In 1981, in an effort to keep it solvent, Reagan approved a plan for cuts to Social Security. He later backed off due to public backlash.{{sfn|Brands|2015|pp=300–303}} He then created the [[Greenspan Commission]] to keep Social Security financially secure, and in 1983 he signed amendments to raise both the program's payroll taxes and retirement age for benefits.{{sfn|Patterson|2005|pp=163–164}} He had signed the [[Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981]] to cut funding for [[federal assistance]] such as food stamps, [[unemployment benefits]], [[subsidized housing]] and the [[Aid to Families with Dependent Children]],{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=141}} and would discontinue the [[Comprehensive Employment and Training Act]].{{sfn|Patterson|2005|p=157}} On the other side, defense spending doubled between 1981 and 1985.<ref name="Bowman 2004">{{cite web |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bal-te.pentagon08jun08-story.html |title=Reagan guided huge buildup in arms race |last=Bowman |first=Tom |date=June 8, 2004 |website=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |access-date=January 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230101051322/https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bal-te.pentagon08jun08-story.html |archive-date=January 1, 2023}}</ref> During Reagan's presidency, [[Project Socrates]] operated within the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] to discover why the United States was unable to maintain its economic competitiveness. According to program director Michael Sekora, their findings helped the country surpass the Soviets in terms of missile defense technology.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/30/trump-wrong-china-tech-former-reagan-star-wars-beat-soviets.html |title=Trump taking wrong approach to China, says Reagan official who helped 'Star Wars' beat the Soviets |last=Shinal |first=John |date=July 1, 2017 |publisher=[[CNBC]] |access-date=January 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117212646/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/30/trump-wrong-china-tech-former-reagan-star-wars-beat-soviets.html |archive-date=January 17, 2023}}</ref>{{sfn|Fialka|1999|p=8}}
====
Reagan sought to loosen federal regulation of economic activities, and he appointed key officials who shared this agenda. [[William Leuchtenburg]] writes that by 1986, the Reagan administration eliminated almost half of the federal regulations that had existed in 1981.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=602–604}} The 1982 [[Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Act]] deregulated [[savings and loan association]]s by letting them make a variety of loans and investments outside of real estate.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=130}} After the bill's passage, savings and loans associations engaged in riskier activities, and the leaders of some institutions embezzled funds. The administration's inattentiveness toward the industry contributed to the [[savings and loan crisis]] and costly bailouts.{{sfn|Patterson|2005|p=175}}
====Deficits====
The deficits were exacerbated by the early 1980s recession, which cut into federal revenue.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=605–606}} The national debt tripled between the fiscal years of 1980 and 1989, and the national debt as a percentage of the gross domestic product rose from 33 percent in 1981 to 53 percent by 1989. During his time in office, Reagan never fulfilled his 1980 campaign promise of submitting a [[balanced budget]]. The United States borrowed heavily to cover newly spawned federal budget deficits.{{sfnm|1a1=Patterson|1y=2005|1pp=158–159|2a1=Woodard|2y=2012|2p=132}} Reagan described the tripled debt the "greatest disappointment of his presidency".{{sfn|Cannon|2001|p=128}} [[Jeffrey Frankel]] opined that the deficits were a major reason why Reagan's successor, Bush, reneged on [[Read my lips: no new taxes|his campaign promise]] by raising taxes through the [[Budget Enforcement Act of 1990]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/dec/11/george-hw-bush-donald-trump-budget-deficit-taxes |title=George HW Bush was fiscally responsible – unlike Donald Trump |last=Frankel |first=Jeffrey |author-link=Jeffrey Frankel |date=December 11, 2018 |website=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=December 31, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231035650/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/dec/11/george-hw-bush-donald-trump-budget-deficit-taxes |archive-date=December 31, 2022}}</ref>
===Assassination attempt===
{{Main|Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan}}
[[File:President Ronald Reagan moments before he was shot in an assassination attempt 1981.jpg|thumb|alt=Ronald Reagan waves his hand as he walks out of the Washington Hilton. Surrounding him are secret service agents, policemen, press secretary James Brady, and aide Michael Deaver.|Reagan (center) waves just before he is shot on March 30, 1981]]
On March 30, 1981, Reagan was shot by [[John Hinckley Jr.]] outside the [[Washington Hilton]]. Although "right on the margin of death" upon arrival at [[George Washington University Hospital]], Reagan underwent surgery and recovered quickly from a broken rib, punctured lung, and internal bleeding. Later, Reagan came to believe that God had spared his life "for a chosen mission".{{sfn|Kengor|2004|p=210}}
===Supreme Court appointments===
{{Main|Ronald Reagan Supreme Court candidates}}
Reagan appointed three Associate Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]: [[Sandra Day O'Connor]] in 1981, which fulfilled a campaign promise to name the first female justice to the Court, [[Antonin Scalia]] in 1986, and [[Anthony Kennedy]] in 1988. He also elevated [[William Rehnquist]] from Associate Justice to Chief Justice in 1986.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|pp=147–148}} The direction of the Supreme Court's reshaping has been described as conservative.{{sfn|Shull|1993|p=44}}{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=148}}
===
[[
Early in August 1981, the [[Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (1968)|Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization]] (PATCO) [[1981 Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization strike|went on strike]], violating a federal law prohibiting government unions from striking.{{sfn|Rossinow|2015|pp=85–86}} On August 3, Reagan said that he would fire air traffic controllers if they did not return to work within 48 hours; according to him, 38 percent did not return. On August 13, Reagan fired roughly 12,000 striking air traffic controllers who ignored his order.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=107}} He used military controllers{{sfn|Patterson|2005|p=158}} and supervisors to handle the nation's commercial air traffic until new controllers could be hired and trained.{{sfn|Rossinow|2015|p=86}} The breaking of the PATCO strike demoralized organized labor, and the number of strikes fell greatly in the 1980s.{{sfn|Patterson|2005|p=158}} With the assent of Reagan's sympathetic [[National Labor Relations Board]] appointees, many companies also won wage and benefit cutbacks from unions, especially in the manufacturing sector.{{sfn|Rossinow|2015|p=88}} During Reagan's presidency, the share of employees who were part of a labor union dropped from approximately one-fourth of the total workforce to approximately one-sixth of the total workforce.{{sfn|Patterson|2005|p=170}}
===Civil rights===
[[File:President Ronald Reagan at the Signing Ceremony for Martin Luther King Holiday Legislation.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Ronald Reagan at the signing ceremony for Martin Luther King Jr. Day legislation in the Rose Garden. Coretta Scott King, George H. W. Bush, Howard Baker, Bob Dole, Jack Kemp, Samuel Pierce, and Katie Hall looking on.|Reagan signing the Passage of Martin Luther King Jr. Day, 1983]]
Despite Reagan having opposed the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]],{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=458}} which he long-deemed "humiliating to the South",<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/06/30/us/voting-rights-act-signed-by-reagan.html | title=Voting Rights Act Signed by Reagan | work=The New York Times | date=June 30, 1982 | last1=Raines | first1=Howell }}</ref> the bill was extended for 25 years in 1982.{{sfn|Keyssar|2009|p=213}} He initially opposed the establishment of Martin Luther King Jr. Day, believing that the momentum for establishing the holiday was "based on an image, not reality," but signed [[Passage of Martin Luther King Jr. Day|a bill to create the holiday in 1983]] after it passed both houses of Congress with veto-proof margins.<ref>{{cite news|title=Reagan's Doubts on Dr. King Disclosed|last=Clines|first=Francis X.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/10/22/us/reagan-s-doubts-on-dr-king-disclosed.html|date=October 22, 1983|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=June 30, 2025}}</ref>{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=461}} In 1984, he signed legislation intended to impose fines for [[fair housing]] discrimination offenses.{{sfn|Shull|1993|pp=56–57}} In March 1988, Reagan vetoed the [[Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987]], but Congress overrode his veto. He had argued that the bill unreasonably increased the federal government's power and undermined the rights of churches and business owners.{{sfn|Cannon|2000|pp=462–463}} Later in September, legislation was passed to correct loopholes in the [[Fair Housing Act of 1968]].<ref name="Thomas">{{cite web |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/09/13/Reagan-signs-Fair-Housing-extension-into-law/8310590126400/ |title=Reagan signs Fair Housing extension into law|last=Thomas |first=Helen |date=September 13, 1988 |work=[[United Press International]] |access-date=March 13, 2023}}</ref>{{sfn|Shull|1993|p=14}} In 1984, he signed legislation intended to impose fines for [[fair housing]] discrimination offenses.{{sfn|Shull|1993|pp=56–57}} In March 1988, Reagan vetoed the [[Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987]], but Congress overrode his veto. He had argued that the bill unreasonably increased the federal government's power and undermined the rights of churches and business owners.{{sfn|Cannon|2000|pp=462–463}} In doing so, Reagan was the first U.S. president to veto civil rights legislation since [[Andrew Johnson]] vetoed the [[Civil Rights Act of 1866]], which was also overridden by Congress.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2018/03/22/congress-overrides-reagan-civil-rights-veto-march-22-1988-470686 |title=Congress overrides Reagan civil rights veto, March 22, 1988 |last=Glass|first=Andrew|date=March 22, 2018|website=[[Politico]] |access-date=June 30, 2025}}</ref> Later in September, legislation was passed to correct loopholes in the [[Fair Housing Act of 1968]].<ref name="Thomas"/>{{sfn|Shull|1993|p=14}}
Early in his presidency, Reagan appointed [[Clarence M. Pendleton Jr.]], known for his opposition to affirmative action and equal pay for men and women, as chair of the [[United States Commission on Civil Rights]]. Pendleton and Reagan's subsequent appointees greatly eroded the enforcement of civil rights law, arousing the ire of civil rights advocates.{{sfn|Shull|1993|pp=114–116}} In 1987, Reagan unsuccessfully [[Robert Bork Supreme Court nomination|nominated Robert Bork]] to the Supreme Court as a way to achieve his civil rights policy that could not be fulfilled during his presidency; his administration had opposed [[affirmative action]], particularly in education, federal assistance programs, housing and employment,{{sfn|Amaker|1988|pp=157–159}} but Reagan reluctantly continued these policies.{{sfn|Patterson|2005|p=171}} In housing, Reagan's administration saw considerably fewer fair housing cases filed than the three previous administrations.{{sfn|Amaker|1988|pp=92–95}}
===War on drugs===
{{Main|War on drugs}}
[[File:President Ronald Reagan signing the Anti Drug Abuse Act of 1986.jpg|thumb|alt=Ronald Reagan with Nancy Reagan, Paula Hawkins, Charles Rangel and Benjamin Gilman for the signing ceremony for the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 in the East Room, 1986|Reagan signing the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986]]
In response to concerns about the increasing [[crack epidemic]], Reagan intensified the war on drugs in 1982.{{sfn|Alexander|2010|p=5}} While the American public did not see drugs as an important issue then, the FBI, [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] and the [[United States Department of Defense]] all increased their [[anti-drug]] funding immensely.{{sfn|Alexander|2010|p=49}} Reagan's administration publicized the campaign to gain support after crack became widespread in 1985.{{sfn|Alexander|2010|p=52}} Reagan signed the [[Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986]] and [[Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988|1988]] to specify penalties for drug offenses.{{sfn|Alexander|2010|p=53}} Both bills have been criticized in the years since for promoting [[Race and the war on drugs|racial disparities]].{{sfn|Sirin|2011|pp=91–96}} Nancy Reagan founded the "[[Just Say No]]" campaign to discourage others from engaging in [[recreational drug use]] and raise awareness about the dangers of drugs.{{sfn|Woodard|2012|pp=163–164}} A 1988 study showed 39 percent of high school seniors using illegal drugs compared to 53 percent in 1980,{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=10}} but [[Scott Lilienfeld]] and Hal Arkowitz say that the success of these types of campaigns has not been affirmatively proven.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-just-say-no-doesnt-work/ |title=Why 'Just Say No' Doesn't Work |last1=Lilienfeld |first1=Scott |author-link=Scott Lilienfeld |last2=Arkowitz |first2=Hal |date=January 1, 2014 |website=[[Scientific American]] |access-date=January 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104150629/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-just-say-no-doesnt-work/ |archive-date=January 4, 2023}}</ref>
===Escalation of the Cold War===
{{further|Cold War (1979–1985)|Reagan Doctrine}}
[[File:Reagan sitting with people from the Afghanistan-Pakistan region in February 1983.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Reagan in the Oval Office, sitting with people from the Afghanistan-Pakistan region, February 1983|Reagan meeting with [[Afghan mujahideen]] leaders, 1983]]
Reagan ordered a massive defense buildup;{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=4}} he revived the [[B-1 Lancer]] program that had been rejected by the [[Carter administration]],{{sfn|Herring|2008|p=868}} and deployed the [[MX missile]].{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=37}} In response to Soviet deployment of the [[SS-20]], he oversaw [[NATO]]'s deployment of the [[Pershing missile]] in Western Europe.{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=260}} In 1982, Reagan tried to cut off the Soviet Union's access to [[hard currency]] by impeding its proposed gas line to Western Europe. This hurt the Soviet economy, but also caused ill will among American allies in Europe who counted on the resulting revenue; he later retreated on this issue.{{sfn|Graebner|Burns|Siracusa|2008|pp=29–31}} In March 1983, Reagan introduced the [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] (SDI) to protect the United States from space intercontinental ballistic missiles. He believed that this defense shield could protect the country from nuclear destruction in a hypothetical nuclear war with the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=131}} There was much disbelief among the scientific community surrounding the program's scientific feasibility, leading opponents to dub the SDI "Star Wars",{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=418}} although Soviet leader [[Yuri Andropov]] said it would lead to "an extremely dangerous path".{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=132}}
[[File:President Ronald Reagan in Meeting with President Mohammad Zia Ul Haq of Pakistan in Oval Office.jpg|thumb|Reagan listening to Pakistani president [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]], 1982]]
In a 1982 address to the [[British Parliament]], Reagan said, "the march of freedom and democracy... will leave [[Marxism–Leninism]] on the [[ash heap of history]]". Dismissed by the American press as "wishful thinking", [[Margaret Thatcher]] called the address a "triumph".{{sfn|Cannon|2000|pp=271–272}} [[David Cannadine]] says of Thatcher that "Reagan had been grateful for her interest in him at a time when the British establishment refused to take him seriously", with the two agreeing on "building up stronger defenses against Soviet Russia" and both believing in outfacing "what Reagan would later call '[[Evil Empire speech|the evil empire]]{{'"}},{{sfn|Cannadine|2017|p=38}} in reference to the Soviet Union, during a speech to the [[National Association of Evangelicals]] in March 1983.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=130}} After Soviet fighters downed [[Korean Air Lines Flight 007]] in September, which included Congressman [[Larry McDonald]] and 61 other Americans, Reagan expressed outrage towards the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Brands|2015|pp=420–421}} The next day, reports suggested that the Soviets had fired on the plane by mistake.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=133}} In spite of the harsh, discordant rhetoric,<ref>G. Thomas Goodnight, "Ronald Reagan's re‐formulation of the rhetoric of war: Analysis of the 'zero option,' 'evil empire,' and 'star wars' addresses." ''Quarterly Journal of Speech'' 72.4 (1986): 390–414.</ref> Reagan's administration continued discussions with the Soviet Union on [[START I|{{nowrap|START I}}]].{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=868–869}}
[[File:President_Ronald_Reagan_Meeting_with_President_Hosni_Mubarak_of_Egypt_in_The_Oval_Office.jpg|alt=President Ronald Reagan Meeting with President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt in The Oval Office|thumb|Reagan meeting Egyptian President [[Hosni Mubarak]] in the [[Oval Office]], September 1983]]
Although the Reagan administration agreed with the communist government in China to [[Three Communiqués|reduce the sale of arms to Taiwan]] in 1982,{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=270}} Reagan himself was the first president to reject [[containment]] and ''détente'', and to put into practice the concept that the Soviet Union could be defeated rather than simply negotiated with.<ref name="Knopf" /> His [[Operation Cyclone|covert aid]] to [[Afghan mujahideen]] forces through Pakistan against the Soviets has been given credit for assisting in ending the [[Soviet occupation of Afghanistan]].{{Sfn|Bergen|2001|p=68}} However, the United States was subjected [[blowback (intelligence)|to blowback]] in the form of the [[Taliban]] that opposed them in [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|the war in Afghanistan]].{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=883–884}} In his [[1985 State of the Union Address]], Reagan proclaimed, "Support for [[freedom fighter]]s is self-defense."{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=320}} Through the [[Reagan Doctrine]], his administration supported [[anti-communist]] movements that fought against groups backed by the Soviet Union in an effort to [[rollback]] Soviet-backed communist governments and reduce Soviet influence across the world.{{sfnm|1a1=Kanet|1y=2006|1p=340|2a1=Pach|2y=2006|2p=78}} The Reagan administration ignored [[human rights violations]] in the countries they backed and held a narrow definition of [[human rights]].{{sfnm|1a1=Wawro|1y=2010|1p=381|2a1=Søndergaard|2y=2020|2p=4}} Other human rights concerns include the [[Genocide under Ríos Montt|genocide in Guatemala]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Gunson |first=Phil |date=April 2, 2018 |title=Gen Efraín Ríos Montt obituary |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/02/gen-efrain-rios-montt-obituary |work=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104150256/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/02/gen-efrain-rios-montt-obituary |archive-date=January 4, 2023 |access-date=January 4, 2023}}</ref> as well as [[Truth Commission (Chad)|mass killing]]s in [[Chad]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Maclean |first1=Ruth |last2=Camara |first2=Mady |date=August 24, 2021 |title=Hissène Habré, Ex-President of Chad Jailed for War Crimes, Dies at 79 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/24/world/africa/hissene-habre-dead.html |url-access=subscription |work=[[The New York Times]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104145936/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/24/world/africa/hissene-habre-dead.html |archive-date=January 4, 2023 |access-date=January 4, 2023}}</ref>
===Invasion of Grenada===
{{main|United States invasion of Grenada}}
[[File:President Ronald Reagan discusses the situation in Grenada with a group of bipartisan members of Congress.jpg|thumb|alt=Reagan in the White House to discuss the Grenada situation with a bipartisan group of members of Congress, October 1983|Reagan discussing the Grenada situation with a bipartisan group of members of Congress, 1983]]
On October 19, 1983, [[Maurice Bishop]] was overthrown and murdered by one of his colleagues. Several days later, Reagan ordered American forces to invade Grenada. Reagan cited a regional threat posed by a Soviet-Cuban military build-up and concern for the safety of hundreds of American medical students at [[St. George's University]]. Two days of fighting commenced, resulting in an American victory.{{sfn|Cannon|2001|pp=187–188}} While the invasion enjoyed public support in the United States, it was criticized internationally, with the [[United Nations General Assembly]] voting to censure the American government.{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=403}} Cannon later noted that throughout Reagan's 1984 presidential campaign, the invasion overshadowed the [[1983 Beirut barracks bombings]],{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=393}} which killed 241 Americans taking part in [[Multinational Force in Lebanon|an international peacekeeping operation]] during the [[Lebanese Civil War]].{{sfn|Lawrence|2021|p=176}}
===1984 election===
{{Main|Ronald Reagan 1984 presidential campaign|1984 United States presidential election}}
[[File:ElectoralCollege1984.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|alt=Results for the 1984 United States presidential election|1984 electoral vote results. Reagan won 525–13.]]
Reagan announced his reelection campaign on January 29, 1984, declaring, "America is back and standing tall".{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=141}} In February, his administration reversed the unpopular decision to send the [[United States Marine Corps]] to Lebanon, thus eliminating a political liability for him. Reagan faced minimal opposition in the Republican primaries,{{sfn|Cannon|2001|pp=188–191}} and he and Bush accepted the nomination at [[1984 Republican National Convention|the Dallas convention]] in August.{{sfn|Boller|2004|p=369}} In the general election, his campaign ran the commercial, "[[Morning in America]]".{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=452}} At a time when the American economy was already recovering,{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=452}} former vice president [[Walter Mondale]]{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=186}} was attacked by Reagan's campaign as a "tax-and-spend Democrat", while Mondale criticized the deficit, the SDI, and Reagan's civil rights policy. However, Reagan's age induced his campaign managers to minimize his public appearances. Mondale's campaign believed that Reagan's age and mental health were issues before [[1984 United States presidential debates|the October presidential debates]].{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|pp=141–142}}
Following Reagan's performance in the first debate where he struggled to recall statistics, his age was brought up by the media in negative fashion. Reagan's campaign changed his tactics for the second debate where he quipped, "I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience". This remark generated applause and laughter,{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|pp=142–143}} even from Mondale. At that point, Broder suggested that age was no longer a liability for Reagan,{{sfn|Cannon|2001|p=196}} and Mondale's campaign felt that "the election was over".{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=144}} In November, Reagan won a landslide reelection victory with 59 percent of the popular vote and 525 electoral votes from 49 states. Mondale won 41 percent of the popular vote and 13 electoral votes from the District of Columbia and his home state of Minnesota.{{sfnm|1a1=Boller|1y=2004|1p=373|2a1=Cannon|2y=2003|2p=434}}
===Response to the AIDS epidemic===
{{main|Ronald Reagan and AIDS}}
[[File:NYC 1987 let the record show.png|thumb|upright=0.85|alt=A 1987 ACT UP art installation quoting Reagan on AIDS with a blank slate to represent silence|Reagan has been criticized for his delayed and muted response to the AIDS epidemic. This 1987 art installation by [[ACT UP]] quotes Reagan on AIDS with a blank slate, representing total silence.]]
The [[AIDS epidemic]] began to unfold in 1981,{{sfn|Gellin|1992|p=24}} and AIDS was initially difficult to understand for physicians and the public.{{sfn|Kazanjian|2014|p=353}} As the epidemic advanced, according to White House physician and later physician to the president, brigadier general John Hutton, Reagan thought of AIDS as though "it was the measles and would go away". The October 1985 death of the President's friend [[Rock Hudson]] affected Reagan's view; Reagan approached Hutton for more information on the disease. Still, between September 18, 1985, and February 4, 1986, Reagan did not mention AIDS in public.{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=731}}
In 1986, Reagan asked [[C. Everett Koop]] to develop a report on AIDS. Koop angered many evangelical conservatives, both in and out of the Reagan administration, by stressing the importance of sex education including condom usage in schools.{{sfn|Cannon|2000|pp=731–733}} A year later, Reagan, who reportedly had not read the report,{{sfn|Koop|1991|p=224}} gave his first speech on the epidemic when 36,058 Americans had been diagnosed with AIDS, and 20,849 had died of it.{{sfn|Shilts|2000|p=596}} Reagan called for increased testing (including routine testing for marriage applicants) and mandatory testing of select groups (including federal prisoners).<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|title=Reagan Urges Wide AIDS Testing But Does Not Call for Compulsion|first=Phillip M.|last=Boffey|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/06/01/us/reagan-urges-wide-aids-testing-but-does-not-call-for-compulsion.html|date=June 1, 1987}}</ref> Even after this speech, however, Reagan remained reluctant to publicly address AIDS.{{sfn|Cannon|2000|loc=chapter 22}}
Scholars and AIDS activists have argued that the Reagan administration largely ignored the [[AIDS crisis]].{{sfn|Lucas|2009|pp=478–479}}{{sfn|Francis|2012|p=290}}{{sfn|Kim|Shin|2017|pp=518–519}} [[Randy Shilts]] and [[Michael Bronski]] said that AIDS research was chronically underfunded during Reagan's administration, and Bronski added that requests for more funding by doctors at the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] were routinely denied.{{sfn|Shilts|2000|p=xxii}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://forward.com/news/7046/rewriting-the-script-on-reagan-why-the-president |title=Rewriting the Script on Reagan: Why the President Ignored AIDS |last=Bronski |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Bronski |date=November 14, 2003 |website=[[The Forward]] |access-date=March 13, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116112651/https://forward.com/news/7046/rewriting-the-script-on-reagan-why-the-president/ |archive-date=January 16, 2023}}</ref> In a September 1985 press conference (soon after Hollywood celebrity Rock Hudson had announced his AIDS diagnosis) Reagan called a government AIDS research program a "top priority", but also cited budgetary constraints.{{sfn|Brands|2015|pp=654, 656}} Between the fiscal years of 1984 and 1989, federal spending on AIDS totaled $5.6 billion. The Reagan administration proposed $2.8 billion during this time period, but pressure from congressional Democrats resulted in the larger amount.<ref>{{cite book |last=Collins |first=Robert |year=2007 |title=Transforming America: Politics and Culture During the Reagan Years |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-12400-3|page=138}}</ref>
===Addressing apartheid===
[[File:Reagan with Desmond TutuC26199-10.jpg|thumb|alt=Reagan and Desmond Tutu shaking hands in the Oval Office, 1984|Shortly after the 1984 election, Reagan met [[Desmond Tutu]], who described Reagan's administration as "an unmitigated disaster for us blacks",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gish |first=Steven |title=Desmond Tutu : a biography |date=2004 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=0-313-32860-9 |___location=Westport, Conn. |oclc=55208501}}</ref> and Reagan himself as "a racist pure and simple".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allen |first=John |title=Rabble-rouser for peace : the authorized biography of Desmond Tutu |publisher=Rider |date=2006 |isbn=1-84413-571-3 |___location=London |oclc=70672522 |page=255}}</ref>]]
Popular opposition to [[apartheid]] increased during Reagan's first term in office and the [[disinvestment from South Africa]] movement achieved critical mass after decades of growing momentum. Criticism of apartheid was particularly strong on college campuses and among [[mainline Protestant]] denominations.<ref>{{cite news| title=Divestment Was Just One Weapon in Battle Against Apartheid| last=Counte| first=Cecelie| date=January 27, 2013| url=https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2013/01/27/is-divestment-an-effective-means-of-protest/divestment-was-just-one-weapon-in-battle-against-apartheid| website=The New York Times| access-date=August 13, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| last=Berger| first=Joseph| title=Protestants Seek More Divestment| date=June 10, 1986| url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/06/10/us/protestants-seek-more-divestment.html| work=The New York Times| ___location=New York City|access-date=August 13, 2019| via=The Times's print archive}}</ref> President Reagan was opposed to divestiture because he personally thought, as he wrote in a letter to [[Sammy Davis Jr.]], it "would hurt the very people we are trying to help and would leave us no contact within South Africa to try and bring influence to bear on the government". He also noted the fact that the "American-owned industries there employ more than 80,000 blacks" and that their employment practices were "very different from the normal South African customs".<ref>{{cite book| editor1-last=Skinner| editor1-first=Kiron K.| editor2-last=Anderson| editor2-first=Annelise| editor3-last=Anderson| editor3-first= Martin| title=Reagan: A Life In Letters| year=2004| publisher=Free Press| ___location=New York City| isbn=978-0743219679| pages=520–521}}</ref>
The Reagan administration developed [[constructive engagement]]{{sfn|Thomson|2008|p=113}} with the South African government as a means of encouraging it to gradually move away from apartheid and to give up its nuclear weapons [[South Africa and weapons of mass destruction|program]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Wyk |first1=Martha |date=August 7, 2009 |title=Sunset over Atomic Apartheid: United States–South African nuclear relations, 1981–93 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14682740902764569 |journal=[[Cold War History (journal)|Cold War History]] |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=51–79 |doi=10.1080/14682740902764569 |s2cid=218575117 |access-date=February 19, 2024|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It was part of a larger initiative designed to foster peaceful economic development and political change throughout southern Africa.<ref name=AT2008SApolicy>Thomson, pp. 106–123</ref> This policy, however, engendered much public criticism, and renewed calls for the imposition of stringent sanctions.<ref name=UngerVale>{{cite journal| last1=Ungar| first1=Sanford J.| last2=Vale| first2=Peter| title=South Africa: Why Constructive Engagement Failed | journal=Foreign Affairs| date=Winter 1985–86| volume=64| issue=2| url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/south-africa/1985-12-01/south-africa-why-constructive-engagement-failed| pages=234–258| doi=10.2307/20042571| jstor=20042571| url-access=subscription}}</ref> In response, Reagan announced the imposition of new sanctions on the South African government, including an [[arms embargo]] in late 1985.<ref>{{cite magazine| last=Smith| first=William E.| title=South Africa Reagan's Abrupt Reversal| url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,959843,00.html| date=September 16, 1985| magazine=Time | volume=126| issue=11 |access-date=August 13, 2019}}</ref> These sanctions were seen as weak by anti-apartheid activists and as insufficient by the president's opponents in Congress.<ref name=UngerVale/> In 1986, Congress approved the [[Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act]], which included tougher sanctions; Reagan's veto was overridden by Congress. Afterward, he remained opposed to apartheid and unsure of "how best to oppose it". Several European countries, as well as Japan, also imposed their sanctions on South Africa soon after.<ref>{{cite web| last=Glass| first=Andrew| title=House overrides Reagan apartheid veto, Sept. 29, 1986| date=September 27, 2017| url=https://www.politico.com/story/2017/09/29/house-overrides-reagan-apartheid-veto-sept-29-1986-243169| work=Politico| access-date=August 13, 2019}}</ref>
===Libya bombing===
{{Main|1986 United States bombing of Libya}}
[[File:President Ronald Reagan being briefed by the National Security Council staff.jpg|thumb|alt=Reagan being briefed by the National Security Council Staff on the 1986 Libya air strike in the White House Situation Room. Seated with Reagan is George Shultz, William Casey, Don Regan, and Charles Gabriel.|Reagan receiving a briefing on the Libya bombing, 1986]]
Contentious relations between Libya and the United States under President Reagan were revived in the [[West Berlin discotheque bombing]] that killed an American soldier and injured dozens of others on April 5, 1986. Stating that there was irrefutable evidence that Libya had a direct role in the bombing, Reagan authorized the use of force against the country. On April 14, the United States launched a series of [[airstrike]]s on ground targets in Libya.{{sfnm|1a1=Brands|1y=2015|1pp=530–531|2a1=Woodard|2y=2012|2p=161}} Thatcher allowed the [[United States Air Force]] to use Britain's air bases to launch the attack, on the justification that the United Kingdom was supporting America's right to self-defense under Article 51 of the [[Charter of the United Nations]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/15/newsid_3975000/3975455.stm|title=1986:US Launches air-strike on Libya|access-date=April 19, 2008|date=April 15, 2008|work=BBC News }}</ref> The attack was, according to Reagan, designed to halt [[Muammar Gaddafi]]'s "ability to export terrorism", offering him "incentives and reasons to alter his criminal behavior".<ref>{{citation|first=Dennis|last=Piszkiewicz|series=Praeger Security International|title=Terrorism's War with America: A History|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-97952-2|page=66}}</ref> The attack was condemned by many countries; by an overwhelming vote, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution to condemn the attack and deem it a violation of the Charter and international law.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/41/a41r038.htm |title=A/RES/41/38 November 20, 1986 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=April 14, 2014}}</ref>
===Iran–Contra affair===
{{Main|Iran–Contra affair}}
[[File:Photograph of President Reagan receiving the Tower Commission Report in the Cabinet Room - NARA - 198581.jpg|thumb|alt=Reagan in the Cabinet Room to receive the Tower Commission Report on the Iran–Contra affair, February 1987|Reagan receiving the [[Tower Commission]] on the [[Iran–Contra affair]], 1987]]
Reagan authorized [[William J. Casey]] to arm the [[Contras]], fearing that Communists would take over Nicaragua if it remained under the leadership of the [[Sandinistas]]. Congress passed the 1982 [[Boland Amendment]], prohibiting the CIA and Department of Defense from using their budgets to provide aid to the Contras. Still, the Reagan administration raised funds for the Contras from private donors and foreign governments.<ref>Weisberg, pp. 128–129</ref> When Congress learned that the CIA had secretly placed [[naval mine]]s in Nicaraguan harbors, Congress passed a second Boland Amendment that barred granting any assistance to the Contras.<ref>Patterson, pp. 208–209</ref> By mid-1985, [[Hezbollah]] began to [[Lebanon hostage crisis|take American hostages in Lebanon]], holding seven of them in reaction to the United States' support of Israel.{{sfn|Brands|2015|pp=488–491}}
Reagan procured the release of seven American hostages held by Hezbollah by selling American arms to Iran, then engaged in the Iran–Iraq War, in hopes that Iran would pressure Hezbollah to release the hostages.<ref name="weisberg129134"/> The Reagan administration sold over 2,000 missiles to Iran without informing Congress; Hezbollah released four hostages but captured an additional six Americans. On [[Oliver North]]'s initiative, the administration redirected the proceeds from the missile sales to the Contras.<ref name="weisberg129134">Weisberg, pp. 129–134</ref> The transactions were exposed by ''[[Ash-Shiraa]]'' in early November 1986. Reagan initially denied any wrongdoing, but on November 25, he announced that [[John Poindexter]] and North had left the administration and that he would form the [[Tower Commission]] to investigate the transactions. A few weeks later, Reagan asked a panel of federal judges to appoint [[United States Department of Justice Office of Special Counsel|a special prosecutor]] who would conduct a separate investigation.<ref>Patterson, pp. 210–211</ref>
The Tower Commission released a report in February 1987 confirming that the administration had traded arms for hostages and sent the proceeds of the weapons sales to the Contras. The report laid most of the blame on North, Poindexter, and [[Robert McFarlane (American politician)|Robert McFarlane]], but it was also critical of [[Donald Regan]] and other White House staffers.<ref>Brands, pp. 646–649</ref> Investigators did not find conclusive proof that Reagan had known about the aid provided to the Contras, but the report noted that Reagan had "created the conditions which made possible the crimes committed by others" and had "knowingly participated or acquiesced in covering up the scandal".<ref>Patterson, pp. 211–212</ref> The affair damaged the administration and raised questions about Reagan's competency and the wisdom of conservative policies.<ref>Rossinow, pp. 202–204</ref> The administration's credibility was also badly damaged on the international stage as it had violated its own arms embargo on Iran.<ref>Brands, pp. 653, 674</ref>
===The USS ''Stark'' incident===
In the context of the [[Tanker War]] on May 17, 1987, an Iraqi fighter jet hit the {{USS|Stark}} with two [[Exocet missiles]], killing 37 sailors.<ref name="usni3">{{cite news |last=LaGrone |first=Sam |date=May 17, 2017 |title=The Attack on USS Stark at 30 |url=https://news.usni.org/2017/05/17/the-attack-uss-stark-at-30 |work=USNI News}}</ref><ref name="nhhc1">{{cite news |title=Stark (FFG-31) |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/s/stark--ffg-31-.html |publisher=Naval History and Heritage Command |date=March 16, 2017}}</ref> Three days later, [[President Reagan]] declared a "policy of self-defense" would now be ordered, as he accepted Iraq's official apology:<ref name="ct2">{{cite news |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1987/05/20/reagan-accepts-iraq-apology/ |title=Reagan Accepts Iraq Apology |date=May 20, 1987 }}</ref> "Our ships are deployed in the Persian Gulf in order to protect U.S. interests and maintain free access and maintain [[freedom of navigation]] and access to the area's oil supplies. It is a vital mission, but our ships need to protect themselves and they will. [From now on] if aircraft approach any of our ships in a way that appears hostile, there is one order of battle. Defend yourselves. Defend American lives.. We're going to do what has to be done to keep the Persian Gulf open. It's international waters. No country there has a right to try and close it off and take it for itself. And the villain in the piece really is Iran. And so they're delighted with what has just happened."<ref name="crim1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1987/5/20/reagan-declares-policy-of-self-defense-pwashington-president/|title=Reagan Declares Policy of Self-Defense | News | The Harvard Crimson|website=www.thecrimson.com}}</ref>
===Soviet decline and thaw in relations===
{{Further|Cold War (1985–1991)}}
[[File:Reagan and Gorbachev signing.jpg|thumb|alt=Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan signing the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in the East Room, December 1987|Mikhail Gorbachev and Reagan signing the [[INF Treaty]], 1987]]
Although the Soviets did not accelerate military spending in response to Reagan's military buildup,{{sfn|Fischer|2019|p=8}} their enormous military expenses, in combination with [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|collectivized agriculture]] and inefficient [[planned economy|planned manufacturing]], were a heavy burden for the [[Soviet economy]]. At the same time, the prices of oil, the primary source of Soviet export revenues, fell to one third of the previous level in 1985. These factors contributed to a stagnant economy during the tenure of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] as Soviet leader.<ref name="Gaidar">{{Cite book|last=Gaidar|first=Yegor|title=Collapse of an Empire: Lessons for Modern Russia|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|year=2007|pages=190–205}}</ref>
[[File:President Ronald Reagan giving a speech at Moscow State University in the USSR.jpg|left|thumb|President Ronald Reagan giving a speech at [[Moscow State University]] in the [[USSR]], 1988]]
Reagan's foreign policy towards the Soviets wavered between [[brinkmanship]] and cooperation.<ref>{{Citation|last=Miles|first=Simon|title=Peace Through Strength and Quiet Diplomacy|year=2021|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/before-and-after-the-fall/peace-through-strength-and-quiet-diplomacy/1F3C268659B85F9A905828845EB582A0|work=Before and After the Fall: World Politics and the End of the Cold War|pages=62–77|editor-last=Bartel|editor-first=Fritz|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781108910194.005|isbn=978-1-108-90677-7|s2cid=244861159|editor2-last=Monteiro|editor2-first=Nuno P.|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Reagan appreciated Gorbachev's revolutionary change in the direction of the Soviet policy and shifted to diplomacy, intending to encourage him to pursue substantial arms agreements.<ref name="Knopf">{{Cite journal |last=Knopf |first=Jeffery W. |year=2004 |title=Did Reagan Win the Cold War? |url=https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=444565 |journal=Strategic Insights |volume=III |issue=8 |access-date=August 10, 2019}}</ref> They held [[List of Soviet Union–United States summits#Cold War (1985–1991)|four summit conferences between 1985 and 1988]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lawrence|first=Mark Atwood|year=2008|title=The Era of Epic Summitry|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/255737|journal=Reviews in American History|volume=36|issue=4|pages=616–623|doi=10.1353/rah.0.0047|s2cid=144382902|issn=1080-6628|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Reagan believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to allow for more democracy and free speech, this would lead to reform and the end of communism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1982reagan1.html|title=Modern History Sourcebook: Ronald Reagan: Evil Empire Speech, June 8, 1982|access-date=November 15, 2007|publisher=Fordham University|date=May 1998}}</ref> The critical summit was in [[Reykjavík Summit|Reykjavík in 1986]], where they agreed to abolish all nuclear weapons. However, Gorbachev added the condition that SDI research must be confined to laboratories during the ten-year period when disarmament would take place. Reagan refused, stating that it was defensive only and that he would share the secrets with the Soviets, thus failing to reach a deal.<ref>{{cite book|author=John Lewis Gaddis|title=The Cold War: A New History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=62VjS6A6-q0C&pg=PA31|year=2006|page=31|publisher=Penguin |isbn=9781440684500}}</ref>
In June 1987, Reagan addressed Gorbachev during a speech at the [[Berlin Wall]], demanding that he "[[tear down this wall]]". The remark was ignored at the time, but after the wall [[Fall of the Berlin Wall|fell in November 1989]], it was retroactively recast as a soaring achievement.<ref>{{cite news |last=Fisher |first=Marc |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/06/12/tear-down-this-wall-how-reagans-forgotten-line-became-a-defining-presidential-moment/ |title='Tear down this wall': How Reagan's forgotten line became a defining moment |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=June 2017 |access-date=November 7, 2022}}</ref><ref>[[Andreas Daum]], ''Kennedy in Berlin'' (2008), pp. 207‒13.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/opinion/commentary/ct-myths-berlin-wall-fall-reagan-east-west-perspec-1102-20141031-story.html |title= Untangling 5 myths about the Berlin Wall |work= [[Chicago Tribune]] |date= October 31, 2014 |access-date= January 2, 2022}}</ref> In December, Reagan and Gorbachev met again at [[Washington Summit (1987)|the Washington Summit]]<ref>Rossinow, pp. 234–235</ref> to sign the [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty]], committing to the total abolition of their respective short-range and medium-range missile stockpiles.<ref>Patterson, p. 215</ref> The treaty established an inspections regime designed to ensure that both parties honored the agreement.<ref>Rossinow, p. 236</ref> In May 1988, the U.S. Senate overwhelmingly voted in favor of ratifying the treaty,<ref>Patterson, p. 216</ref> providing a major boost to Reagan's popularity in the aftermath of the Iran–Contra affair. A new era of trade and openness between the two powers commenced, and the United States and Soviet Union cooperated on international issues such as the Iran–Iraq War.<ref>Herring, pp. 897–898</ref>
== Post-presidency (1989–2004) ==
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 400
| image1 = Reagan and Gorbachev in western hats 1992.jpg
| alt1 = Reagan and Gorbachev relaxing at Rancho del Cielo in May 1992. Reagan gave Gorbachev a white cowboy hat, which he wore backwards.
| caption1 = Reagan and Gorbachev at Rancho del Cielo, 1992
| image2 = Reagans with USS Ronald Reagan model 1996.jpg
| alt2 = The Reagans and Newport News Shipbuilding chairman and CEO William Frick standing behind a model of the aircraft carrier USS Ronald Reagan, 1996
| caption2 = Nancy and Ronald Reagan with a model of {{USS|Ronald Reagan}}, 1996
}}
Upon [[Inauguration of George H. W. Bush|leaving the presidency]] on January 20, 1989, at the age of 77, Reagan became the oldest president at the end of his tenure. This distinction eventually passed to president [[Joe Biden]] who was 82 years old when he left office in 2025.<ref name="NYT01202021">{{cite news |last=Diaz |first=Johnny |date=January 18, 2021 |title=Biden Is the Oldest President to Take the Oath |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/18/us/politics/joe-biden-age-oldest-presidents.html |url-access=limited |access-date=January 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/18/us/politics/joe-biden-age-oldest-presidents.html |archive-date=December 28, 2021 |orig-year=Updated January 20, 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Bloomberg01192021">{{cite news |last1=Merrill |first1=Dave |last2=Caronello |first2=Sophie |date=January 19, 2021 |title=Biden to Become Oldest President Ever at Inauguration |agency=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-01-19/biden-to-become-oldest-president-ever-at-inauguration-graphic |url-status=live |access-date=January 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128211849/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-01-19/biden-to-become-oldest-president-ever-at-inauguration-graphic |archive-date=January 28, 2021}}</ref>
In retirement, Ronald and Nancy Reagan lived at [[668 St. Cloud Road]] in [[Bel Air, Los Angeles|Bel Air]], in addition to [[Rancho del Cielo]] in [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]].{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=180}} He received [[List of accolades received by Ronald Reagan|multiple awards and honors]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2022/09/08/u-s-responds-to-the-death-of-queen-elizabeth-whose-reign-spanned-14-american-presidents-00055589 |title=Bidens offer condolences after death of Queen Elizabeth, whose reign spanned 14 American presidents |last=Ward |first=Myah |date=September 8, 2022 |website=[[Politico]] |access-date=January 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230121035400/https://www.politico.com/news/2022/09/08/u-s-responds-to-the-death-of-queen-elizabeth-whose-reign-spanned-14-american-presidents-00055589 |archive-date=January 21, 2023}}; {{cite web |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-presenting-the-presidential-medal-freedom-president-ronald-reagan |title=Remarks on Presenting the Presidential Medal of Freedom to President Ronald Reagan |date=January 23, 2023 |website=The American Presidency Project |access-date=January 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123133832/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-presenting-the-presidential-medal-freedom-president-ronald-reagan |archive-date=January 23, 2023}}</ref> in addition to generous payments for speaking engagements. In 1989 he supported repealing the [[Twenty-second Amendment]]'s presidential term limits. In 1991, the [[Ronald Reagan Presidential Library]] opened. Reagan also addressed the [[1992 Republican National Convention]] "to inspire allegiance to the party regulars",{{sfn|Woodard|2012|pp=181–182}} and favored a [[constitutional amendment]] requiring a balanced budget.
===Support for Brady Bill===
Reagan publicly favored the [[Brady Bill]], drawing criticism from gun control opponents.{{sfn|Brands|2015|pp=717–718}} In 1989, in his first public appearance after leaving office and shortly after the [[Stockton schoolyard shooting]], he stated: "I do not believe in taking away the right of the citizen to own guns for sporting, for hunting, and so forth, or for home defense. But I do believe that an [[AK-47]], a machine gun, is not a sporting weapon or needed for the defense of the home".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Villoro |first=Elías |date=April 23, 2023 |title=Ronald Reagan on Gun Control circa 1989 |url=https://boingboing.net/2023/04/22/ronald-reagan-on-gun-control-circa-1989.html |access-date=October 27, 2023 |website=Boing Boing |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://qz.com/1217254/video-ronald-reagan-on-the-difference-between-military-rifles-and-self-defense | title=Video: Ronald Reagan on the difference between military rifles and self-defense | date=February 27, 2018 }}</ref>
In March 1991, Reagan wrote an op-ed in the ''New York Times'', titled "Why I'm for the Brady Bill".<ref>Shapira, Ian (March 2, 2018). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2018/03/02/before-trump-defied-the-nra-ronald-reagan-took-on-the-gun-lobby/ "Before Trump's Wild Shifts on the NRA, Ronald Reagan Took on the Gun Lobby."] ''[[The Washington Post]]''. Retrieved January 9, 2023.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Davis |first=Janel |date=February 5, 2013 |title=Did Reagan support an assault-weapons ban? |url=https://www.politifact.com/factchecks/2013/feb/05/barack-obama/did-reagan-support-assault-weapons-ban/ |access-date=November 13, 2023}}</ref> In May 1994, Reagan, [[Gerald Ford]], and [[Jimmy Carter]] sent a letter to House members, urging them to support the controversial [[Federal Assault Weapons Ban]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Eaton |first=William J |date=May 5, 1994 |title=Ford, Carter, Reagan push for gun ban |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-05-05-mn-54185-story.html |access-date=November 13, 2023}}</ref>
===Alzheimer's disease===
Reagan's final public speech occurred on February 3, 1994, during a tribute to him in Washington, D.C.; his last major public appearance was at the [[Death and state funeral of Richard Nixon#Funeral service|funeral of Richard Nixon]] on April 27, 1994.{{sfn|Woodard|2012|pp=181–182}} In August 1994, Reagan was diagnosed with [[Alzheimer's disease]], which he announced through a handwritten letter in November.{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=xiv}} There was speculation over how long he had demonstrated symptoms of mental degeneration,<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/healthreport/president-ronald-reagans-alzheimers-disease/3419232 |title=President Ronald Reagan's Alzheimer's Disease |date=June 7, 2004 |access-date=January 7, 2008 |publisher=Radio National }}</ref> but lay observations that he suffered from Alzheimer's while still in office have been disputed by medical experts;<ref>{{cite web|date=October 5, 1997|title=Reagan's doctors deny covering up Alzheimer's His mental status in office never in doubt, they say|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1997-10-05-1997278112-story.html|access-date=April 20, 2021|website=The New York Times|via=[[The Baltimore Sun]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Altman|first=Lawrence K.|date=February 21, 2011|title=When Alzheimer's Waited Outside the Oval Office|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/22/health/views/22reagan.html|url-status=live|access-date=May 1, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501061551/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/22/health/views/22reagan.html|archive-date=May 1, 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="sr"/> his doctors said that he first began exhibiting overt symptoms of the illness in late 1992<ref name="NYT_2004/06/15">{{Cite news|last=Altman|first=Lawrence K.|date=June 15, 2004|title=The Doctors World; A Recollection of Early Questions About Reagan's Health|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/15/health/the-doctor-s-world-a-recollection-of-early-questions-about-reagan-s-health.html|url-status=live|access-date=May 1, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501060002/https://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/15/health/the-doctor-s-world-a-recollection-of-early-questions-about-reagan-s-health.html|archive-date=May 1, 2021}}</ref> or 1993.<ref name="sr"/> Over time, the disease destroyed Reagan's mental capacity. By 1997, he was reported to recognize few people other than his wife, though he continued to walk through parks and on beaches, play golf, and visit his office in nearby [[Century City]].<ref name="sr">{{Cite news|last=Altman|first=Lawrence K|date=October 5, 1997|title=Reagan's Twilight – A special report; A President Fades Into a World Apart|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/05/us/reagan-s-twilight-a-special-report-a-president-fades-into-a-world-apart.html|url-status=live|access-date=May 1, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501062254/https://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/05/us/reagan-s-twilight-a-special-report-a-president-fades-into-a-world-apart.html|archive-date=May 1, 2021}}</ref> Eventually, his family decided that he would live in quiet semi-isolation with his wife.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0103/04/lklw.00.html|title=Nancy Reagan Reflects on Ronald|publisher=CNN|date=March 4, 2001|access-date=April 6, 2007|archive-date=October 23, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023204041/http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0103/04/lklw.00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> By the end of 2003, Reagan had lost his ability to speak and was mostly confined to his bed, no longer able to recognize family members.<ref>{{cite news|url = https://people.com/premium/the-long-goodbye/|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230604160258/https://people.com/premium/the-long-goodbye/|archive-date = June 4, 2023|title = The Long Goodbye|magazine = [[People (magazine)|People]]|date = December 4, 2003|accessdate = June 4, 2023}}</ref>
==
{{
[[File:US Navy 040609-A-8024C-018 Ceremonial Honor Guard stand watch over the flag-draped casket of former President Ronald Reagan during his State Funeral in the U.S. Capitol Rotunda (cropped).jpg|thumb|Reagan [[lying in state]] in the [[U.S. Capitol rotunda]]]]
Reagan died of [[pneumonia]], complicated by Alzheimer's,<ref name = Neuman>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/archives/la-me-ronald-reagan-dies-20040604-story.html|title=Former President Reagan Dies at 93|last=Neuman|first=Johanna|website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=June 5, 2004|access-date=December 14, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221214085037/https://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/archives/la-me-ronald-reagan-dies-20040604-story.html|archive-date=December 14, 2022}}</ref> at [[668 St. Cloud Road|his home]] in Los Angeles, on June 5, 2004.<ref name=DrehleReaganDies>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2004/06/06/AR2005040207455_pf.html|title=Ronald Reagan Dies: 40th President Reshaped American Politics|author=Von Drehle, David|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=June 6, 2004|access-date=December 21, 2007}}</ref> President [[George W. Bush]] called Reagan's death "a sad hour in the life of America".<ref name = Neuman/> His public funeral was held in the [[Washington National Cathedral]],{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=731}} where [[eulogies]] were given by Margaret Thatcher, [[Brian Mulroney]], George H. W. Bush, and George W. Bush.{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=184}} Other world leaders attended including [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] and [[Lech Wałęsa]].{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=732}} Reagan was interred at his presidential library.{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=184}}
{{clear}}
==Legacy==
{{See also|List of things named after Ronald Reagan|Cultural depictions of Ronald Reagan}}
[[File:View of the Reagan Library from the south2.jpg|thumb|alt=A view of the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library from the south|The [[Ronald Reagan Presidential Library]] in [[Simi Valley, California]]]]
===Approval ratings===
Similar to previous presidents, Reagan began his presidency with [[approval rating]]s greater than 50 percent,<ref>Nyhan, David (February 15, 1981). [https://www.newspapers.com/article/press-and-sun-bulletin-reagans-glow-may/159763829/ Reagan's glow may reflect hostage return]. ''[[Press and Sun-Bulletin]]''. Retrieved November 25, 2024.</ref><ref>[https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-winnipeg-sun-voters-already-loosing/159764005/ Voters already losing the faith]. ''[[Winnipeg Sun]]''. March 20, 1981. Retrieved November 25, 2024.</ref> peaking above 70 percent shortly after [[Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan|his attempted assassination]],<ref>[https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-miami-herald-reagans-popularity-ris/159764685/ Reagan's popularity rises to 73 per cent]. [[The Washington Post]]. ''[[The Miami Herald]]''. April 3, 1981. Retrieved November 25, 2024.</ref><ref>Gallup, George (April 27, 1981). [https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-mercury-president-earns-approval/159764288/ President earns approval]. [[Gallup Organization]]. ''[[The Manhattan Mercury]]''. Retrieved November 25, 2024.</ref> before declining by the end of his first year.<ref name="g5ugg5">[https://www.newspapers.com/article/san-angelo-standard-times-reagans-ratin/159701250/ Reagan's rating rises, Gallup says]. [[United Press International]]. ''[[San Angelo Standard-Times]]''. March 18, 1983. Retrieved November 25, 2024.</ref> Afterwards, his ratings fluctuated in the mid-30s and mid-40s in his second and third years,<ref name="g5ugg5"/><ref>Gallup, George (October 10, 1982). [https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-oklahoman-more-disapprove-than/159764954/ More Disapprove Than Approve Reagan's Performance of Job]. [[Gallup Organization]]. ''[[The Daily Oklahoman]]''. Retrieved November 25, 2024.</ref> which has been attributed to the [[Early 1980s recession in the United States|1981–1982 recession]].<ref name="g5ugg5"/> His approval ratings rebounded after the [[invasion of Grenada]]<ref>Gallup, George (November 20, 1983). [https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-oklahoman-foreign-events-bring/159700572/ Foreign Events Bring Reagan More Support]. ''[[The Daily Oklahoman]]''. Retrieved November 25, 2024.</ref><ref>Butters, Brian (November 10, 1983). [https://www.newspapers.com/article/calgary-herald-us-public-backs-reagan/159765277/ U.S. public backs Reagan, poll shows]. ''[[Calgary Herald]]''. Retrieved November 25, 2024.</ref><ref>Gallup, George (November 21, 1983). [https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-item-reagan-picks-up-moderate/159765453/ Reagan picks up moderate gains]. [[Gallup Organization]]. ''[[The Daily Item (Sunbury)|The Daily Item]]''. Retrieved November 25, 2024.</ref> and by mid-1984 his approval rating neared 60 percent.<ref>Friedman, Saul (June 10, 1984). [https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-sunday-oregonian-reagan-landslide-po/159765671/ Reagan landslide possible]. ''[[The Oregonian]]''. Retrieved November 25, 2024.</ref> In the first two years of his second term, his approval ratings were consistently above 60 percent<ref>[https://www.newspapers.com/article/star-tribune-reagans-61-percent-approva/159765826/ Reagan's 61 percent approval rating continues to exceed predecessors]. ''[[Minnesota Star Tribune]]''. September 4, 1986. Retrieved November 25, 2024.</ref> but declined during the Iran–Contra scandal,<ref>Campbell, Don (December 14, 1986). [https://www.newspapers.com/article/pacific-daily-news-living-and-dying-by-p/159766292/ Living and dying by public opinion]. ''[[Pacific Daily News]]''. Retrieved November 25, 2024.</ref> before beginning to recover in mid-1987.<ref>Gallup, George Jr. (June 25, 1987). [https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-item-reagans-job-performance/159766566/ Reagan's job performance rating improves slightly]. ''[[The Daily Item (Sunbury)|The Daily Item]]''. Retireved November 25, 2024.</ref> In the [[Gallup poll]], Reagan finished his presidency with an approval rating of 63 percent, the third highest for a departing president in history, behind only [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Bill Clinton]], both of whom finished at 66 percent.<ref>Gallup, George; Gallup, Alec (January 12, 1989). [https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-item-reagan-gets-highest-final/159761851/ Reagan gets highest final approval rating since FDR]. ''[[The Daily Item (Sunbury)|The Daily Item]]''. Retrieved November 25, 2024.</ref><ref>Brandus, Paul (January 18, 2017). [https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2017/01/18/presidents-obama-approval-gallup-history-paul-brandus-column/96621934/ The truth about Obama's approval rating]. ''[[USA Today]]''. Retrieved November 30, 2024.</ref>
In 1990, a year after he left office, a Gallup survey found that 54 percent of Americans said they approved of the overall job Reagan did as president.<ref>[https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-post-standard-jfk-tops-presidents-l/156388619/ JFK Tops Presidents' List]. ''[[The Post-Standard]]''. December 5, 1990. Retrieved December 2, 2024.</ref> The number of Americans who approved of the Reagan administration declined to 48 percent in 1992<ref>Hugick, Larry (August 18, 1992). [https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-post-standard-bushs-approval-rating/160185838/ Bush's Approval Rating Up]. ''[[The Post-Standard]]''. Retrieved December 2, 2024.</ref> but rebounded two years later to 52 percent.<ref>Mercer, Marsha (May 1, 1994). [https://www.newspapers.com/article/richmond-times-dispatch-even-in-death-r/160318302/ Even in death, Richard Nixon continued to surprise us]. ''[[Richmond Times-Dispatch]]''. Retrieved December 4, 2024.</ref> In recent years, favorability of Reagan's presidency reached its highest ever: 71 percent approval in 2006;<ref name="vr33v55">[https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-plain-dealer-retrospective-approval/160183598/ Retrospective approval ratings of past presidents, June 2006 poll]. [[Gallup Organization]]. ''[[The Plain Dealer]]''. December 30, 2006. Retrieved December 2, 2024.</ref> 74 percent in 2010;<ref>Saad, Lydia (December 6, 2010). [https://news.gallup.com/poll/145064/kennedy-highest-rated-modern-president-nixon-lowest.aspx Kennedy Still Highest-Rated Modern President, Nixon Lowest]. [[Gallup Organization]]. Retrieved December 4, 2024.</ref> 72 percent in 2018;<ref>{{cite news |date =February 15, 2018 |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/226994/obama-first-retrospective-job-approval-rating.aspx |title = Obama's First Retrospective Job Approval Rating Is 63% |work = [[Gallup Inc.]] |last = Jones |first = Jeffrey M.| access-date = July 31, 2023 }}</ref> and 69 percent in 2023.<ref name="uiwv3">Jones, Jeffrey M. (July 17, 2023). [https://news.gallup.com/poll/508625/retrospective-approval-jfk-rises-trump.aspx Retrospective Approval of JFK Rises to 90%; Trump at 46%]. ''[[Gallup Organization]]''. Retrieved December 2, 2024.</ref> He is often found to be second-most popular president since [[World War II]], with only [[John F. Kennedy]] having higher ratings.<ref name="vr33v55"/><ref name="uiwv3"/>
===Historical reputation===
{{conservatism US|politicians}}
In 2008, British historian M. J. Heale summarized that scholars had reached a broad consensus in which "Reagan rehabilitated conservatism, turned the country to the right, practiced a '[[pragmatic conservatism]]' that balanced ideology with the constraints of government, revived faith in the presidency and American self-respect, and contributed to critically ending the Cold War",{{sfn|Henry|2009|pp=933–934}} which ended with the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991.{{sfnm|1a1=Cannon|1y=2000|1p=759|2a1=Brands|2y=2015|2p=720}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ronald Reagan |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ronald-Reagan |access-date=June 27, 2023 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |date=June 9, 2023}}</ref> Many conservative and liberal scholars have agreed that Reagan has been the most influential president since Roosevelt, leaving his imprint on American politics, diplomacy, culture, and economics through his effective communication of his conservative agenda and pragmatic compromising.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://millercenter.org/president/reagan/essays/biography/8|title=American President|access-date=October 7, 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011080053/http://millercenter.org/president/reagan/essays/biography/8|archive-date=October 11, 2014}}</ref> During the initial years of Reagan's post-presidency, historical rankings [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|placed his presidency]] in the twenties.{{sfnm|1a1=Patterson|1y=2003|1p=360|2a1=Nichols|2y=2012|2p=282}} Throughout the 2000s and 2010s, his presidency was often placed in the top ten.{{sfnm|1a1=Nichols|1y=2012|1p=284|2a1=Johns|2y=2015|2pp=1–2}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2017/02/all-time-best-president-united-states-rankings-235149 |title=Survey: Historians rank Obama 12th best president |last=Lima |first=Cristiano |date=February 17, 2017 |website=[[Politico]] |access-date=February 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210232039/https://www.politico.com/story/2017/02/all-time-best-president-united-states-rankings-235149 |archive-date=February 10, 2023}}</ref>
Many proponents, including his Cold War contemporaries,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.southcoasttoday.com/story/news/nation-world/2004/06/07/gorbachev-reflects-warmly-on-sincere/50443240007/ |title=Gorbachev reflects warmly on 'sincere' man |date=June 7, 2004 |access-date=December 14, 2022 |work=[[The Standard-Times (New Bedford)|The Standard-Times]] |last=Heintz |first=Jim |agency=Associated Press |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221214102025/https://www.southcoasttoday.com/story/news/nation-world/2004/06/07/gorbachev-reflects-warmly-on-sincere/50443240007/ |archive-date=December 14, 2022 }}</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Kupelian|1y=2010|1p=70|2a1=Fallon|2y=2017|2p=182|3a1=Hampson|3y=2018|3p=230}} believe that his defense policies, economic policies, military policies, and hard-line rhetoric against the Soviet Union and communism, together with his summits with Gorbachev, played a significant part in ending the Cold War.<ref name="American Dreamer">{{Cite news |last1=Meacham |first1=John |last2=Murr |first2=Andrew |last3=Clift |first3=Eleanor |last4=Lipper |first4=Tamara |last5=Breslau |first5=Karen |last6=Ordonez |first6=Jennifer |date=June 14, 2004 |title=American Dreamer |work=Newsweek |url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/54017?tid=relatedcl |access-date=June 3, 2008}}</ref><ref name="Knopf" /> Professor Jeffrey Knopf argues that while Reagan's practice of referring to the Soviet Union as "evil" probably made no difference to the Soviet leaders, it possibly gave encouragement to Eastern European citizens who opposed their communist regimes.<ref name="Knopf" /> [[Truman Doctrine|President Truman's policy of containment]] is also regarded as a force behind the fall of the Soviet Union, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan undermined the Soviet system itself.<ref name="Reagan's role exaggerated">{{cite web|url=http://hnn.us/articles/5569.html|title=Reagan's Role in Ending the Cold War Is Being Exaggerated|date=June 14, 2004|access-date=January 6, 2008|last=Chapman|first=Roger|publisher=George Mason University}}</ref> Nevertheless, [[Melvyn P. Leffler]] called Reagan "Gorbachev's minor, yet indispensable partner, setting the framework for the dramatic changes that neither anticipated happening anytime soon".{{sfn|Leffler|2021|p=37}}
Critics, for example Paul Krugman, note Reagan's tenure as having begun a period of increased income inequality, sometimes called the "[[Great Divergence (inequality)|Great Divergence]]". Krugman also views Reagan as having initiated the ideology of the current-day Republican Party, which he feels is led by "radicals" who seek to "undo the twentieth century" gains in income equality and unionization.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Krugman, Paul|title=The Conscience of a Liberal|date=2007|publisher=W.W. Norton & Co.|isbn=978-0-393-33313-8|pages=7–8, 160–163, 264}}</ref> Others, such as Nixon's [[Secretary of Commerce]] [[Peter G. Peterson]], also criticize what they feel was not just Reagan's fiscal irresponsibility, but also the ushering in of an era where tax cutting "became the GOP's core platform", with resulting deficits and GOP leaders (speciously in Peterson's opinion) arguing supply-side gains would enable the country to "grow" its way out of deficits.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Peterson, Peter G.|title=Running on Empty|date=2004|publisher=Picador|isbn=0-312-42462-0|pages=6–7, 130–146}}</ref>
Reagan was known for storytelling and humor,{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=734}} which involved puns{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=97}} and self-deprecation.{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=204}} Reagan also often emphasized [[family values]], despite being the first president to have been divorced.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Hendrix, Anastasia |date=June 6, 2004 |title=Trouble at home for family values advocate |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/06/06/MNG7771M4A1.DTL |access-date=March 4, 2008}}</ref> He showed the ability to comfort Americans during the aftermath of the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' disaster]].{{sfn|Woodard|2012|p=166}} Reagan's ability to talk about substantive issues with understandable terms and to focus on mainstream American concerns earned him the laudatory moniker the "Great Communicator".{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=751}}{{sfn|Brands|2015|p=734}} He also earned the nickname "Teflon President" in that public perceptions of him were not substantially tarnished by the [[Reagan administration scandals|controversies that arose during his administration]].{{sfn|Pemberton|1998|p=112}}{{sfn|Cannon|2000|p=182}}
===Political influence===
Reagan led [[Reagan coalition|a new conservative movement]], altering the political dynamic of the United States.<ref name="legacy-cnn">{{Cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/06/06/legacy.politics/index.html|title=Reagan cast a wide shadow in politics|author=Loughlin, Sean|date=July 6, 2004|access-date=June 19, 2008|publisher=CNN}}</ref> Conservatism became the dominant ideology for Republicans, displacing the party's faction of liberals and moderates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Robert C. |date=March 1, 2021 |title=Ronald Reagan, Donald Trump, and the Future of the Republican Party and Conservatism in America |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/713662 |journal=American Political Thought |language=en |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=283–289 |doi=10.1086/713662 |s2cid=233401184 |issn=2161-1580|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Men began voting more Republican, and women began voting more Democrat – a gender distinction that has persisted.<ref name="legacy-cnn"/> He was supported by young voters, an allegiance that shifted many of them to the party.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Dionne, E.J. |date=October 31, 1988 |title=Political Memo; G.O.P. Makes Reagan Lure Of Young a Long-Term Asset |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/10/31/us/political-memo-gop-makes-reagan-lure-of-young-a-long-term-asset.html |access-date=July 2, 2008}}</ref> He attempted to appeal to Black voters in 1980,<ref>{{Cite news|date=August 6, 1980|title=Reagan talks to 'lukewarm' Urban League in New York|work=[[The Michigan Daily]]|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Od1JAAAAIBAJ&sjid=yx0NAAAAIBAJ&pg=2150%2C4238700|access-date=May 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525135744/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Od1JAAAAIBAJ&sjid=yx0NAAAAIBAJ&pg=2150%2C4238700|archive-date=May 25, 2021}}</ref> but would receive the lowest Black vote for a Republican presidential candidate at the time.{{sfn|Shull|1993|p=40}} Throughout Reagan's presidency, Republicans were unable to gain complete control of Congress.{{sfn|Heclo|2008|p=570}}
The period of American history most dominated by Reagan and his policies (particularly on taxes, welfare, defense, the federal judiciary, and the Cold War) is known as the [[Reagan era]], which suggests that the "Reagan Revolution" had a lasting impact on the United States in domestic and foreign policy. The [[Presidency of George H. W. Bush|George H. W. Bush]] and [[Bill Clinton administration]]s are often treated as an extension of the era, as is the [[George W. Bush administration]].<ref>Jack Godwin, ''Clintonomics: How Bill Clinton Reengineered the Reagan Revolution'' (2009).</ref> Since 1988, [[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican presidential candidates]] have invoked [[Political positions of Ronald Reagan|Reagan's policies and beliefs]].<ref name="agpi">{{Cite news|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|title=Actor, Governor, President, Icon|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A18329-2004Jun5.html|date=June 6, 2004|access-date=January 26, 2008|author=Cannon, Lou|page=A01|author-link=Lou Cannon}}</ref>
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}
===Works cited===
{{further|Bibliography of Ronald Reagan}}
====Books====
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Alexander |first=Michelle |author-link=Michelle Alexander |year=2010 |title=The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness |title-link=The New Jim Crow |publisher=[[The New Press]] |isbn=978-1-59558-103-7}}
* {{cite book |last=
* {{cite book |last=Anderson
* {{cite book |last=
* {{Cite book |last=Bergen |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pqjBaKpgSEQC |title=Holy War Inc |publisher=Free Press |year=2001 |isbn=9780743234955 |author-link=Peter Bergen}}
* {{cite book |last=Boller |first=Paul |year=2004 |title=Presidential Campaigns: From George Washington to George W. Bush |url=https://archive.org/details/presidentialcamp0000boll_a3l8 |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-516716-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Brands |first=H. W. |author-link=H. W. Brands |year=2015 |title=Reagan: The Life |url=https://archive.org/details/reaganlife0000bran |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Anchor Books]] |isbn=978-0-385-53639-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Cannadine |first=David |author-link=David Cannadine |title=Margaret Thatcher: A Life and Legacy |year=2017 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_u4DQAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-879500-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Cannon |first=Lou |author-link=Lou Cannon |orig-year=1991 |year=2000 |title=President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime |url=https://archive.org/details/presidentreagan000cann |url-access=registration |publisher=[[PublicAffairs]] |isbn=978-1-891620-91-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Cannon |first=Lou |author-link=Lou Cannon |author-mask=2 |year=2001 |title=Ronald Reagan: The Presidential Portfolio: A History Illustrated from the Collection of the Ronald Reagan Library and Museum |url=https://archive.org/details/ronaldreaganpres00cann |url-access=registration |publisher=[[PublicAffairs]] |isbn=978-1-891620-84-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Cannon |first=Lou |author-link=Lou Cannon |author-mask=2 |year=2003 |title=Governor Reagan: His Rise to Power |url=https://archive.org/details/governorreaganhi0000cann |url-access=registration |publisher=[[PublicAffairs]] |isbn=978-1-58648-030-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Carter |first=Gregg |author-link=Gregg Lee Carter |year=2002 |title=Guns in American Society: An Encyclopedia of History, Politics, Culture, and the Law, Volume 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H_RrLyV9rDUC |publisher=[[ABC-Clio]] |isbn=978-1-57607-268-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Crespino |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Crespino |year=2021 |title=In Search of Another Country: Mississippi and the Conservative Counterrevolution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kB8sEAAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-14094-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Dick |first=Bernard F. |year=2014 |title=The President's Ladies: Jane Wyman and Nancy Davis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R_gaBwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[University Press of Mississippi]] |isbn=978-1-61703-980-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Eliot |first=Marc |year=2008 |title=Reagan: The Hollywood Years |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qa_G6kF39_MC |publisher=[[Crown Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-307-40512-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Thomas W. |year=2006 |title=The Education of Ronald Reagan: The General Electric Years and the Untold Story of His Conversion to Conservatism |url=https://archive.org/details/educationofronal00evan |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-13860-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Fallon |first=Janet L. |year=2017 |title=A Communication Perspective on Margaret Thatcher: Stateswoman of the Twentieth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pFM3DwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Lexington Books]] |isbn=978-1-4985-4738-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Fialka |first=John J. |year=1999 |title=War by Other Means: Economic Espionage in America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-mBa7gclr8C |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=978-0-393-04014-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Fischer |first=Beth A. |year=2019 |title=The Myth of Triumphalism: Rethinking President Reagan's Cold War Legacy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5K3DwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]] |isbn=978-0-8131-7819-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Freie |first=John F. |year=2015 |title=Making of the Postmodern Presidency: From Ronald Reagan to Barack Obama |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofpostmode0000frei |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Paradigm Publishers]] |isbn=978-1-59451-782-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Friedrich |first=Otto |author-link=Otto Friedrich |orig-year=1986 |year=1997 |title=City of Nets: A Portrait of Hollywood in the 1940's |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0x8AFchW4JsC |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-20949-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Gerstle |first=Gary |author-link=Gary Gerstle |year=2022 |title=The Rise and Fall of the Neoliberal Order: America and the World in the Free Market Era |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3PJbEAAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-751964-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Gould |first=Lewis L. |author-link=Lewis L. Gould |year=2010 |title=1968: The Election That Changed America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0yPdDZsjjJ4C |publisher=[[Government Institutes]] |isbn=978-1-56663-862-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Graebner |first1=Norman |last2=Burns |first2=Richard |last3=Siracusa |first3=Joseph |year=2008 |title=Reagan, Bush, Gorbachev: Revisiting the End of the Cold War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r71u_AgE7iYC |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-35241-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Hampson |first=Fen Osler |author-link=Fen Osler Hampson |year=2018 |title=Master of Persuasion: Brian Mulroney's Global Legacy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HIFXDwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[McClelland & Stewart]] |isbn=978-0-7710-3907-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Haney López |first=Ian |author-link=Ian Haney López |year=2014 |title=Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvented Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=20QSDAAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-996427-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Herring |first=George C. |author-link=George C. Herring |year=2008 |title=From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-507822-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Holmes |first=Alison R. |year=2020 |title=Multi-Layered Diplomacy in a Global State: The International Relations of California |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nx8MEAAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |isbn=978-3-030-54131-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Karaagac |first=John |year=2002 |title=Between Promise and Policy: Ronald Reagan and Conservative Reformism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFhGnjKqjgAC |publisher=[[Lexington Books]] |isbn=978-0-7391-0094-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Kengor |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Kengor |year=2004 |title=God and Ronald Reagan: A Spiritual Life |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780060571412 |url-access=registration |publisher=[[ReganBooks]] |isbn=978-0-06-057141-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Kengor |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Kengor |author-mask=2 |year=2006 |title=The Crusader: Ronald Reagan and the Fall of Communism |url=https://archive.org/details/crusaderronaldre00keng |url-access=registration |publisher=[[ReganBooks]] |isbn=978-0-06-113690-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Keyssar |first=Alexander |author-link=Alexander Keyssar |year=2009 |title=The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UijIgQP0xF8C |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |isbn=978-0-465-00502-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Kupelian |first=David |year=2010 |title=How Evil Works: Understanding and Overcoming the Destructive Forces That Are Transforming America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cPeogcSyymsC |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn=978-1-4391-6819-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Koop |first=C. Everett |author-link=C. Everett Koop |year=1991 |title=Koop: The Memoirs of America's Family Doctor |url=https://archive.org/details/koopmemoirsofame00koop |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Random House]] |isbn=978-0-394-57626-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Landesman |first=Fred |year=2015 |title=The John Wayne Filmography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yw9eCgAAQBAJ |publisher=[[McFarland & Company]] |isbn=978-0-7864-3252-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Lettow |first=Paul |year=2006 |title=Ronald Reagan and His Quest to Abolish Nuclear Weapons |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=36pYekyje-kC |publisher=[[Random House]] |isbn=978-0-8129-7326-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Leuchtenburg |first=William |author-link=William Leuchtenburg |year=2015 |title=The American President: From Teddy Roosevelt to Bill Clinton |url=https://archive.org/details/americanpresiden0000leuc |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-517616-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Metzger |first=Robert |year=1989 |title=Reagan: American Icon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xt-2i31DRvEC |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |isbn=978-0-8122-1302-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Oliver |first1=Willard |last2=Marion |first2=Nancy |year=2010 |title=Killing the President: Assassinations, Attempts, and Rumored Attempts on U.S. Commanders-in-chief |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FNbn8PLx5qAC |publisher=[[Praeger Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-313-36474-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Patterson |first=James T. |author-link=James T. Patterson (historian) |year=2005 |title=Restless Giant: The United States from Watergate to Bush V. Gore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=03s7DwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-512216-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Pemberton |first=William |year=1998 |orig-year=1997 |title=Exit With Honor: The Life and Presidency of Ronald Reagan |url=https://archive.org/details/exitwithhonorlif00pemb |url-access=registration |publisher=[[M. E. Sharpe]] |isbn=978-0-7656-0096-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Reagan |first=Ronald |year=1990 |orig-year=1989 |title=Speaking My Mind: Selected Speeches |url=https://archive.org/details/speakingmymindse0000reag |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Hutchinson (publisher)|Hutchinson]] |isbn=978-0-09-174426-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Reagan |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Reagan |editor-last=Denney |editor-first=Jim |year=2011 |title=The New Reagan Revolution: How Ronald Reagan's Principles Can Restore America's Greatness |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHnEMC2_KoIC |publisher=[[Thomas Dunne Books]] |isbn=978-0-312-64454-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Rossinow |first=Doug |year=2015 |title=The Reagan Era: A History of the 1980s |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=57NqDQAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-16989-9 |id={{EBSCOhost|944993}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Shilts |first=Randy |author-link=Randy Shilts |orig-year=1987 |year=2000 |title=And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic |title-link=And the Band Played On |publisher=[[St. Martin's Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-312-24135-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Shull |first=Steven |year=1993 |title=A Kinder, Gentler Racism?: The Reagan-Bush Civil Rights Legacy |url=https://archive.org/details/kindergentlerrac0000shul |url-access=registration |publisher=[[M. E. Sharpe]] |isbn=978-1-56324-240-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Skidmore |first=Max |year=2008 |title=Securing America's Future: A Bold Plan to Preserve and Expand Social Security |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aWcrdduPXCAC |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7425-6243-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Søndergaard |first=Rasmus |year=2020 |title=Reagan, Congress, and Human Rights: Contesting Morality in US Foreign Policy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_XzUDwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-108-49563-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Spitz |first=Bob |author-link=Bob Spitz |year=2018 |title=Reagan: An American Journey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F7hMDwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Penguin Press]] |isbn=978-1-59420-531-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Steuerle |first=C. Eugene |year=1992 |title=The Tax Decade: How Taxes Came to Dominate the Public Agenda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zxMl-rQNkosC |publisher=[[Urban Institute]] |isbn=978-0-87766-523-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Thomson |first=Alex |year=2008 |title=U.S. Foreign Policy Towards Apartheid South Africa, 1948–1994: Conflict of Interests |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9780230617285 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |doi=10.1057/9780230617285 |isbn=978-0-230-61728-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Vaughn |first=Stephen |year=1994 |title=Ronald Reagan in Hollywood: Movies and Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/ronaldreaganinho0000vaug |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-44080-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Wawro |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Wawro |year=2010 |title=Quicksand: America's Pursuit of Power in the Middle East |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OiS9UVotQfUC |publisher=[[The Penguin Press]] |isbn=978-1-101-19768-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Weisberg |first=Jacob |author-link=Jacob Weisberg |year=2016 |title=Ronald Reagan: The American Presidents Series: The 40th President, 1981–1989 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S33lCQAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Times Books]] |isbn=978-0-8050-9727-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Witcover |first=Jules |author-link=Jules Witcover |year=1977 |title=Marathon: The Pursuit of the Presidency, 1972-1976 |url=https://archive.org/details/marathonpursuit000witc |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Viking Press]] |isbn=978-0-670-45461-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Woodard |first=J. David |year=2012 |title=Ronald Reagan: A Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/ronaldreaganbiog0000wood |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-39638-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Yager |first=Edward |year=2006 |title=Ronald Reagan's Journey: Democrat to Republican |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2cs7IHERBwC |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7425-4421-5}}
{{refend}}
====Chapters====
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=W. Lance |last2=Livingston |first2=Steven |editor-last1=Bennett |editor-first1=W. Lance |editor-last2=Livingston |editor-first2=Steven |year=2021 |chapter=Defending Democracy in the Disinformation Age |title=The Disinformation Age: Politics, Technology, and Disruptive Communication in the United States |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/disinformation-age/1F4751119C7C4693E514C249E0F0F997 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=261–294 |isbn=978-1-108-91462-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Mayer |first=Jeremy D. |editor-last1=Longley |editor-first1=Kyle |editor-last2=Mayer |editor-first2=Jeremy |editor-last3=Schaller |editor-first3=Michael |editor-last4=Sloan |editor-first4=John |year=2015 |chapter=Reagan and Race: Prophet of Color Blindness, Baiter of the Backlash |title=Deconstructing Reagan: Conservative Mythology And America's Fortieth President |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NHJsBgAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=70–89 |isbn=978-0-7656-1590-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Johns |first=Andrew L. |editor-last=Johns |editor-first=Andrew L. |year=2015 |chapter=Ronald Reagan in Historical Perspective |title=A Companion to Ronald Reagan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aaueBgAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |pages=1–6 |isbn=978-0-470-65504-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Lawrence |first=Mark Atwood |editor-last1=Hunt |editor-first1=Jonathan R. |editor-last2=Miles |editor-first2=Simon |year=2021 |chapter=Rhetoric and Restraint: Ronald Reagan and the Vietnam Syndrome |title=The Reagan Moment: America and the World in the 1980s |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9xkaEAAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |pages=165–187 |isbn=978-1-5017-6071-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Leffler |first=Melvyn P. |author-link=Melvyn P. Leffler |editor-last1=Hunt |editor-first1=Jonathan R. |editor-last2=Miles |editor-first2=Simon |year=2021 |chapter=Ronald Reagan and the Cold War |title=The Reagan Moment: America and the World in the 1980s |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9xkaEAAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |pages=25–42 |isbn=978-1-5017-6071-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Mullen |first=Lawrence J. |editor-last=Murray |editor-first=Michael D. |year=1999 |chapter=Ronald Reagan |title=Encyclopedia of Television News |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3fhcUnCC1AC |publisher=Oryx Press |isbn=978-1-57356-108-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Patterson |first=James T. |author-link=James T. Patterson (historian) |editor-last1=Brownlee |editor-first1=W. Elliot |editor-last2=Graham |editor-first2=Hugh |editor-link2=Hugh Davis Graham |chapter=Afterword: Legacies of the Reagan Years |title=The Reagan Presidency: Pragmatic Conservatism and Its Legacies |year=2003 |url=https://archive.org/details/reaganpresidency0000unse |url-access=registration |publisher=[[University Press of Kansas]] |pages=355–375 |isbn=978-0-7006-1268-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Roy |first=Ravi K. |editor-last1=Anheier |editor-first1=Helmut |editor-link1=Helmut Anheier |editor-last2=Juergensmeyer |editor-link2=Mark Juergensmeyer |editor-first2=Mark |year=2012 |chapter=Capitalism |title=Encyclopedia of Global Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wJB2AwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |pages=153–158 |isbn=978-1-4129-9422-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Schuparra |first=Kurt |editor-last=Johns |editor-first=Andrew L. |year=2015 |chapter=Reagan's Gubernatorial Years |title=A Companion to Ronald Reagan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aaueBgAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |pages=40–53 |isbn=978-0-470-65504-7}}
{{refend}}
==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Birkner|first=Michael J.|date=1987|title=The Defining Moment: The 1980 Nashua Debate|url=https://cupola.gettysburg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1013&context=histfac|journal=[[Gettysburg College]]|access-date=May 22, 2021|archive-date=May 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522134605/https://cupola.gettysburg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F&httpsredir=1&article=1013&context=histfac|url-status=live}}
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* {{cite journal |last=Clabaugh |first=Gary |year=2004 |title=The Educational Legacy of Ronald Reagan |journal=Educational Horizons |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=256–259 |jstor=42926508}}
* {{cite journal |last=DeGrasse |first=Robert W. Jr. |title=Military Spending and Jobs |year=1983 |journal=Challenge |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=4–15 |doi=10.1080/05775132.1983.11470849 |jstor=40720151}}
* {{cite journal |last=Francis |first=Donald |author-link=Don Francis |year=2012 |title=Commentary: Deadly AIDS policy failure by the highest levels of the US government: A personal look back 30 years later for lessons to respond better to future epidemics |journal=[[Journal of Public Health Policy]] |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=290–300 |doi=10.1057/jphp.2012.14 |issn=1745-655X |jstor=23253449 |pmid=22895498 |s2cid=205127920|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Garrow |first=David |author-link=David Garrow |year=2007 |title=Review: Picking up the Books: The New Historiography of the Black Panther Party |journal=[[Reviews in American History]] |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=650–670 |doi=10.1353/rah.2007.0068 |jstor=30031608 |s2cid=145069539}}
* {{cite journal |last=Gellin |first=Bruce |year=1992 |title=The Stalled Response to AIDS |journal=[[Issues in Science and Technology]] |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=24–28 |jstor=43311244 |pmid=10122433}}
* {{cite journal |last=Graetz |first=Michael |year=2012 |title=Energy Policy: Past or Prologue? |journal=[[Daedalus (journal)|Daedalus]] |volume=141 |issue=2 |pages=31–44 |doi=10.1162/DAED_a_00144 |jstor=23240277 |s2cid=57569482|doi-access=free }}
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* {{cite journal |last=Heclo |first=Hugh |author-link=Hugh Heclo |year=2008 |title=The Mixed Legacies of Ronald Reagan |journal=[[Presidential Studies Quarterly]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=555–574 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2008.02664.x |jstor=41219701}}
* {{cite journal |last=Henry |first=David |year=2009 |title=Ronald Reagan and the 1980s: Perceptions, Policies, Legacies by Cheryl Hudson, Gareth Davies |journal=[[The Journal of American History]] |volume=96 |issue=3 |pages=933–934 |doi=10.1093/jahist/96.3.933 |jstor=25622627}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kanet |first=Roger E. |author-link=Roger Kanet |year=2006 |title=The Superpower Quest for Empire: The Cold War and Soviet Support for 'Wars of National Liberation' |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14682740600795469 |journal=[[Cold War History (journal)|Cold War History]] |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=331–352 |doi=10.1080/14682740600795469 |s2cid=154531753|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite journal |last=Kazanjian |first=Powel |year=2014 |title=The AIDS Pandemic in Historic Perspective |journal=[[Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences]] |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=351–382 |doi=10.1093/jhmas/jrs061 |jstor=24631705 |pmid=23090980}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Young Soo |last2=Shin |first2=Joongbum |year=2017 |title=Variance in Global Response to HIV/AIDS between the United States and Japan: Perception, Media, and Civil Society |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/japanese-journal-of-political-science/article/abs/variance-in-global-response-to-hivaids-between-the-united-states-and-japan-perception-media-and-civil-society/D76F94F2AA901F3F66FEEE6E0A0BCB5D |journal=Japanese Journal of Political Science |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=514–535 |doi=10.1017/S1468109917000159 |s2cid=158468369|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite journal |last=Li |first=Jinhua |year=2013 |title=Analysis of the High Unemployment Rate in the USA |journal=World Review of Political Economy |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=218–229 |doi=10.13169/worlrevipoliecon.4.2.0218 |jstor=10.13169/worlrevipoliecon.4.2.0218|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Lucas |first=Richert |year=2009 |title=Reagan, Regulation, and the FDA: The US Food and Drug Administration's Response to HIV/AIDS, 1980-90 |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/194343072 |journal=[[Canadian Journal of History]] |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=467–487|doi=10.3138/cjh.44.3.467 |id={{ProQuest|194343072}}|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite journal |last=Nichols |first=Curt |year=2012 |title=The Presidential Ranking Game: Critical Review and Some New Discoveries |journal=[[Presidential Studies Quarterly]] |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=275–299 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2012.03966.x |jstor=41427390}}
* {{cite journal |last=Onge |first=Jeffrey |year=2017 |title=Operation Coffeecup: Ronald Reagan, Rugged Individualism, and the Debate over "Socialized Medicine" |journal=Rhetoric and Public Affairs |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=223–252 |doi=10.14321/rhetpublaffa.20.2.0223 |jstor=10.14321/rhetpublaffa.20.2.0223 |s2cid=149379808}}
* {{cite journal |last=Pach |first=Chester |year=2006 |title=The Reagan Doctrine: Principle, Pragmatism, and Policy |journal=[[Presidential Studies Quarterly]] |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=75–88 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00288.x |jstor=27552748}}
* {{cite journal |last=Primuth |first=Richard |year=2016 |title=Ronald Reagan's Use of Race in the 1976 and 1980 Presidential Elections |journal=[[The Georgia Historical Quarterly]] |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=36–66 |jstor=43855884}}
* {{cite journal |last=Putnam |first=Jackson |year=2006 |title=Governor Reagan: A Reappraisal |journal=California History |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=24–45 |doi=10.2307/25161839 |jstor=25161839}}
* {{cite journal |last=Reimler |first=John |year=1999 |title=The Rebirth of Racism in Education: The Real Legacy of the Reagan Revolution |journal=Journal of Thought |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=31–40 |jstor=42589574}}
* {{cite journal |last=Sinai |first=Allen |author-link=Allen Sinai |year=1992 |title=Financial and Real Business Cycles |journal=[[Eastern Economic Journal]] |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–54 |jstor=40325363}}
* {{cite journal |last=Sirin |first=Cigdem |year=2011 |title=From Nixon's War on Drugs to Obama's Drug Policies Today: Presidential Progress in Addressing Racial Injustices and Disparities |journal=Race, Gender & Class |volume=18 |issue=3/4 |pages=82–99 |jstor=43496834}}
* {{cite journal |last=Vaughn |first=Stephen |year=1995 |title=The Moral Inheritance of a President: Reagan and the Dixon Disciples of Christ |journal=[[Presidential Studies Quarterly]] |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=109–127 |jstor=27551378}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{
===Official sites===
* [http://www.
* [https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/ronald-reagan/ Ronald Reagan] on [[whitehouse.gov]]
* [https://governors.library.ca.gov/33-Reagan.html Ronald Reagan] in the Governors' Gallery of the [[California State Library]]
* [https://www.eureka.edu/about/reaganlegacy/reagansociety The Ronald W. Reagan Society of Eureka College]
===Media===
* {{C-SPAN|337}}
** [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151636-1/life-portrait-ronald-reagan "Life Portrait of Ronald Reagan"], from ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', December 6, 1999
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170202034831/http://millercenter.org/president/reagan/oralhistory Ronald Reagan Oral Histories] at [[Miller Center]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170320054041/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/reagan/ Ronald Reagan's timeline] at [[PBS]]
* {{
===News coverage===
* {{New York Times topic|new_id=person/ronald-reagan}}
* [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/politics/specials/reagan/ Ronald Reagan] from ''[[The Washington Post]]''
* [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2004/reagan/ Ronald Reagan] at [[CNN]]
* {{Guardian topic|world/ronald-reagan|Ronald Reagan}}
===Other===
* {{IMDb name}}
* {{Tcmdb name|158794%7C134853|Ronald Reagan}}
* {{Internet Archive author|sname=Ronald Wilson Reagan}}
* [http://millercenter.org/president/reagan Ronald Reagan] at [[Miller Center]]
{{Ronald Reagan}}
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