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{{Short description|Computer processor contained on an integrated-circuit chip}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2022}}[[File:C4004 two lines.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|4-bit [[Intel 4004]] (1971) ]]
[[File:KL IBM PowerPC 601.jpg|thumb|32-bit [[PowerPC 601]] (1993)]]
[[File:Scan des AMD Ryzen Threadripper 7970X 20240407 075.jpg|thumb|[[64-bit]], 32-core (64-threads), AMD Ryzen Threadripper 7970X based on [[x86-64]] [[Zen 4]] (2023)]]A '''microprocessor''' is a [[computer]] [[processor (computing)|processor]] for which the data processing logic and control is included on a single [[integrated circuit]] (IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's [[central processing unit]] (CPU). The IC is capable of interpreting and executing program instructions and performing arithmetic operations.<ref>{{cite web |last=Orion |first=Veritas |date=2024-08-23 |title=What distinguishes a microprocessor from a microcontroller? |url=https://www.ampheo.com/blog/microprocessor-vs-microcontroller-comparison |website=Ampheo Electronics |publisher=Orion Veritas}}</ref> The microprocessor is a multipurpose, [[Clock signal|clock]]-driven, [[Processor register|register]]-based, [[digital integrated circuit]] that accepts [[binary code|binary]] data as input, processes it according to [[instruction (computing)|instruction]]s stored in its [[computer memory|memory]], and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain both [[combinational logic]] and [[sequential logic|sequential digital logic]], and operate on numbers and symbols represented in the [[binary number]] system.▼
The integration of a whole CPU onto a single or a few integrated circuits using [[Very-Large-Scale Integration]] (VLSI) greatly reduced the cost of processing power. Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[semiconductor device fabrication|fabrication processes]], resulting in a relatively low [[unit price]]. Single-chip processors increase reliability because there are fewer electrical connections that can fail. As [[Processor design|microprocessor designs]] improve, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size) generally stays the same, according to [[Rock's law]].▼
▲[[File:C4004 two lines.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Intel 4004]] ]]
▲[[File:Motorola XC6800A 1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Motorola 6800]] (MC6800)]]
Before microprocessors, small computers had been built using racks of [[circuit board]]s with many [[medium-scale integration|medium-]] and [[small-scale integration|small-scale integrated circuits]]
▲A '''microprocessor''' is a [[computer]] [[processor (computing)|processor]] for which the data processing logic and control is included on a single [[integrated circuit]] (IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's [[central processing unit]] (CPU). The IC is capable of interpreting and executing program instructions and performing arithmetic operations.<ref>{{cite web |last=Orion |first=Veritas |date=2024-08-23 |title=What distinguishes a microprocessor from a microcontroller? |url=https://www.ampheo.com/blog/microprocessor-vs-microcontroller-comparison |website=Ampheo Electronics |publisher=Orion Veritas}}</ref> The microprocessor is a multipurpose, [[Clock signal|clock]]-driven, [[Processor register|register]]-based, [[digital integrated circuit]] that accepts [[binary code|binary]] data as input, processes it according to [[instruction (computing)|instruction]]s stored in its [[computer memory|memory]], and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain both [[combinational logic]] and [[sequential logic|sequential digital logic]], and operate on numbers and symbols represented in the [[binary number]] system.
▲The integration of a whole CPU onto a single or a few integrated circuits using [[Very-Large-Scale Integration]] (VLSI) greatly reduced the cost of processing power. Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[semiconductor device fabrication|fabrication processes]], resulting in a relatively low [[unit price]]. Single-chip processors increase reliability because there are fewer electrical connections that can fail. As [[Processor design|microprocessor designs]] improve, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size) generally stays the same according to [[Rock's law]].
▲Before microprocessors, small computers had been built using racks of [[circuit board]]s with many [[medium-scale integration|medium-]] and [[small-scale integration|small-scale integrated circuits]], typically of [[Transistor–transistor logic|TTL]] type. Microprocessors combined this into one or a few [[large-scale integration|large-scale]] ICs. While there is disagreement over who deserves credit for the invention of the microprocessor, the first commercially available microprocessor was the [[Intel 4004]], designed by [[Federico Faggin]] and introduced in 1971.<ref name = "IEEE">{{cite web | url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors | title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors | date=30 August 2016 | access-date=4 October 2022 | archive-date=4 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004011825/https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors | url-status=live }}</ref>
Continued increases in microprocessor capacity have since rendered other forms of computers almost completely obsolete (see [[history of computing hardware]]), with one or more microprocessors used in everything from the smallest [[embedded system]]s and [[handheld device]]s to the largest [[mainframe]]s and [[supercomputer]]s.
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==Structure==
[[File:Z80 arch.svg|thumb|upright=1.7|
The complexity of an integrated circuit is bounded by physical limitations on the number of [[transistors]] that can be put onto one chip, the number of package terminations that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number of interconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can [[Thermal management (electronics)|dissipate]]. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture.
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===Speed and power considerations===
Microprocessors can be selected for differing applications based on their word size, which is a measure of their complexity. Longer word sizes allow each [[clock cycle]] of a processor to carry out more computation, but correspond to physically larger integrated circuit dies with higher standby and operating [[power consumption]].<ref name="cmicrotek">CMicrotek.
[http://cmicrotek.com/wordpress_159256135/?p=22 "8-bit vs 32-bit Micros"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714123158/http://cmicrotek.com/wordpress_159256135/?p=22 |date=2014-07-14 }}.</ref> 4-, 8- or 12-bit processors are widely integrated into microcontrollers operating embedded systems. Where a system is expected to handle larger volumes of data or require a more flexible [[user interface]], 16-, 32- or 64-bit processors are used. An 8- or [[16-bit]] processor may be selected over a 32-bit processor for [[system on a chip]] or microcontroller applications that require extremely [[low-power electronics]], or are part of a [[mixed-signal integrated circuit]] with noise-sensitive on-chip [[analog electronics]] such as high-resolution analog to digital converters, or both.
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The first use of the term "microprocessor" is attributed to [[Viatron|Viatron Computer Systems]]<ref>[http://bitsavers.org/pdf/viatron/ViatronSystem21Brochure.pdf Viatron Computer Systems. "System 21 is Now!"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110321143159/http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/viatron/ViatronSystem21Brochure.pdf |date=2011-03-21 }} (PDF).</ref> describing the custom integrated circuit used in their System 21 small computer system announced in 1968.
Since the early 1970s, the increase in capacity of microprocessors has followed [[Moore's law]]; this originally suggested that the number of components that can be fitted onto a chip doubles every year. With present technology, it is actually every two years,<ref>{{
===First projects===
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====Four-Phase Systems AL1 (1969)====
The [[Four-Phase Systems AL1]] was an 8-bit [[bit slice]] chip containing eight registers and an ALU.<ref>{{cite book | page=121 | chapter=When is a Microprocessor not a Microprocessor? The Industrial Construction of Semiconductor Innovation | author=Basset, Ross | title=Exposing Electronics | editor=Finn, Bernard | publisher=Michigan State University Press | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-87013-658-0 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rsRJTiu1h9MC | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330235547/http://books.google.com/books?id=rsRJTiu1h9MC | archive-date=2014-03-30 }}</ref><!-- UK ed. same page scheme--> It was designed by [[Lee Boysel]] in 1969.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1971-MPU.html | publisher=Computer History Museum | website=The Silicon Engine | title=1971 - Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip | access-date=2010-07-25 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100608102128/http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1971-MPU.html | archive-date=2010-06-08 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://home.comcast.net/~gordonepeterson2/schaller_dissertation_2004.pdf | title=Technological Innovation in the Semiconductor Industry: A Case Study of the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors | author=Shaller, Robert R. | date=15 April 2004 | publisher=George Mason University | access-date=2010-07-25 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061219012629/http://home.comcast.net/~gordonepeterson2/schaller_dissertation_2004.pdf | archive-date=2006-12-19 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/hasrg/histsci/silicongenesis/moore-ntb.html | title=Interview with Gordon E. Moore | date=3 March 1995 | ___location=Los Altos Hills, California | author=RW | publisher=Stanford University | website=[[LAIR]] History of Science and Technology Collections | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204045916/http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/hasrg/histsci/silicongenesis/moore-ntb.html | archive-date=4 February 2012 }}</ref> At the time, it formed part of a nine-chip, 24-bit CPU with three AL1s. It was later called a microprocessor when, in response to 1990s litigation by [[Texas Instruments]], Boysel constructed a demonstration system where a single AL1 with a 1969 datestamp formed part of a courtroom demonstration computer system, together with RAM, ROM, and an input-output device.<ref>Bassett 2003. pp. 115, 122.</ref> The AL1 wasn't sold individually, but was part of the System IV/70 announced in September 1970 and first delivered in February 1972.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web| title=Four-Phase System IV Series | url=https://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/pdf/datapro/datapro_reports_70s-90s/Four_Phase/M11-435-10_7908_Four-Phase_System_IV.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241231053554/https://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/pdf/datapro/datapro_reports_70s-90s/Four_Phase/M11-435-10_7908_Four-Phase_System_IV.pdf | archive-date=2024-12-31}}</ref>
====Garrett AiResearch CADC (1970)====
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====Texas Instruments TMX 1795 (1970–1971)====
Texas Instruments developed in 1970–1971 a one-chip CPU replacement for the [[Datapoint 2200]] terminal, the TMX 1795 (later TMC 1795). Like Intel's later [[8008]], it was rejected by customer Datapoint. According to Gary Boone, the TMX 1795 never reached production. Still it reached a prototype state at 1971 February 24.<ref name="righto_com">{{cite web | url=https://www.righto.com/2015/05/the-texas-instruments-tmx-1795-first.html | title=The Texas Instruments TMX 1795: The (Almost) first, forgotten microprocessor }}</ref> Since it was built to the same specification, its instruction set was very similar to the Intel 8008.<ref name="genie">{{cite book |first1=Frederick |last1=Seitz |first2=Norman G. |last2=Einspruch |chapter=19. The 1970s and the Microprocessor § Texas Instruments |title=Electronic Genie: The Tangled History of Silicon |publisher=University of Illinois Press |date=1998 |isbn=0252023838 |pages=228–9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IT90cDPh54wC&pg=PA229 |access-date=14 August 2022 |archive-date=19 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219195307/https://books.google.com/books?id=IT90cDPh54wC&pg=PA229 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="shirriff">{{cite journal |first=Ken |last=Shirriff |title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors |journal=IEEE Spectrum |volume=53 |issue=9 |pages=48–54 |date=2016 |doi=10.1109/MSPEC.2016.7551353 |s2cid=32003640
====Texas Instruments TMS 1802NC (1971)====
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[[File:C4004 (Intel).jpg|thumb|Intel's first microprocessor, the [[4004]], with cover removed (left) and as actually used (right)]]
[[File:Intel_4004_ad.jpg|thumb|Intel advertisement in [[Electronic News]] magazine from 1971 emphasizing the 4004's affordability, compactness, ease of programming, and flexibility.]]
The [[Intel 4004]] is often (falsely) regarded as the first true microprocessor built on a single chip,<ref>{{cite web | title=The Microcomputer Revolution | first=Pamela E. | last=Mack | date=30 November 2005 | url=http://www.clemson.edu/caah/history/FacultyPages/PamMack/lec122/micro.htm | access-date=2009-12-23 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100114160413/http://www.clemson.edu/caah/history/FacultyPages/PamMack/lec122/micro.htm | archive-date=14 January 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite
The project that produced the 4004 originated in 1969, when [[Busicom]], a Japanese calculator manufacturer, asked Intel to build a chipset for high-performance [[desktop calculator]]s. Busicom's original design called for a programmable chip set consisting of seven different chips. Three of the chips were to make a special-purpose CPU with its program stored in ROM and its data stored in shift register read-write memory. [[Ted Hoff]], the Intel engineer assigned to evaluate the project, believed the Busicom design could be simplified by using dynamic RAM storage for data, rather than shift register memory, and a more traditional general-purpose CPU architecture. Hoff came up with a four-chip architectural proposal: a ROM chip for storing the programs, a dynamic RAM chip for storing data, a simple [[I/O]] device, and a 4-bit central processing unit (CPU). Although not a chip designer, he felt the CPU could be integrated into a single chip, but as he lacked the technical know-how the idea remained just a wish for the time being.
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The Power4 won "''Analysts’ Choice Award for Best Workstation/Server Processor of 2001", and'' it broke notable records, including winning a contest against the best players on the Jeopardy!<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/watson/|title = IBM100 - A Computer Called Watson|website = [[IBM]]|date = 7 March 2012|access-date = 19 July 2021|archive-date = 19 July 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210719124129/https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/watson/|url-status = live}}</ref> U.S. television show.
Intel's [[Yonah (microprocessor)|codename Yonah]] CPU's launched on Jan 6, 2006, and were manufactured with two dies packaged on a [[multi-chip module]]. In a hotly
By 2012 ''dual and quad-core'' processors became widely used in PCs and laptops, newer processors - similar to the higher cost professional level Intel Xeon's - with additional cores that execute instructions in parallel so software performance typically increases, provided the software is designed to utilize advanced hardware. Operating systems provided support for multiple-cores and SMD CPU's, many software applications including large workload and resource intensive applications - such as 3-D games - are programmed to take advantage of multiple core and multi-CPU systems.
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