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{{Short description|Field of research and study}}
'''Gender and development''' is an interdisciplinary field of research and applied study that implements a [[Feminism|feminist]] approach to understanding and addressing the disparate impact that [[economic development]] and [[globalization]] have on people based upon their ___location, gender, class background, and other socio-political identities. A strictly economic approach to development views a country's development in quantitative terms such as job creation, inflation control, and high employment – all of which aim to improve the
The history of this field dates back to the 1950s, when studies of economic development first brought women into its discourse,<ref name=":1">{{cite book|title=Gender Planning and Development. Theory, Practice and Training|last=Moser|first=Caroline|publisher=Routledge|year=1993|isbn=978-0-203-41194-0|___location=New York|page=3}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{cite book|title=Gender, development, and globalization : economics as if all people mattered|last=Lourdes|first=Benería|others=Berik, Günseli,, Floro, Maria|isbn=9780415537483|edition= Second|___location=New York|oclc=903247621|date = 2014-11-11}}</ref> focusing on women only as subjects of welfare policies – notably those centered on [[Aid#Emergency aid|food aid]] and [[family planning]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPRH/Resources/GlobalFamilyPlanningRevolution.pdf|title=The Global Family Planning Revolution|last1=Robinson|first1=Warren C.|last2=Ross|first2=John A.|date=2007|website=World Bank|access-date=10 November 2018}}</ref> The focus of women in development increased throughout the decade, and by 1962, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] called for the [[United Nations Commission on the Status of Women|Commission on the Status of Women]] to collaborate with the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary General]] and a number of other UN sectors to develop a longstanding program dedicated to women's advancement in developing countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGA/1962/36.pdf|title=United Nations Assistance for the Advancement of Women in Developing Countries
Since Boserup's consider that development affects men and women differently, the study of gender's relation to development has gathered major interest amongst scholars and international policymakers. The field has undergone major theoretical shifts, beginning with [[Women in Development]] (WID), shifting to Women and Development (WAD), and finally becoming the contemporary Gender and Development (GAD). Each of these frameworks emerged as an evolution of its predecessor, aiming to encompass a broader range of topics and [[social science]] perspectives.<ref name=":02" /> In addition to these frameworks, international financial institutions such as the [[World Bank]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) have implemented policies, programs, and research regarding gender and development, contributing a [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] and smart economics approach to the study. Examples of these policies and programs include [[Structural adjustment|Structural Adjustment Programs]] (SAPs), [[microfinance]], [[outsourcing]], and [[Privatization|privatizing public enterprises]],<ref name=":02" /> all of which direct focus towards economic growth and suggest that advancement towards gender equality will follow. These approaches have been challenged by alternative perspectives such as [[Marxism]] and [[ecofeminism]], which respectively reject international capitalism<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kiely|first=Ray|date=2005|title=Capitalist Expansion and the
'''Gender Roles in Childhood Development'''
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'''Theoretical approach'''
The term
The focus of the 1970s [[feminist movements]] and their repeated calls for employment opportunities in the development agenda meant that particular attention was given to the productive labour of women, leaving aside reproductive concerns and social welfare.<ref name="Razavi1995p3"/> This approach was pushed forward by WID advocates, reacting to the general policy environment maintained by early colonial authorities and post-war development authorities, wherein inadequate reference to the work undertook by women as producers was made, as they were almost solely identified as their roles as wives and mothers.<ref name="Razavi1995p3"/> The WID's opposition to this
Reeves and Baden (2000) point out that the WID approach stresses the need for women to play a greater role in the development process. According to this perspective, women's active involvement in policymaking will lead to more successful policies overall.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reeves |first1=Hazel |last2=Baden |first2=Sally |title=Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions (Report 55) |url=https://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/re55.pdf |publisher=University of Sussex
'''Criticism'''
The WID movement faced a number of criticisms; such an approach had in some cases the unwanted consequence of depicting women as a unit whose claims are conditional on its productive value, associating increased female status with the value of cash income in women's lives.<ref name="Razavi1995pi">{{cite report |last1=Razavi |first1=Shahrashoub |last2=Miller |first2=Carol |year=1995 |title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual shifts in the Women and Development discourse |url=http://unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/d9c3fca78d3db32e80256b67005b6ab5/$FILE/opb1.pdf |journal=United Nations Research Institute Occasional Paper Series |publisher=United Nations Research Institute for Social Development |volume=1 |page=i |access-date=22 November 2013 |hdl=10419/148819 |hdl-access=free |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055921/http://unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/d9c3fca78d3db32e80256b67005b6ab5/$FILE/opb1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The WID view and similar classifications based on Western feminism, applied a general definition to the status, experiences and contributions of women and the solutions for women in Third World countries.<ref>{{cite book|title=Producing women and progress in Zimbabwe : narratives of identity and work from the 1980s|author=Sylvester, Christine|date=2000|publisher=Heinemann|isbn=978-0325000701|___location=Portsmouth, NH|oclc=41445662}}</ref> Furthermore, the WID, although it advocated for greater [[gender equality]], did not tackle the unequal gender relations and roles at the basis of women's exclusion and gender subordination rather than addressing the stereotyped expectations entertained by men.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unsdsn.org/files/2013/05/130520-Women-Economic-Development-Paper-for-HLP.pdf |title=Women's role in economic development: Overcoming the constraints |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Sarah |date=May 2013 |website=UNSDSN |access-date=22 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203003717/http://unsdsn.org/files/2013/05/130520-Women-Economic-Development-Paper-for-HLP.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Moreover, the underlying assumption behind the call for the integration of the [[Third World]] women with their national economy was that women were not already participating in development, thus downplaying women's roles in household production and informal economic and political activities.<ref name="Koczberski1998">{{cite journal |last=Koczberski |first=Sarah |year=1998 |title=Women In Development: A Critical Analysis |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=3 |page=399 |doi=10.1080/01436599814316|hdl=20.500.11937/14444 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The WID was also criticized for its views on the fact that women's status will improve by moving into
===Women and development (WAD)===
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'''Theoretical approach'''
WAD arose out of a shift in thinking about women's role in development, and concerns about the explanatory limitations of [[modernization theory]].<ref name="Rathgeber, Eva M 1990">Rathgeber, Eva M. 1990.
'''Practical approach'''
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The Gender and Development (GAD) approach focuses on the socially constructed<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bertrand|first=Tietcheu|title=Being Women and Men in Africa Today: Approaching Gender Roles in Changing African Societies|year=2006|journal=Student World}}</ref> differences between men and women, the need to challenge existing gender roles and relations,<ref name="Reeves 2000 8">{{cite book|last=Reeves|first=Hazel|title=Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions|year=2000|___location=Brighton|isbn=1-85864-381-3|page=8}}</ref> and the creation and effects of class differences on development.<ref name=":02"/> This approach was majorly influenced by the writings of academic scholars such as Oakley (1972) and Rubin (1975), who argue the social relationship between men and women have systematically subordinated women,<ref name=":1"/> along with economist scholars Lourdes Benería and Amartya Sen (1981), who assess the impact of colonialism on development and gender inequality. They state that colonialism imposed more than a 'value system' upon developing nations, it introduced a system of economics 'designed to promote [[capital accumulation]] which caused class differentiation'.<ref name=":02"/>
GAD departs from WID, which discussed women's subordination and lack of inclusion in discussions of international development without examining broader systems of gender relations.<ref>{{cite report|last=Razavi|first=Shahrashoub|author2=Carol Miller|title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse|date=1 February 1995|page=3|hdl=10419/148819|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Influenced by this work, by the late 1970s, some practitioners working in the development field questioned focusing on women in isolation.<ref name="Razavi 1995 12">{{cite report|last=Razavi|first=Shahrashoub|author2=Carol Miller|title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse|date=1 February 1995|page=12|hdl=10419/148819|hdl-access=free}}</ref> GAD challenged the WID focus on women as an important
Unlike WID, the GAD approach is not concerned specifically with women, but with the way in which a society assigns roles, responsibilities and expectations to both women and men. GAD applies [[gender analysis]] to uncover the ways in which men and women work together, presenting results in neutral terms of economics and efficiency.{{sfn|Shifting views...}} In an attempt to create gender equality (denoting women having the same opportunities as men, including ability to participate in the public sphere),<ref>Development Assistance Committee (DAC), 1998, p.7</ref> GAD policies aim to redefine traditional gender role expectations. Women are expected to fulfill household management tasks, home-based production as well as bearing and raising children and caring for family members. In terms of children, they develop social constructions through observations at a younger age than most people think. Children tend to learn about the differences between male and female actions and objects of use in a specific culture of their environment through observation (Chung & Huang 2021<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Chung |first1=Yi |last2=Huang |first2=Hsin-Hui |date=2021-12-10 |title=Cognitive-Based Interventions Break Gender Stereotypes in Kindergarten Children |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=18 |issue=24 |
GAD has been largely utilized in debates regarding development but this trend is not seen in the actual practice of developmental agencies and plans for development.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Gender and the Political Economy of Development|last=Rai|first=Shirin M.|publisher=Polity|year=2002|isbn=0-7456-1490-6|___location=Malden|pages=44–83|chapter=Gender and Development}}</ref> [[Caroline Moser]] claims WID persists due to the challenging nature of GAD, but [[Shirin M. Rai]] counters this claim noting that the real issue lies in the tendency to overlap WID and GAD in policy. Therefore, it would only be possible if development agencies fully adopted GAD language exclusively.<ref name=":5" /> Caroline Moser developed the [[Moser Gender Planning Framework]] for GAD-oriented development planning in the 1980s while working at the Development Planning Unit of the [[University of London]]. Working with Caren Levy, she expanded it into a methodology for gender policy and planning.{{sfn|March|Smyth|Mukhopadhyay|1999|pp = 55}}
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===Gender and neoliberal development institutions===
Neoliberalism consists of policies that will privatize public industry, deregulate any laws or policies that interfere with the free flow of the market and cut back on all social services. These policies were often introduced to many low-income countries through structural adjustment programs (SAPs) by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).<ref>{{cite book|title=Gender, Development, and Globalization:Economics as if All People Mattered.|last1=Beneria|first1=Lourdes|last2=Berik|first2=Gunseli|last3=Floro|first3=Maria S.|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=978-0-415-53748-3|___location=New York|
Gender mainstreaming mandated by the 1995 Beijing Platform for action integrates gender in all aspects of individuals lives in regards to policy development on gender equality.<ref name="WB2010">World Bank. An Evaluation of World Bank Support,
An argument made on the functions behind institutional financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank are that they support capitalist ideals through their means of economic growth of countries globally and their participation in the global economy and capitalist systems. The roles of banks as institutions and the creation of new
=== Gender and outsourcing ===
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=== Gender and microfinance ===
Women have been identified by some development institutions as a key to successful development, for example through financial inclusion. Microcredit is giving small loans to people in poverty without collateral. This was first started by [[Muhammad Yunus]], who formed the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.microworld.org/en/about-microworld/about-microcredit|title=Story of the microcredit|website=www.microworld.org|access-date=2018-03-01|archive-date=2022-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006124626/https://www.microworld.org/en/about-microworld/about-microcredit|url-status=dead}}</ref> Studies have shown that women are more likely to repay their debt than men, and the Grameen Bank focuses on aiding women.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Economics of Microfinance|last=Armendáriz|first=Beatriz|publisher=MIT Press|year=2010|isbn=9780262014106|___location=Cambridge|
There were numerous case studies done in Tanzania about the correlation of the role of [[Microfinance in Tanzania|SACCoS]] (savings and credit cooperative organization) and the economic development of the country. The research showed that the microfinance policies were not being carried out in the most efficient ways due to exploitation.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Brennan|first=James R.|date=November 2006|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=47|issue=3|pages=389–413|doi=10.1017/S0021853706001794|issn=1469-5138|title=Blood Enemies: Exploitation and Urban Citizenship in the Nationalist Political Thought of Tanzania, 1958–75|s2cid=144117250|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/4155/1/BloodEnemies.pdf}}</ref> One case study went a step further to claim that this financial service could provide a more equal society for women in Tanzania.<ref>{{cite thesis|last=Cooper|first=Lucy-George|date=April 22, 2014|title=The Impact of Microfinance on Female Entrepreneurs in Tanzania|url=https://publications.lakeforest.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=seniortheses
While there are such cases in which women were able to lift themselves out of poverty, there are also cases in which women fell into a [[poverty trap]] as they were unable to repay their loans.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2016/11/01/500093608/you-asked-we-answer-can-tiny-loans-lift-women-out-of-poverty|title=You Asked, We Answer: Can Microloans Lift Women Out Of Poverty?|work=NPR|access-date=2018-03-01}}</ref> It is even said that microcredit is actually an "anti-developmental" approach.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bateman, Chang|first=Milford, Ha-Joon|date=2012|title=Microfinance and the Illusion of Development: From Hubris to Nemesis in Thirty Years|url=http://wer.worldeconomicsassociation.org/files/WER-Vol1-No1-Article2-Bateman-and-Chang-v2.pdf|journal=World Economic Review|volume=1|pages=13–36}}</ref> There is little evidence of significant development for these women within the 30 years that the microfinance has been around.<ref>{{cite book|title=Gender, development, and globalization: economics as if all people mattered|last=Benería|first=Lourdes|publisher=New York; London : Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group|year=2016|isbn=9780415537483|
Some arguments that microcredit is not effective insist that the structure of the economy, with large informal and agriculture sectors, do not provide a system in which borrowers can be successful. In Nigeria, where the informal economy is approximately 45–60% of economy, women working within it could not attain access to microcredit because of the high demand for loans triggered by high unemployment rates in the formal sector. This study found Nigerian woman are forced into
Although there is debate on how effective microcredit is in alleviating poverty in general, there is an argument that microcredit enables women to participate and fulfill their capabilities in society.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lott|first=Charlotte E.|date=2009-05-01|title=Why Women Matter: the Story of Microcredit |journal=Journal of Law and Commerce|volume=27|issue=2|doi=10.5195/jlc.2009.28|issn=2164-7984|doi-access=free}}</ref> For example, a study conducted in Malayasia showed that their version of microcredit, AIM, had a positive effect on Muslim women's empowerment in terms of allowing them to have more control over family planning and over decisions that were made in the home.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Al-Shami|first1=Sayed Samer Ali|last2=Razali|first2=Muhammad M.|last3=Majid|first3=Izaidin|last4=Rozelan|first4=Ahmed|last5=Rashid|first5=Nurulizwa|date=2016-07-02|title=The effect of microfinance on women's empowerment: Evidence from Malaysia|journal=Asian Journal of Women's Studies|volume=22|issue=3|pages=318–337|doi=10.1080/12259276.2016.1205378|s2cid=156110946|issn=1225-9276}}</ref>
In contrast, out of a study conducted on 205 different MFIs, they concluded that there is still gender discrimination within microfinance institutions themselves and microcredit which impact the existing discrimination within communities as well. In Bangladesh, another outcome seen for some of the Grameen recipients was that they faced domestic abuse as a result of their husbands feeling threatened about women bringing in more income.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2010|title=Supplemental Material for Assessing the Impact of the Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 2000–2008.|journal=Psychology of Men & Masculinity|doi=10.1037/a0018033.supp|issn=1524-9220}}</ref> A study in Uganda also noted that men felt threatened through increased female financial dominance, increasing women's vulnerability at home.<ref>{{cite book|title=Provincial Board of Finance, 1978 (May-December)|doi = 10.1163/9789004252448.cua-8_009_004}}</ref>
Through the
Another example is the Women's Development Business (WDB) in South Africa, a [[Grameen Bank]] microfinance replicator. According to WDB, the goal is to ensure
Diving into another example regarding Microfinance and women from ''Women Entrepreneurship Promotion in Developing Countries: What explains the gender gap in entrepreneurship and how to close it?''is Vossenberg (2013) describes how although there has been an increase in entrepreneurship for women, the gender gap still persists. The author states
As a reaction, a current topic in the feminist literature on economic development is the
Therefore, the critique is that the assumption of economic development through microfinance does not take into account all possible outcomes, especially the ones affecting women.
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===Gender, financial crises, and neoliberal economic policy===
The [[Great Recession]] and the following politics of austerity have opened up a wide range of gender and feminist debates on neoliberalism and the impact of the crisis on women. One view is that the crisis has affected women disproportionately and that there is a need for alternative economic structures in which investment in social reproduction needs to be given more weight.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://soundcloud.com/genderconfyork/elson-and-pearson-keynote |title=Keynote of Diane Elson and Ruth Pearson at the Gender, Neoliberalism and Financial Crisis Conference at the University of York |last1=Elson |first1=Diane |last2=Pearson |first2=Ruth |date=27 September 2013 |website=Soundcloud |access-date=27 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Gender Development and Globalization: Economics as if All People Mattered|last=Benería Lourdes, Günseli Berik and Maria S. Floro |year=2016|
There are different views among feminists on whether neoliberal economic policies have more positive or negative impacts on women. In the post-war era, feminist scholars such as Elizabeth Wilson<ref name="Wilson1977">{{cite book |author=Elizabeth Wilson |title= Women and the Welfare State |
Therefore, some scholars in the field argue that [[feminism]], especially during its [[second-wave feminism|second wave]], has contributed key ideas to Neoliberalism that, according to these authors, creates new forms of inequality and exploitation.<ref name="Fraser2012">{{cite journal |last=Fraser |first=Nancy |year=2012 |title= Feminism, Capitalism, and the Cunning of History |url= http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/72/50/55/PDF/FMSH-WP-2012-17_Fraser1.pdf |journal=Working Paper |publisher=Fondation Maison des sciences de l'homme |
As a reaction to the phenomenon that some forms of feminism are increasingly interwoven with capitalism, many suggestions on how to name these movements have emerged in the feminist literature. Examples are
===Smart economics===
'''Theoretical approaches'''
Advocated chiefly by the [[World Bank]], smart economics is an approach to define gender equality as an integral part of economic development and it aims to spur development through investing more efficiently in women and girls. It stresses that the gap between men and women in [[human capital]], economic opportunities, and voice/agency is a chief obstacle in achieving more efficient development. As an approach, it is a direct descendant of the efficiency approach taken by WID which
The thinking behind smart economics dates back, at least, to the lost decade of the [[Structural adjustment|Structural Adjustment]] Policies (SAPs) in the 1980s.<ref name="Chant and Sweetman (2012)"/> In 1995, World Bank issued its flagship publication on gender matters of the year Enhancing Women's Participation in Economic Development (World Bank 1995). This report marked a critical foundation to the naissance of Smart Economics; in a chapter entitled
Other [[international organizations]], particular [[UN]] families, have so far endorsed the approach of smart economics. Examining the relationship between child well-being and gender equality, for example, [[UNICEF]] also referred to the
'''Criticisms'''
From the mid-2000s, the approach of smart economics and its chief proponent
The World Bank's gender policy aims to eliminate poverty and enhance economic growth by addressing gender disparities and inequalities that hinders development. A critique{{by whom|date=May 2021}} on the World Bank's gender policy is it being
Smart
A wide range of scholars and practitioners has criticized that smart economics rather endorse the current status-quo of gender inequality and keep silence for the demand of institutional reform. Its approach
Sylvia Chant (2008) discredited its approach as
Chant is concerned that
Chant emphasize that
==Alternative Approaches==
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===Dependency theory===
Dependency theorists opposed that liberal development models, including the attempt to incorporate women into the existing global capitalism, was, in fact, nothing more than the "development of [[underdevelopment]]."<ref>{{cite book|last=Frank |first=Andre Gunder|title=Capitalism and underdevelopment in Latin America : historical studies of Chile and Brazil |url=https://archive.org/details/capitalismunderd00fran|url-access=registration |year=1969|publisher=Monthly Review P. |___location=New York |isbn=978-0853450931|edition=Rev. and enl.}}</ref> This view led them to propose that [[delinking]] from the structural oppression of [[global capitalism]] is the only way to achieve balanced human development.
In the 1980s, there also emerged "a sustained questioning by [[post-structuralist]] critics of the development paradigm as a narrative of progress and as an achievable enterprise."<ref>{{cite book |last=Ghosh |first=Jayati |title=The Women, Gender and Development Reader |publisher=Zed Books |year=2011 |isbn=9781780321387 |editor-last=Visvanathan |editor-first=Nalini |edition=2nd |___location=London |page=29 |chapter=Financial crises and the impact on woman: a historical note |editor-last2=Duggan |editor-first2=Lynn |editor-last3=Wiegersma |editor-first3=Nan |editor-last4=Nisonoff |editor-first4=Laurie}}</ref>
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{{refbegin}}
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