Content deleted Content added
Some people can read Latin, some cannot. It isn't a matter of "making up my mind" |
→Points of vocabulary: better digitisation |
||
Line 1:
{{short description|References by Roman historian and senator Tacitus to Christ}}
[[File:Karl von Piloty Nero Róma égését szemléli.jpg|thumb|''The Fire of Rome'', 1861 work by [[Karl von Piloty]]. According to Tacitus, Nero targeted [[Christians]] as those responsible for the fire.]]
{{Jesus|expanded=perspectives}}
Roman historian and politician [[Tacitus]] referred to [[Jesus]], [[Crucifixion of Jesus|his execution]] by [[Pontius Pilate]], and the existence of [[Early centers of Christianity#Rome|early Christians in Rome]] in his final work, ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' (written c. AD 116), [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|book 15, chapter 44]].<ref>[[P. E. Easterling]], [[E. J. Kenney]] (general editors), ''The Cambridge History of Latin Literature'', page 892 (Cambridge University Press, 1982, reprinted 1996). {{ISBN|0-521-21043-7}}</ref> The context of the passage is the six-day [[Great Fire of Rome]] that burned much of the city in AD 64 during the reign of Roman Emperor [[Nero]].<ref name=Dando1 >Stephen Dando-Collins (2010). ''The Great Fire of Rome''. {{ISBN|978-0-306-81890-5}}. pp. 1–4.</ref> The passage is one of the earliest non-Christian references to the [[Early Christianity#Origins|origins of Christianity]], the execution of Christ described in the [[canonical gospels]], and the presence and [[Persecution of Christians#Roman Empire|persecution]] of [[Christians]] in 1st-century [[Rome]].{{sfn|Brent|2009|p=32–34}}{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=39–53}}
There are two points of vocabulary in the passage. First, Tacitus may have used the word "Chrestians" ({{lang|la|Chrestianos}}) for Christians, but then speaks of "Christ" ({{lang|la|Christus}}) as the origin of that name. Second, he calls Pilate a "procurator", even though other sources indicate that he had the title "prefect". Scholars have proposed various hypotheses to explain these peculiarities. The scholarly consensus is that Tacitus's reference to the execution of Jesus by Pontius Pilate is both authentic, and of historical value as an independent Roman source.{{sfn|Evans|2001|p=42}}<ref name="Bible' page 343">Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard (2001). ''Mercer Dictionary of the Bible''. {{ISBN|0-86554-373-9}}. p. 343.</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Helen K. Bond (2004). ''Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation''. {{ISBN|0-521-61620-4}}. p. xi.</ref><ref name="marg tac" /> However, Tacitus does not reveal the source of his information. There are several hypotheses as to what sources he may have used.
Tacitus provides non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus.<ref name="BAS">{{cite web |last1=Mykytiuk |first1=Lawrence |title=Did Jesus Exist? Searching for Evidence Beyond the Bible |url=https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/jesus-historical-jesus/did-jesus-exist/ |website=Biblical Archaeology Society |language=en |date=January 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=127}} Scholars view it as establishing three separate facts about Rome around AD 60: (i) that there were a sizable number of Christians in Rome at the time, (ii) that it was possible to distinguish between Christians and Jews in Rome, and (iii) that at the time [[Religion in ancient Rome|pagans]] made a connection between Christianity in Rome and its origin in [[Roman Judaea]].{{sfn|Dunn|2009|p=56}}<ref name=AntiochRome/> Tacitus is one of the non-Christian writers of the time who mentioned Jesus and early Christianity along with [[Josephus on Jesus|Flavius Josephus]], [[Pliny the Younger on Christians|Pliny the Younger]], and [[Suetonius on Christians|Suetonius]].{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000}}
==The passage and its context==
[[File:Siemiradski Fackeln.jpg|thumb|''[[Nero's Torches]]'', by [[Henryk Siemiradzki]] (1876)]]
[[File:Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana Ms Codex Laurentianus Mediceus 68 II fol. 38r Tacitus, Annales, xv 44.3–8 Mention of Christians.jpg|thumb|Part of the page from the 11th century codex containing ''Annales'', [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|xv. 44.3–8]], the passage with the reference to Christians (Florence, [[Laurentian Library]], Plut. 68.2, f. 38''r'')]]
The ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' passage ([[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|15.44]]), which has been subjected to much scholarly analysis, follows a description of the six-day [[Great Fire of Rome]] that burned much of Rome in July 64 AD.{{sfn|Brent|2009|p=32-34}} The key part of the passage [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|reads as follows]] (translation from Latin by [[Alfred John Church|A. J. Church]] and W. J. Brodribb, 1876):
{{verse translation|Sed non ope humana, non largitionibus principis aut deum placamentis decedebat infamia, quin iussum incendium crederetur. ergo abolendo rumori Nero subdidit reos et quaesitissimis poenis adfecit, quos per flagitia invisos vulgus Chrestianos appellabat. auctor nominis eius Christus Tibero imperitante per procuratorem Pontium Pilatum supplicio adfectus erat; repressaque in praesens exitiabilis superstitio rursum erumpebat, non modo per Iudaeam, originem eius mali, sed per urbem etiam, quo cuncta undique atrocia aut pudenda confluunt celebranturque. igitur primum correpti qui fatebantur, deinde indicio eorum multitudo ingens haud proinde in crimine incendii quam odio humani generis convicti sunt.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/tacitus/tac.ann15.shtml | title=Tacitus: Annales XV}}</ref>|But all human efforts, all the lavish gifts of the emperor, and the propitiations of the gods, did not banish the sinister belief that the conflagration was the result of an order. Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judæa, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind.}}
Tacitus then describes the torture of Christians:
{{blockquote|Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired. Nero offered his gardens for the spectacle, and was exhibiting a show in the circus, while he mingled with the people in the dress of a charioteer or stood aloft on a car. Hence, even for criminals who deserved extreme and exemplary punishment, there arose a feeling of compassion; for it was not, as it seemed, for the public good, but to glut one man's cruelty, that they were being destroyed.<ref>[[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|Tacitus, The Annals, book 15, chapter 44]]</ref>}}
The exact cause of the fire remains uncertain, but much of the population of Rome suspected that [[Emperor Nero]] had started the fire himself.{{sfn|Brent|2009|p=32-34}} To divert attention from himself, Nero accused the Christians of starting the fire and persecuted them, making this the first documented confrontation between Christians and the authorities in Rome.{{sfn|Brent|2009|p=32-34}} Tacitus suggested that Nero used the Christians as scapegoats.{{sfn|Barnett|2002|p=30}}
As with almost all ancient Greek and Latin literature,<ref>L.D. Reynolds, N.G. Wilson, ''Scribes and Scholars. A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature'', Oxford 1991</ref> no original manuscripts of the ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' exist. The surviving copies of Tacitus' major works derive from two principal manuscripts, known as the ''[[Medicean]] manuscripts'', which are held in the [[Laurentian Library]] in [[Florence]], Italy.<ref name=Pitman4 >''Cornelii Taciti Annalium, Libri V, VI, XI, XII: With Introduction and Notes'' by Henry Furneaux, H. Pitman 2010 {{ISBN|1-108-01239-6}} page iv</ref> The second of them (Plut. 68.2), as the only one containing books xi–xvi of the ''Annales'', is the oldest witness to the passage describing Christians.<ref name=Francis96 >Newton, Francis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dgU9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1 The Scriptorium and Library at Monte Cassino, 1058–1105]'', {{ISBN|0-521-58395-0}} Cambridge University Press, 1999. "The Date of the Medicean Tacitus (''Flor. Laur.'' 68.2)", p. 96-97.</ref> Scholars generally agree that this codex was written in the 11th century at the [[Order of Saint Benedict|Benedictine]] abbey of [[Monte Cassino]] and its end refers to ''Abbas Raynaldus cu...'' who was most probably one of the two abbots of that name at the abbey during that period.<ref name=Francis96 />
==Points of vocabulary==
===Christians and Chrestians===
[[File:Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana Ms Codex Laurentianus Mediceus 68 II fol. 38r Tacitus, Annales, xv 44.3–8 "Chrı ſtıanoſ" highlighted.jpg|thumb|180x180px|Detail from the page of the Codex Laurentianus Mediceus 68.2 (f. 38''r'') containing ''Annales'' xv. 44.4: in the word 'Christianos' the gap between the 'i' and 's' is highlighted]]
The passage states:
{{blockquote|... called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin ...}}
In 1902 Georg Andresen commented on the appearance of the first 'i' and subsequent gap in the earliest extant, 11th century, copy of the ''Annals'' in [[Florence]], suggesting that the text had been altered, and an 'e' had originally been in the text, rather than this 'i'.<ref>[[Georg Andresen]] in ''Wochenschrift fur klassische Philologie'' 19, 1902, col. 780f</ref> "With ultra-violet examination of the MS the alteration was conclusively shown. It is impossible today to say who altered the letter ''e'' into an ''i''."<ref name="Boman">J. Boman, ''[http://brepols.metapress.com/content/y4m58q8x60600153/ Inpulsore Cherestro? Suetonius' Divus Claudius 25.4 in Sources and Manuscripts] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130104012946/http://brepols.metapress.com/content/y4m58q8x60600153/ |date=2013-01-04 }}'', Liber Annuus 61 (2011), ISSN 0081-8933, [[Studium Biblicum Franciscanum]], Jerusalem 2012, p. 355, n. 2.</ref> Since the alteration became known it has given rise to debates among scholars as to whether Tacitus deliberately used the term "Chrestians", or if a scribe made an error during the [[Middle Ages]].{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=44-48}}{{sfn|Bromiley|1995|p=657}} It has been stated that both the terms Christians and Chrestians had at times been used by the general population in Rome to refer to early Christians.<ref name=Lampe12 >''Christians at Rome in the First Two Centuries'' by Peter Lampe 2006 {{ISBN|0-8264-8102-7}} page 12</ref> [[Robert E. Van Voorst]] states that many sources indicate that the term Chrestians was also used among the early followers of Jesus by the second century.{{sfn|Bromiley|1995|p=657}}{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=33-35}} The term Christians appears only three times in the [[New Testament]], the first usage ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#11:26|Acts 11:26]]) giving the origin of the term.{{sfn|Bromiley|1995|p=657}} In all three cases the uncorrected [[Codex Sinaiticus]] in Greek reads ''Chrestianoi''.{{sfn|Bromiley|1995|p=657}}{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=33-35}} In [[Phrygia]] a number of funerary stone inscriptions use the term Chrestians, with one stone inscription using both terms together, reading: "''Chrestians for Christians''".{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=33-35}}
[[Adolf von Harnack]] argued that Chrestians was the original wording, and that Tacitus deliberately used ''Christus'' immediately after it to show his own superior knowledge compared to the population at large.{{sfn|Bromiley|1995|p=657}} Robert Renehan has stated that it was natural for a Roman to mix the two words that sounded the same, that Chrestianos was the original word in the ''Annals'' and not an error by a scribe.<ref name="Robert Renehan 1968 pp. 368-370">Robert Renehan, "Christus or Chrestus in Tacitus?", La Parola del Passato 122 (1968), pp. 368-370</ref><ref>''Transactions and proceedings of the American Philological Association'', Volume 29, JSTOR (Organization), 2007. p vii</ref> Van Voorst has stated that it was unlikely for Tacitus himself to refer to Christians as Chrestianos i.e. "useful ones" given that he also referred to them as "hated for their shameful acts".{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=44-48}} Eddy and Boyd see no major impact on the authenticity of the passage or its meaning regardless of the use of either term by Tacitus.{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=181}}
Whatever the original wording of Tacitus, another ancient source about the Neronian persecution, by [[Suetonius]], apparently speaks of "Christians": "In Suetonius' ''Nero 16.2'', '{{lang|la|christiani|italic=no}}', however, seems to be the original reading."<ref name="Boman" />
===The rank of Pilate===
[[File:Pilate Inscription.JPG|thumb|220px|The [[Pilate Stone]], now at the [[Israel Museum]]]]
Pilate's rank while he was governor of [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]] appeared in a Latin inscription on the [[Pilate Stone]] which called him a [[prefect]], while this Tacitean passage calls him a [[Procurator (ancient Rome)|procurator]]. [[Josephus]] refers to Pilate with the generic Greek term {{lang|grc|ἡγεμών}} ({{Transliteration|grc|hēgemṓn}}), or governor. Tacitus records that [[Claudius]] was the ruler who gave procurators governing power.<ref>Tacitus, Annals 12.60: Claudius said that the judgments of his procurators had the same efficacy as those judgments he made.</ref><ref>P. A. Brunt, ''Roman imperial themes'', Oxford University Press, 1990, {{ISBN|0-19-814476-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-19-814476-2}}. p.167.</ref> After [[Herod Agrippa]]'s death in AD 44, when Judea reverted to direct Roman rule, Claudius gave procurators control over Judea.{{sfn|Brent|2009|p=32-34}}<ref>Tacitus, Histories 5.9.8.</ref>{{sfn|Bromiley|1995|p=979}}<ref>''Paul, apostle of the heart set free'' by F. F. Bruce (2000) {{ISBN|1842270273}} Eerdsmans page 354</ref><!-- D. B. Saddington states that at the time Tacitus wrote, the title prefect had given way to procurator for governors of smaller imperial provinces.<ref>D. B. Saddington, in ''Rise and Decline of the Roman World: Pt.2'' edited by Wolfgang Haase (Nov 22, 1996) ISBN 3110150069 page 2426.</ref> -->
Various theories have been put forward to explain why Tacitus should use the term "procurator" when the archaeological evidence indicates that Pilate was a prefect. Jerry Vardaman theorizes that Pilate's title was changed during his stay in Judea and that the Pilate Stone dates from the early years of his administration.<ref>"A New Inscription Which Mentions Pilate as 'Prefect{{'"}}, ''JBL'' 81/1 (1962), p. 71.</ref> [[Baruch Lifshitz]] postulates that the inscription would originally have mentioned the title of "procurator" along with "prefect".<ref>"Inscriptions latines de Cesaree (Caesarea Palaestinae)" in ''Latomus'' 22 (1963), pp. 783–4.</ref> L.A. Yelnitsky argues that the use of "procurator" in ''Annals'' 15.44.3 is a [[Christian interpolation]].<ref>"The Caesarea Inscription of Pontius Pilate and Its Historical Significance" in ''Vestnik Drevnej Istorii'' 93 (1965), pp.142–6.</ref> S.G.F. Brandon suggests that there is no real difference between the two ranks.<ref>"Pontius Pilate in history and legend" in ''History Today'' 18 (1968), pp. 523—530</ref> [[John Dominic Crossan]] states that Tacitus "retrojected" the title procurator which was in use at the time of [[Claudius]] back onto Pilate who was called prefect in his own time.{{sfn|Crossan|1999|p=9}} [[Bruce Chilton]] and [[Craig A. Evans|Craig Evans]] as well as Van Voorst state that Tacitus apparently used the title ''procurator'' because it was more common at the time of his writing and that this variation in the use of the title should not be taken as evidence to doubt the correctness of the information Tacitus provides.<ref name=ChilEvans465 />{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=48}} [[Warren Carter]] states that, as the term "prefect" has a military connotation, while "procurator" is civilian, the use of either term may be appropriate for governors who have a range of military, administrative and fiscal responsibilities.<ref>''Pontius Pilate: Portraits of a Roman Governor'' by Warren Carter (Sep 1, 2003) {{ISBN|0814651135}} page 44</ref>
[[Louis Feldman]] says that [[Philo]] (who died AD 50) and [[Josephus]] also use the term "procurator" for Pilate.{{sfn|Feldman|1997|p=818}} As both Philo and Josephus wrote in Greek, neither of them actually used the term "procurator", but the Greek word {{lang|grc|ἐπίτροπος}} ({{Transliteration|grc|epítropos}}), which is regularly translated as "procurator". Philo also uses this Greek term for the governors of [[Aegyptus (Roman province)|Egypt]] (a prefect), of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]] (a proconsul) and [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] (a legate).<ref>''Matthew and Empire: Initial Explorations'' by Warren Carter (T&T Clark: October 10, 2001) {{ISBN|978-1563383427}} p. 215.</ref> Werner Eck, in his list of terms for governors of Judea found in the works of Josephus, shows that, while in the early work, ''[[The Jewish War]]'', Josephus uses ''epitropos'' less consistently, the first governor to be referred to by the term in ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' was [[Cuspius Fadus]], (who was in office AD 44–46).<ref>Werner Eck, "{{lang|de|Die Benennung von römischen Amtsträgern und politisch-militärisch-administrativenFunktionen bei Flavius Iosephus: Probleme der korrekten IdentifizierungAuthor|italic=no}}" in {{lang|de|Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik}}, 166 (2008), p. 222.</ref> Feldman notes that Philo, Josephus and Tacitus may have anachronistically confused the timing of the titles—prefect later changing to procurator.{{sfn|Feldman|1997|p=818}} Feldman also notes that the use of the titles may not have been rigid, for Josephus refers to Cuspius Fadus both as "prefect" and "procurator".{{sfn|Feldman|1997|p=818}}
==Authenticity==
[[File:Lipsius manuscript.jpg|thumb|180px|The title page of 1598 edition of the works of Tacitus, kept in [[Empoli]], [[Italy]]]]
Most scholars hold the passage to be authentic and that Tacitus was the author.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=42-43}}{{sfn|Shaw|2015}}<ref name="Willem">{{citation |first=Willem |last=Blom |title=Why the Testimonium Taciteum Is Authentic: A Response to Carrier |work=Vigilae Christianae |date=2019}}</ref> Classicists observe that in a recent assessment by latinists on the passage, they unanimously deemed the passage authentic and noted that no serious Tacitean scholar believes it to be an interpolation.<ref name="marg tac">{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Margaret H. |title=Early Classical Authors on Jesus |date=2023 |publisher=T&T Clark |isbn=9780567683151 |pages=67–74}}</ref>
Suggestions that the passage may have been a complete forgery have been generally rejected by scholars.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=42}}{{sfn|Furneaux|1907|loc=Appendix II, p. 418}} [[John P. Meier]] states that there is no historical or archaeological evidence to support the argument that a scribe may have introduced the passage into the text.<ref>{{cite book |last=Meier |first=John P. |title=[[John P. Meier#A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus|''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus'']] |publisher=Doubleday |date=1991 |volume=1 |pages=168–171}}</ref> Scholars such as Bruce Chilton, [[Craig A. Evans|Craig Evans]], Paul Eddy and Gregory Boyd agree with John Meier's statement that "Despite some feeble attempts to show that this text is a Christian interpolation in Tacitus, the passage is obviously genuine".<ref name=ChilEvans465 >{{cite book |title=Studying the historical Jesus: evaluations of the state of current research |first1=Bruce |last1=Chilton |first2=Craig A. |last2=Evans |date=1998 |isbn=90-04-11142-5 |pages=465–466}}</ref>{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=181}}
Tacitus was a patriotic [[Roman Senate|Roman senator]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Josephus, the Bible, and history |first=Louis H. |last=Feldman |date=1997 |isbn=90-04-08931-4 |page=381}}</ref><ref name= MAPowell33 >{{cite book |title=Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee |first=Mark Allan |last=Powell |date=1998 |isbn=0-664-25703-8 |page=33|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press }}</ref> His writings show no sympathy towards Christians, or knowledge of who their leader was.{{sfn|Evans|2001|p=42}}<ref name="Ancient Rome' page 293">{{cite book |title=Ancient Rome |first=William E. |last=Dunstan |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-7425-6833-4 |page=293|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield }}</ref> His characterization of "Christian abominations" may have been based on the rumors in Rome that during the [[Eucharist]] rituals Christians ate the body and drank the blood of their God, interpreting the ritual as cannibalism.<ref name="Ancient Rome' page 293"/><ref>{{cite book |title=An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity |first=Delbert Royce |last=Burkett |date=2002 |isbn=0-521-00720-8 |page=485|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> [[Andreas Köstenberger]] states that the tone of the passage towards Christians is far too negative to have been authored by a Christian scribe.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament |first1=Andreas J. |last1=Köstenberger |first2=L. Scott |last2=Kellum |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-8054-4365-3 |pages=109–110|publisher=B&H Publishing }}</ref> Van Voorst also states that the passage is unlikely to be a Christian forgery because of the pejorative language used to describe Christianity.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=39-53}}
Tacitus was about seven years old at the time of the [[Great Fire of Rome]], and like other Romans as he grew up he would have most likely heard about the fire that destroyed most of the city, and Nero's accusations against Christians.{{sfn|Barnett|2002|p=30}} When Tacitus wrote his account, he was the governor of the province of Asia, and as a member of the inner circle in Rome he would have known of the official position with respect to the fire and the Christians.{{sfn|Barnett|2002|p=30}}
William L. Portier has stated that the references to Christ and Christians by Tacitus, Josephus and the letters to [[Emperor Trajan]] by [[Pliny the Younger]] are consistent, which reaffirms the validity of all three accounts.{{sfn|Portier|1994|p=263}}
== Sources used by Tacitus ==
The majority of scholars consider the passage to be genuinely by Tacitus. However, he does not reveal the source of his information. For this reason, some scholars have debated the historical value of the passage.<ref>{{cite book |first=F. F. |last=Bruce |title=Jesus and Christian Origins Outside the New Testament |___location=Grand Rapids |publisher=Eerdmans |date=1974 |page=23}}</ref>
[[Gerd Theissen]] and Annette Merz argue that Tacitus at times had drawn on earlier historical works now lost to us, and he may have used official sources from a Roman archive in this case; however, if Tacitus had been copying from an official source, some scholars would expect him to have labelled Pilate correctly as a ''prefect'' rather than a ''procurator''.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=83}} Theissen and Merz state that Tacitus gives us a description of widespread prejudices about Christianity and a few precise details about "Christus" and Christianity, the source of which remains unclear.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Theissen |first1=Gerd |last2=Merz |first2=Annette | title=The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC&pg=PA83| year=1998 | publisher=Fortress Press | ___location=Minneapolis | isbn=978-0-8006-3122-2 | page=83}}</ref> However, Paul Eddy has stated that given his position as a senator, Tacitus was also likely to have had access to official Roman documents of the time and did not need other sources.{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=181}}
Scholars have also debated the issue of hearsay in the reference by Tacitus. Charles Guignebert argued that "So long as there is that possibility [that Tacitus is merely echoing what Christians themselves were saying], the passage remains quite worthless".<ref>''Jesus'', University Books, New York, 1956, p.13</ref> R. T. France states that the Tacitus passage is at best just Tacitus repeating what he had heard through Christians.<ref>{{Cite book|author-link=R. T. France|last=France|first=R. T.|title=Evidence for Jesus (Jesus Library)|publisher=Trafalgar Square Publishing|year=1986|isbn=978-0-340-38172-4|pages=19–20}}</ref> However, Paul Eddy has stated that as Rome's preeminent historian, Tacitus was generally known for checking his sources and was not in the habit of reporting gossip.{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=181}}
Tacitus was a member of the ''[[Quindecimviri sacris faciundis]]'', a council of priests whose duty it was to supervise foreign religious cults in Rome, which as Van Voorst points out, makes it reasonable to suppose that he would have acquired knowledge of Christian origins through his work with that body.<ref name=Handbook>{{cite book|last=Van Voorst|first=Robert E.|title=Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus|date=2011|publisher=Brill Publishers|___location=Leiden|isbn=978-9004163720|page=2159}}</ref>
== Historical value ==
[[File:Tacitus portrait.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Portrait of Tacitus, based on an antique bust]]
Depending on the sources Tacitus used, the passage is potentially of historical value regarding Jesus, early Christianity, and its persecution under emperor Nero.
Regarding Jesus, Van Voorst states that "of all Roman writers, Tacitus gives us the most precise information about Christ".{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=39-53}} Crossan considers the passage important in establishing that Jesus existed and was crucified, and states: "That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus... agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact."<ref>{{cite book |last=Crossan |first=John Dominic |date=1995 |title=Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography |publisher=HarperOne |isbn=0-06-061662-8 |page=145}}</ref> Eddy and Boyd state that it is now "firmly established" that Tacitus provides a non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus.{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=127}} Biblical scholar [[Bart D. Ehrman]] wrote: "Tacitus's report confirms what we know from other sources, that Jesus was executed by order of the Roman governor of Judea, Pontius Pilate, sometime during Tiberius's reign."<ref name=Prophet>{{cite book|last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|title=Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195124743|page=59|title-link=Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium}}</ref>
However, some scholars question the value of the passage given that Tacitus was born 25 years after Jesus' death.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=39-53}}
Regarding early Christianity, scholars generally consider Tacitus's reference to be of historical value as an independent Roman source that is in unison with other historical records.{{sfn|Evans|2001|p=42}}<ref name="Bible' page 343"/><ref name="ReferenceA"/>{{sfn|Portier|1994|p=263}} [[James Dunn (theologian)|James D. G. Dunn]] considers the passage as useful in establishing facts about [[early Christianity|early Christians]], e.g. that there was a sizable number of Christians in Rome around AD 60. Dunn states that Tacitus seems to be under the impression that Christians were some form of Judaism, although distinguished from them.{{sfn|Dunn|2009|p=56}} [[Raymond E. Brown]] and [[John P. Meier]] state that in addition to establishing that there was a large body of Christians in Rome, the Tacitus passage provides two other important pieces of historical information, namely that by around AD 60 it was possible to distinguish between Christians and Jews in Rome and that even pagans made a connection between Christianity in Rome and its origin in Judea.<ref name=AntiochRome >{{cite book |title=Antioch and Rome: New Testament cradles of Catholic Christianity |first1=Raymond Edward |last1=Brown |first2=John P. |last2=Meier |date=1983 |isbn=0-8091-2532-3 |page=99|publisher=Paulist Press }}</ref>
Regarding the Neronian persecution, the scholarly consensus is that it really took place.<ref name="McKnight">{{Cite book |last1=McKnight |first1=Scot |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GmWODwAAQBAJ|title=The State of New Testament Studies: A Survey of Recent Research |last2=Gupta |first2=Nijay K. |date=2019-11-05 |publisher=Baker Academic |isbn=978-1-4934-1980-7 |language=en |quote=It appears to me that historians of ancient Rome generally accept Nero's persecution of Christians}}</ref>
Questioning this consensus, Weaver notes that Tacitus spoke of the persecution of Christians, but no other Christian author wrote of this persecution for a hundred years.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Historical Jesus in the Twentieth Century: 1900–1950 |first=Walter P. |last=Weaver |date=July 1999 |pages=53, 57 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=9781563382802 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CZbuFBdAMUC&q=tacitus&pg=PA45}}</ref>
[[Brent Shaw]] has argued that Tacitus was relying on Christian and Jewish legendary sources that portrayed Nero as the Antichrist for the information that Nero persecuted Christians and that in fact, no persecution under Nero took place.{{sfn|Shaw|2015}}
Shaw has questioned if the passage represents "some modernizing or updating of the facts" to reflect the Christian world at the time the text was written.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shaw |first1=Brent |title=The Myth of Neronian Persecution |journal=Journal of Roman Studies |date=2015 |volume=105 |page=86 |doi=10.1017/S0075435815000982|s2cid=162564651 }}</ref>
Shaw's views have received strong criticism and have generally not been accepted by the scholarly consensus:<ref name="McKnight" /> Christopher P. Jones ([[Harvard University]]) answered to Shaw and refuted his arguments, noting that the Tacitus's anti-Christian stance makes it unlikely that he was using Christian sources; he also noted that the [[Epistle to the Romans]] of [[Paul the Apostle]] clearly points to the fact that there was indeed a clear and distinct Christian community in Rome in the 50s and that the persecution is also mentioned by [[Suetonius]] in ''[[The Twelve Caesars]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jones |first=Christopher P. |date=2017 |title=The Historicity of the Neronian Persecution: A Response to Brent Shaw |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/72A73656C0F1372963C197F8945D38D3/S0028688516000308a.pdf/the-historicity-of-the-neronian-persecution-a-response-to-brent-shaw.pdf |journal=[[New Testament Studies]] |volume=63 |pages=146–152 |doi=10.1017/S0028688516000308 |s2cid=164718138 |via=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> [[Larry Hurtado]] was also critical of Shaw's argument, dismissing it as "vague and hazy".<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-12-14|title=Nero and the Christians|url=https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2015/12/14/nero-and-the-christians/|access-date=2021-09-14|website=Larry Hurtado's Blog|language=en}}</ref>
Brigit van der Lans and Jan N. Bremmer also dismissed Shaw's argument, noting that the Neronian persecution is recorded in many 1st-century Christian writings, such as the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], the [[Book of Revelation]], the apocryphal [[Ascension of Isaiah]], the [[First Epistle of Peter]], the [[Gospel of John]] and the [[First Epistle of Clement]]; they also argued that ''Chrestianus, Christianus'', and ''Χριστιανός'' were probably terms invented by the Romans in the 50s and then adopted by Christians themselves.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van der Lans|first1=Birgit|last2=Bremmer|first2=Jan N.|date=2017|title=Tacitus and the Persecution of the Christians: An Invention of Tradition?|url=https://www.academia.edu/35878331|journal=Eirene: Studia Graeca et Latina|volume=53|pages=299–331|via=Centre for Classical Studies}}</ref>
John Granger Cook also rebuked Shaw's thesis, arguing that ''Chrestianus, Christianus'', and ''Χριστιανός'' are not creations of the second century and that Roman officials were probably aware of the ''Chrestiani'' in the 60s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=G. Cook |first=John |date=2020 |title=Chrestiani, Christiani, Χριστιανοί: a Second Century Anachronism?|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/vc/74/3/article-p237_1.xml?language=en |journal=[[Vigiliae Christianae (journal)|Vigiliae Christianae]] |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=237–264 |doi=10.1163/15700720-12341410 |s2cid=242371092 |via=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
[[Barry S. Strauss]] also rejects Shaw's argument.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strauss|first=Barry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zaXODwAAQBAJ|title=Ten Caesars: Roman Emperors from Augustus to Constantine|date=2020-03-03|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4516-6884-1|language=en}}</ref>
==Other early sources==
{{see also|Josephus on Jesus|Pliny the Younger on Christians|Suetonius on Christians}}
Tacitus is not the only non-Christian writer of the time who mentioned Jesus and early Christianity.
The earliest known references to Christianity are found in ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', a 20-volume work written by the Jewish historian [[Josephus|Titus Flavius Josephus]] around 93–94 AD, during the reign of emperor [[Domitian]]. As it stands now, this work includes two references to Jesus and Christians (in [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 3|Book 18, Chapter 3]] and [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 9|Book 20, Chapter 9]]), and also a reference to [[John the Baptist]] (in [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 5|Book 18, Chapter 5]]).<ref name=Maier1995>{{cite book|last=Maier|first=Paul L.|author-link=Paul L. Maier|title=Josephus, the Essential Writings: A Condensation of Jewish Antiquities and the Jewish War|page=12|publisher=Kregel Publications|___location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|year=1995|isbn=978-0825429637}}</ref><ref name=Baras>{{cite book|last=Baras|first=Zvi|title=Josephus, Judaism and Christianity|chapter=The ''Testimonium Flavianum'' and the Martyrdom of James|pages=54–7|editor1-last=Feldman|editor1-first=Louis H.|editor1-link=Louis Feldman|editor2-last=Hata|editor2-first=Gōhei|publisher=Brill Publishers|___location=Leiden|year=1987|isbn=978-9004085541}}</ref>
The next known reference to Christianity was written by [[Pliny the Younger]], who was the Roman governor of [[Bithynia and Pontus]] during the reign of emperor [[Trajan]]. Around 111 AD,{{sfn|Crossan|1999|p=3}} Pliny wrote a [[Pliny the Younger on Christians|letter to emperor Trajan]]. As it stands now, the letter is requesting guidance on how to deal with suspected Christians who appeared before him in trials he was holding at that time.<ref name=TECC>{{cite book|last=Carrington|first=Philip|author-link=Philip Carrington|title=The Early Christian Church|chapter=The Wars of Trajan|page=429|publisher=Cambridge University Press|___location=Cambridge|year=1957|isbn=978-0521166416|volume=1: The First Christian Century}}</ref><ref name=Benko1986>{{cite book|last=Benko|first=Stephen|title=Pagan Rome and the Early Christians|pages=5–7|publisher=Indiana University Press|___location=Bloomington, Indiana|year=1986|isbn=978-0253203854}}</ref><ref name=ANRW>{{cite book|last=Benko|first=Stephen|title=Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt|chapter=Pagan Criticism of Christianity during the First Centuries A.D.|pages=1055–118|publisher=De Gruyter|___location=Berlin|year=2014|isbn=978-3110080162|series=second series (Principat)|editor-last=Temporini|editor-first=Hildegard|editor2-last=Haase|editor2-first=Wolfgang|language=de|title-link=Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt}}</ref> Tacitus' references to Nero's persecution of Christians in the Annals were written around 115 AD,{{sfn|Crossan|1999|p=3}} a few years after Pliny's letter but also during the reign of emperor Trajan.
Another notable early author was [[Suetonius|Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus]], who wrote the ''[[The Twelve Caesars|Lives of the Twelve Caesars]]'' around 122 AD,{{sfn|Crossan|1999|p=3}} during the reign of emperor [[Hadrian]]. In this work, Suetonius apparently described why [[Jewish Christian]]s were [[wikisource:The Lives of the Twelve Caesars/Claudius#25|expelled from Rome]] by emperor Claudius, and also the [[wikisource:The Lives of the Twelve Caesars/Nero#16|persecution of Christians]] by Nero, who was the heir and successor of Claudius.
==See also==
{{Wikisource|The Annals (Tacitus)}}
* [[Annals (Tacitus)]]
* [[Tacitus]]
* [[Christianity in the 1st century]]
* [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire]]
* [[Historicity of Jesus]]
* [[Sources for the historicity of Jesus]]
** [[Josephus on Jesus]]
** [[Pliny the Younger on Christians]]
** [[Suetonius on Christians]]
** [[Mara bar Serapion on Jesus]]
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
=== Works cited ===
{{refbegin |30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Barnett |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Barnett (bishop) |title=Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times |publisher=InterVarsity Press |___location=Downers Grove, Illinois |year=2002 |isbn=978-0830826995
}}
* {{cite book |last=Brent |first=Allen |author-link=Allen Brent |title=A Political History of Early Christianity |publisher=T&T Clark |___location=Edinburgh |year=2009 |isbn=978-0567031754
}}
* {{cite book |last=Bromiley |first=Geoffrey W. |author-link=Geoffrey W. Bromiley |title=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |___location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |year=1995 |isbn=978-0802837851 |title-link=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
}}
* {{cite book |last=Crossan |first=John Dominic |author-link=John Dominic Crossan |title=Birth of Christianity |chapter=Voices of the First Outsiders |publisher=T&T Clark |___location=Edinburgh |year=1999 |isbn=978-0567086686
}}
* {{cite book |last=Dunn |first=James D. G. |author-link=James Dunn (theologian) |title=Beginning from Jerusalem (Christianity in the Making, vol. 2) |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |___location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |year=2009 |isbn=978-0802839329
}}
* {{cite book |last1=Eddy |first1=Paul R. |last2=Boyd |first2=Gregory A. |author2-link=Greg Boyd (theologian) |title=The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition |publisher=Baker Academic |___location=Ada, Michigan |year=2007 |isbn=978-0801031144
}}
* {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Craig A. |title=Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies |publisher=Brill Publishers |___location=Leiden |year=2001 |isbn=978-0391041189
}}
* {{cite book |last=Furneaux |first=Henry |year=1907 |title=The Annals of Tacitus |edition=2nd |___location=London |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=2 |url=https://archive.org/details/furneaux-annals.-bk.-11-16-2nd-ed.-1907-lat-en-comm/page/417/mode/2up }}
* {{cite book |last=Portier |first=William L. |title=Tradition and Incarnation: Foundations of Christian Theology |publisher=Paulist Press |___location=Mahwah, New Jersey |year=1994 |isbn=978-0809134670
}}
* {{cite book |last=Van Voorst |first=Robert E. |author-link=Robert E. Van Voorst |title=Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |___location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |year=2000 |isbn=978-0802843685
}}
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
*{{cite book |last=Syme |first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Syme |title=Tacitus |year=1958 |publisher=Oxford University Press |___location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-814327-7 }}
* ''Tacitus and the Writing of History'' by Ronald H. Martin 1981 {{ISBN|0-520-04427-4}}
* ''Tacitus' Annals'' by Ronald Mellor 2010 Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-515192-5}}
{{Jesus footer|state=collapsed}}
{{Tacitus}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Tacitus On Christ}}
[[Category:Tacitus|Christ, Tacitus on]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman writers on Jesus]]
[[Category:Pontius Pilate]]
[[Category:2nd-century texts]]
| |||