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{{short description|Dutch painter (c. 1450–1516)}}
{{about|the Dutch painter}}
{{Infobox artist
| name = Hieronymus Bosch
| image = Jheronimus Bosch (cropped).jpg
| alt = Portrait of Hieronymus Bosch
| caption = Portrait of Hieronymus Bosch from the [[Recueil d'Arras]] (mid-16th century)
| birth_name = Jheronimus van Aken
| birth_date = {{circa}} 1450
| birth_place = [['s-Hertogenbosch]], [[Duchy of Brabant]], [[Burgundian Netherlands]]
| death_date = Buried on {{death date|df=yes|1516|8|9}} (aged 65–66)
| death_place = 's-Hertogenbosch, Duchy of Brabant, [[Habsburg Netherlands]]
| native_name = Jheronimus Bosch
| native_name_lang = Dutch
| spouse = Aleid van den Meervenne
| field = Painting
| training =
| movement = [[Early Netherlandish]], [[Renaissance]]
| works = ''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]'' <br /> ''[[Triptych of the Temptation of St. Anthony|The Temptation of St. Anthony]]''
| patrons =
| awards =
| elected =
| website =
| module = {{Infobox person|child=yes
| signature = Bosch-signature.svg}}
}}
[[File:The Owl's Nest Bosch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''The Owl's Nest'', Pen and [[bistre]] on paper, 140 × 196 mm. Rotterdam, [[Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen]].]]
'''Hieronymus Bosch''' ({{IPAc-en|h|aɪ|ˈ|r|ɒ|n|ɪ|m|ə|s|_||b|ɒ|ʃ|,_|b|ɔː|ʃ|,_|b|ɔː|s}};<ref>{{cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Bosch,+Hieronymus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308124616/https://www.lexico.com/search?filter=en_dictionary&query=bosch%2C%2Bhieronymus |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 March 2021 |title=Bosch, Hieronymus |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref><ref name="Collins">{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/bosch|title=Bosch|work=[[Collins English Dictionary]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|access-date=7 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite American Heritage Dictionary|Bosch|access-date=7 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Bosch|access-date=7 July 2019}}</ref> {{IPA|nl|ɦijeːˈroːnimʏz ˈbɔs|lang|Nl-HieronymusBosch.ogg}};{{efn|In isolation, ''Hieronymus'' is pronounced {{IPA|nl|ɦijeːˈroːnimʏs||Nl-Hiëronymus.ogg}}.}} born '''Jheronimus van Aken'''<ref>Dijck (2000): pp. 43–44. His birth is undocumented. However, the Dutch historian G.C.M. van Dijck points out that the vast majority of contemporary archival entries state his name as being Jheronimus van Aken. Variants on his name are Jeronimus van Aken (Dijck (2000): pp. 173, 186), Jheronimus anthonissen van aken (Marijnissen ([1987]): p. 12), Jeronimus Van aeken (Marijnissen ([1987]): p. 13), Joen (Dijck (2000): pp. 170–171, 174–177), and Jeroen (Dijck (2000): pp. 170, 174).</ref> {{IPA|nl|jeːˈroːnimʏs fɑn ˈaːkə(n)|}};{{efn|In isolation, ''van'' is pronounced {{IPA|nl|vɑn||Nl-van.ogg}}.}} {{circa|1450}} – 9 August 1516) was a [[Dutch people|Dutch]] painter from [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabant]]. He is one of the most notable representatives of the [[Early Netherlandish painting]] school. His work, generally oil on oak wood, mainly contains [[fantastic art|fantastic]] illustrations of religious concepts and narratives.<ref>Catherine B. Scallen, ''The Art of the Northern Renaissance'' (Chantilly: The Teaching Company, 2007) Lecture 26</ref> Within his lifetime, his work was collected in the Netherlands, Austria, and Spain, and widely copied, especially his macabre and nightmarish depictions of [[hell]].
Little is known of Bosch's life, though there are some records. He spent most of it in the town of [['s-Hertogenbosch]], where he was born in his grandfather's house. The roots of his forefathers are in [[Nijmegen]] and [[Aachen]] (which is visible in his surname: Van Aken). His pessimistic fantastical style cast a wide influence on northern art of the 16th century, with [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder]] being his best-known follower. Today, Bosch is seen as a highly individualistic painter with deep insight into humanity's desires and deepest fears. Attribution has been especially difficult; today only about 25 paintings are confidently given to his hand<ref name=Siegal1Feb /> along with eight drawings. About another half-dozen paintings are confidently attributed to his workshop. His most acclaimed works consist of three [[triptych]] altarpieces, including ''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]''.
== Life ==
Hieronymus Bosch's first name was originally Jheronimus (or Joen,<ref>Dijck (2000): pp. 43–44. A variant on his Middle Dutch name is "Jeroen". Van Dijck points out that in all contemporary sources the name "Jeroen" is used twice, while the name "Joen" is used nine times, making "Joen" to be his probable nickname.</ref> respectively the Latin and [[Middle Dutch]] form of the name "Jerome"), and he signed a number of his paintings as ''Jheronimus Bosch''.<ref>Signed works by Bosch include ''[[The Epiphany (Bosch)|The Adoration of the Magi]]'', ''[[Saint Christopher Carrying the Christ Child]]'', ''[[St. John the Evangelist on Patmos]]'', ''[[The Temptation of St Anthony (Bosch painting)|The Temptation of Saint Anthony]]'', ''[[The Hermit Saint]]s Triptych'', and ''[[The Crucifixion of St Julia]]''.</ref>
His surname Bosch derives from his birthplace, {{nowrap|[['s-Hertogenbosch]]}} ('Duke's forest'), which is commonly called "Den Bosch" ('the forest').<ref>{{cite news|last=Rowland|first=Ingrid D.|url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2016/08/18/mystery-of-hieronymus-bosch/|title=The Mystery of Hieronymus Bosch|date=18 August 2016|work=The New York Review|access-date=12 April 2020 |issn=0028-7504}}</ref>
Little is known of Bosch's life or training. He left behind no letters or diaries, and what has been identified has been taken from brief references to him in the municipal records of {{nowrap|'s-Hertogenbosch}}, and in the account books of the local order of the [[Illustrious Brotherhood of Our Blessed Lady]]. Nothing is known of his personality or his thoughts on the meaning of his art. Bosch's date of birth has not been determined with certainty. It is estimated at {{nowrap|{{circa}} 1450}} on the basis of a hand-drawn portrait (which may be a self-portrait) made shortly before his death in 1516. The drawing shows the artist at an advanced age, probably in his late sixties.<ref>Gibson, 15–16</ref>
Bosch lived all his life in and near {{nowrap|'s-Hertogenbosch}}, in the [[Duchy of Brabant]]. His grandfather Jan van Aken (died 1454) was a painter and is first mentioned in the records in 1430. Jan had five sons, four of whom were also painters. Bosch's father, Anthonius van Aken (died {{circa}} 1478), acted as artistic adviser to the Illustrious Brotherhood of Our Blessed Lady.<ref>Gibson, 15, 17</ref> It is generally assumed that either Bosch's father or one of his uncles taught the artist to paint, but none of their works survive.<ref>Gibson, 19</ref> Bosch first appears in the municipal record on 5 April 1474, when he is named along with two brothers and a sister.<ref name=":0" />
's-Hertogenbosch was a flourishing city in 15th-century [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabant]], in the south of the present-day Netherlands, which at the time was part of the [[Burgundian Netherlands]]. It was originally under the control of the [[Duchy of Brabant]] before being passed through marriage to the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburgs]].<ref>The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. (n.d.). Brabant. Retrieved from Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/place/Brabant
</ref> In 1463, 4000 houses in the town were destroyed by a catastrophic fire, which the (approximately) thirteen-year-old Bosch presumably witnessed. He became a popular painter in his lifetime and often received commissions from abroad.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bosch, Hieronymus |url=https://www.oxfordartonline.com/groveart/display/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000010250 |access-date= |website=Grove Art Online |date=2003 |language=en |doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t010250 |last1=Vandenbroeck |first1=Paul |isbn=978-1-884446-05-4 }}</ref> In 1486/7, he joined the highly respected Brotherhood of Our Lady, a devotional confraternity of some 40 influential citizens of {{nowrap|'s-Hertogenbosch}}, and 7000 'outer-members' from around Europe.<ref name=":0" />
Sometime between 1479 and 1481, Bosch married Aleid Goyaerts van den Meervenne, who was a few years his senior. The couple moved to the nearby town of Oirschot, where Aleid Goyaerts van den Meervenne had inherited a house and land from her wealthy family.<ref>Valery, Paul. ''The Phase of Doubt, A Critical Reflection''.</ref> An entry in the accounts of the Brotherhood of Our Lady records Bosch's death in 1516. A funeral mass served in his memory was held in the church of Saint John on 9 August of that year.<ref>Gibson, 18</ref>
== Works ==
{{main|List of paintings by Hieronymus Bosch|Hieronymus Bosch drawings}}
[[File:BoschTheCrucifixionOfStJulia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|''[[The Crucifixion of Saint Wilgefortis|The Crucifixion of St Wilgefortis]]'' is attributed to Bosch's middle period, {{circa|1497}}.]]
Bosch produced at least sixteen triptychs: of them, eight survive fully intact with another five surviving in fragments.<ref>Jacobs, 1010</ref> Bosch's works are generally organised into three periods of his life dealing with the early works ({{circa|1470–1485}}), the middle period ({{circa|1485–1500|lk=no}}), and the late period ({{circa|1500|lk=no}} until his death). According to Stefan Fischer, thirteen of Bosch's surviving paintings were completed in the late period, with seven attributed to his middle period.<ref>Stefan Fischer. ''Bosch: The Complete Works''.</ref> Bosch's early period is studied in terms of his workshop activity and possibly some of his drawings. Indeed, he taught pupils in the workshop, who were influenced by him. The recent [[dendrochronological]] investigation of the oak panels by the scientists at the Bosch Research and Conservation Project<ref>[http://boschproject.org/ Bosch Research and Conservation Project], 2016</ref> led to a more precise dating of the majority of Bosch's paintings.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Luuk Hoogstede |author2=Ron Spronk |author3=Matthijs Ilsink |author4=Robert G. Erdmann |author5=Jos Koldeweij |author6=Rik Klein Gotink |title=Hieronymus Bosch, Painter and Draughtsman: Technical Studies |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |date=2016}}</ref>
Bosch sometimes painted in a comparatively sketchy manner, contrasting with the traditional [[Early Netherlandish painting|Early Netherlandish style]] of painting in which the smooth surface—achieved by the application of multiple transparent glazes—conceals the brushwork.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://jhna.org/articles/cloeck-en-veerdigh-energetic-skillful-painting-techniques-sixteenth-century-leiden-school/#noteref-52|title=Layering of Opaque Paint and Glazing}}</ref> His paintings with their rough surfaces, so-called ''[[impasto]]'' painting, differed from the tradition of the great Netherlandish painters of the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries, who wished to hide the work done and thus suggest their paintings as more nearly divine creations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ffh.films.com/id/12404/Hieronymus_Bosch_The_Delights_of_Hell.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140527212814/http://ffh.films.com/id/12404/Hieronymus_Bosch_The_Delights_of_Hell.htm|url-status=dead|title=Hieronymus Bosch: The Delights of Hell|archive-date=27 May 2014|website=Films Media Group}}</ref>
Bosch did not date his paintings, but—unusually for the time—seems to have signed several of them, although some signatures purporting to be his are certainly not. About twenty-five paintings remain today that can be attributed to him. In the late 16th century, [[Philip II of Spain]] acquired many of Bosch's paintings.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.museodelprado.es/aprende/enciclopedia/voz/coleccion-de-felipe-ii/45870d5a-e780-40ea-b62e-ab85bd39b988|title=Colección de Felipe II – Museo Nacional del Prado|last=Checa Cremades|first=Fernando|website=Museo del Prado|language=es|access-date=12 April 2020}}</ref> As a result, the [[Museo del Prado|Prado Museum]] in [[Madrid]] now owns the ''[[Adoration of the Magi (Bosch, Madrid)|Adoration of the Magi]]'', ''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]'', the tabletop painting of ''[[The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things]]'' and ''[[The Haywain Triptych]]''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/artist/bosch-hieronymus/c9716e4a-4c24-44dd-ac65-44bc4661c8b5|title=Bosch, Hieronymus – The Collection |website=Museo Nacional del Prado|access-date=12 April 2020}}</ref>
=== Painting materials ===
Bosch painted his works mostly on oak panels using oil as a medium. Bosch's palette was rather limited and contained the usual pigments of his time.<ref>Hoogstede et al. (2016)</ref> He mostly used [[azurite]] for blue skies and distant landscapes, green copper-based glazes and paints consisting of [[malachite]] or [[verdigris]] for foliage and foreground landscapes, and [[lead-tin-yellow]], [[ochres]] and red lake ([[carmine]] or [[madder lake]]) for his figures.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://colourlex.com/project/hieronymus-bosch/|title=Hieronymus Bosch: General Resources|work=ColourLex|access-date=8 March 2019}}</ref>
=== ''The Garden of Earthly Delights'' ===
{{main|The Garden of Earthly Delights}}
[[File:The Garden of Earthly Delights by Bosch High Resolution.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]'' in the {{lang|es|[[Museo del Prado]]}} in [[Madrid]], {{circa|1495–1505}}, attributed to Bosch|alt=]]
One of his most famous triptychs is ''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]'' ({{circa|1495–1505}}) whose outer panels are intended to bracket the main central panel between the [[Garden of Eden]] depicted on the left panel and the [[Last Judgment]] depicted on the right panel. It is attributed by Fischer as a transition painting rendered by Bosch from between his middle period and his late period. In the left hand panel God presents [[Eve]] to [[Adam]]; innovatively God is given a youthful appearance. The figures are set in a landscape populated by exotic animals and unusual semi-organic hut-shaped forms. The central panel is a broad panorama teeming with nude figures engaged in innocent, self-absorbed joy, as well as fantastical compound animals, oversized fruit, and hybrid stone formations.<ref>Fraenger, 10</ref>
The right panel presents a [[hellscape]]; a world in which humankind has succumbed to the temptations of evil and is reaping eternal damnation. Set at night, the panel features cold colours, tortured figures and frozen waterways. The nakedness of the human figures has lost any eroticism suggested in the central panel,<ref>Belting, 38</ref> as large explosions in the background throw light through the city gate and spill onto the water in the panel's midground.<ref>Gibson, 92</ref>
=== ''Triptych of the Temptation of St. Anthony'' ===
[[File:Hieronymus Bosch - Triptych of Temptation of St Anthony - WGA2585.jpg|thumb|''[[Triptych of the Temptation of St. Anthony|Triptych of the Temptation of St Anthony]]'' (1501 C.) in [[National Museum of Ancient Art]]|300x300px]]
{{Main|Triptych of the Temptation of St. Anthony}}
''[[Triptych of the Temptation of St. Anthony]]'' is one of the most famous Bosch's works along with ''The Garden of Earthly Delights''. It shows Saint Anthony being tempted or assailed in the desert by demons, whose temptations he resisted; the ''Temptation of St Anthony'' (or ''Trial...'') is the more common name of the subject. But strictly there are at least two different episodes deriving from Athanasius's ''Life of St. Anthony'' and later versions of the life that may be represented, though all usually have this name.
The most common is the temptation, by seductive women and other demonic forms, but the [[Martin Schongauer]] composition (copied by [[Michelangelo]]) probably shows a later episode where St Anthony, normally flown about the desert supported by [[angel]]s, was ambushed and attacked in mid-air by [[devil]]s. Anasthasius describes another episode where the saint was attacked on the ground.
<small>With copied content from ''[[Triptych of the Temptation of St. Anthony]]''; see that page for attribution.</small>
== Interpretation ==
[[File:Hieronymus Bosch - The Garden of Earthly Delights - Hell.jpg|thumb|The hell panel from ''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]''. It is alleged that Bosch's self-portrait is in the upper centre at right under the "table".]]
In the 20th century, when changing artistic tastes made artists like Bosch more palatable to the European imagination, it was sometimes argued that Bosch's art was inspired by heretical points of view (e.g., the ideas of the [[Cathars]] and/or putative [[Adamites]] or [[Brethren of the Free Spirit]])<ref>''The Millennium of Hieronymus Bosch. Outlines of a New Interpretation''. [[Wilhelm Fraenger]], University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1951</ref> as well as by obscure hermetic practices. Again, since [[Erasmus]] had been educated at one of the houses of the [[Brethren of the Common Life]] in 's-Hertogenbosch, and the town was religiously progressive, some writers have found it unsurprising that strong parallels exist between the caustic writing of Erasmus and the often bold painting of Bosch.<ref>''The Secret Life of Paintings''. Richard Foster & Pamela Tudor-Craig {{ISBN|0-85115-439-5}}</ref>
Others, following a strain of Bosch-interpretation datable already to the 16th century, continued to think his work was created merely to titillate and amuse, much like the "[[grotesque|grotteschi]]" of the [[Italian Renaissance]]. While the art of the older masters was based in the physical world of everyday experience, Bosch confronts his viewer with, in the words of the art historian Walter Gibson, "a world of dreams [and] nightmares in which forms seem to flicker and change before our eyes". In one of the first known accounts of Bosch's paintings, in 1560 the Spaniard [[Felipe de Guevara]] wrote that Bosch was regarded merely as "the inventor of [[monster]]s and [[Chimera (mythology)|chimeras]]". In the early 17th century, the artist-biographer [[Karel van Mander]] described Bosch's work as comprising "wondrous and strange fantasies"; however, he concluded that the paintings are "often less pleasant than gruesome to look at".<ref>Gibson, 9</ref>
In recent decades, scholars have come to view Bosch's vision as less fantastic, and accepted that his art reflects the orthodox religious belief systems of his age.<ref name=Bosing>{{cite book|last1=Bosing|first1=Walter|title=Hieronymus Bosch|date=1987|publisher=Taschen}}</ref> His depictions of sinful humanity and his conceptions of Heaven and Hell are now seen as consistent with those of late medieval [[didactic]] literature and sermons. Most writers attach a more profound significance to his paintings than had previously been supposed, and attempt to interpret them in terms of a late medieval morality. It is generally accepted that Bosch's art was created to teach specific moral and spiritual truths in the manner of other [[Northern Renaissance]] figures, such as the poet [[Robert Henryson]], and that the images rendered have precise and premeditated significance. According to Dirk Bax, Bosch's paintings often represent visual translations of verbal metaphors and puns drawn from both biblical and folkloric sources.<ref>Bax, 1949.</ref>
Latterly art historians have added a further dimension to the subject of ambiguity in Bosch's work, emphasising ironic tendencies, for example in ''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]'', both in the central panel (delights),<ref>Pokorny (2010), 23, 25, 31.</ref> and the right panel (hell).<ref>Boulboullé (2008), 68, 70–72, 75–76.</ref> They theorise that the irony offers the option of detachment, both from the real world and from the painted fantasy world, thus appealing to both conservative and progressive viewers.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} According to [[Joseph Koerner]], some of the cryptic qualities of the artist's work are due to his special focus on social, political, and spiritual enemies, whose symbolism is, by nature, disguised because it is intended to conceal the artist from criticism and harm.<ref>Koerner (2016), 179–222.</ref>
A 2012 study on Bosch's paintings alleges that they actually conceal a strong nationalist consciousness, censuring the foreign imperial government of the [[Burgundian Netherlands]], especially [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian Habsburg]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Oliveira |first=Paulo Martins |title=Jheronimus Bosch: O relojoeiro dos símbolos |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |date=2012 |pages=199–218 |isbn=978-1-4791-6765-4}}.</ref> By systematically superimposing images and concepts, the study asserts that Bosch also made his expiatory self-punishment, for he was accepting well-paid commissions from the Habsburgs and their deputies, and therefore betraying the memory of [[Charles the Bold]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Oliveira |first=Paulo Martins |title=Bosch, the surdo canis |url=https://dokumen.tips/documents/e-bosch-the-surdo-canis.html |url-status=live |newspaper=Dokumen.tips |date=2013 |access-date=20 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221120100908/https://dl037.dokumen.tips/dlv2/c17566b4e1b58fa70eec4cac1cb40ce7209f2d4f14507958461a13691fae8fc3ea8a3db4b9055c26b75b8f98b64b19f45faa4ef887cc305ead6440930e6778beaAw4XrB01qtRziWsE0Uyhu5wZnIVLt3dKxZs9e6PO0IWoTOE1RF1QpIMkuPGTycU76REr9LeowlQd7pZ1M5mz2DP59MCcCx4whMlVwrfJdU%3D |archive-date=20 November 2022}}</ref>
== Debates on attribution ==
[[File:Bosch follower Christ Before Pilate (Princeton).jpg|thumb|''Christ Before Pilate'', c. 1520, one of the paintings with disputed attribution, in the [[Princeton University Art Museum]] which would date from Bosch's late period of painting]]
The exact number of Bosch's surviving works has been a subject of considerable debate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Büttner |first=Nils |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t-hZDAAAQBAJ&dq=bosch+debates+on+attribution&pg=PA14 |title=Hieronymus Bosch: Visions and Nightmares |date=15 June 2016 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1-78023-614-8}}</ref> His signature can be seen on only seven of his surviving paintings, and there is uncertainty whether all the paintings once ascribed to him were actually from his hand. It is known that from the early 16th century onward, numerous copies and variations of his paintings began to circulate. In addition, his style was highly influential, and was widely imitated by his numerous followers.<ref>Gibson, 163</ref>
Over the years, scholars have attributed to him fewer and fewer of the works once thought to be his. This is partly a result of technological advances such as [[infrared]] reflectography, which enable researchers to examine a painting's underdrawing.<ref>Finaldi, Gabriele/ Garrido, Carmen "El trazo oculto. Dibujos subyacentes en pinturas de los siglos XV y XVI" (Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid 2006)</ref> Art historians of the early and mid-20th century, such as [[Charles de Tolnay|Tolnay]]<ref>Tolnay, Charles de "Hieronymus Bosch" (Methuen & Co, London 1966)</ref> and [[Ludwig von Baldass|Baldass]],<ref>Baldass, Ludwig v. "Hieronimus Bosch" ( Harry N. Abrams, New York, 1960)</ref> identified between thirty and fifty paintings that they believed to be by Bosch's hand.<ref name="Muller_1997" /> A later monograph by Gerd Unverfehrt (1980) attributed twenty-five paintings and 14 drawings to him.<ref name="Muller_1997">Muller, Sheila D. (1997). ''Dutch Art: an Encyclopedia''. New York: Garland Pub. p. 47. {{ISBN|0-8153-0065-4}}.</ref>
In early 2016, ''[[The Temptation of St Anthony (Kansas City)|The Temptation of St. Anthony]]'', a small panel in the [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]], long attributed to the workshop of Hieronymus Bosch, was credited to the painter himself after intensive forensic study by the Bosch Research and Conservation Project.<ref name=Siegal1Feb>{{cite news|title=Hieronymus Bosch Credited With Work in Kansas City Museum|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/02/arts/design/work-at-a-kansas-city-museum-may-be-by-hieronymus-bosch-researchers-say.html | date=1 February 2016|access-date=1 February 2016|work=The New York Times|first=Nina|last=Siegal}}</ref><ref name=Russell1Feb>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/BL-SEB-93402|title=Kansas City Museum Painting Deemed an Authentic Bosch|date=1 February 2016|access-date=1 February 2016|first=Anna|last=Russell|work=The Wall Street Journal}}</ref><ref name=Hoedel1Feb>{{cite news|title=Rare Painting by Dutch Master Hieronymous Bosch Has Been in Storage at Nelson-Atkins|url=http://www.kansascity.com/entertainment/visual-arts/article57794338.html | date=1 February 2016|access-date=1 February 2016|work=The Kansas City Star|first=Cindy|last=Hoedel | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160202102020/http://www.kansascity.com/entertainment/visual-arts/article57794338.html | archive-date = 2 February 2016}}</ref> The BRCP has also questioned whether two well-known paintings traditionally accepted to be by Bosch, ''[[The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things|The Seven Deadly Sins]]'' in the [[Museo del Prado|Prado]] and ''[[Christ Carrying the Cross (Bosch, Ghent)|Christ Carrying the Cross]]'' in the [[Museum of Fine Arts, Ghent]] should instead be credited to the artist's workshop rather than to the painter's own hand.<ref name=Neuendorf2Nov>{{cite news|url=https://news.artnet.com/art-world/hieronymus-bosch-attribution-paintings-353804|title=Scientists Question Attribution of Two Hieronymus Bosch Masterpieces|date=2 November 2015|access-date=1 February 2016|first=Henri|last=Neuendorf|work=Artnet}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[List of paintings by Hieronymus Bosch]]
* [[Hieronymus Bosch drawings|List of drawings by Hieronymus Bosch]]
== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
* Bax, Dirk. ''Ontcijfering van Jeroen Bosch''. Den Haag: Staats-drukkerij-en Uitgeverijbedrijf, 1949.
* Boulboullé, Guido. "Groteske Angst. Die Höllenphantasien des Hieronymus Bosch". In: [[Christoph Auffarth|Auffarth, Christoph]] and Kerth, Sonja (Eds): ''Glaubensstreit und Gelächter: Reformation und Lachkultur im Mittelalter und in der Frühen Neuzeit.'' Berlin: LIT Verlag, 2008. 55–78.
* Dijck, Godfried Christiaan Maria van. ''Op zoek naar Jheronimus van Aken alias Bosch. De feiten. Familie, vrienden en opdrachtgevers''. Zaltbommel: Europese Bibliotheek, 2001. {{ISBN|90-288-2687-4}}
* Fischer, Stefan. ''Hieronymus Bosch. The Complete Works''. Köln: Taschen, 2016 {{ISBN|978-3836526296}}
* Fraenger, Wilhelm. ''Hieronymus Bosch''. Dresden: Verlag der Kunst, 1975.
** ''Le royaume millénaire de Jérôme Bosch'' (French transl. by Roger Lewinter, Paris: Ivrea, 1993).
* Gibson, Walter. ''Hieronymus Bosch''. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1973. {{ISBN|0-500-20134-X}}
* Jacobs, Lynn. "The Triptychs of Hieronymus Bosch". ''The Sixteenth Century Journal'', Volume 31, No. 4, 2000. 1009–1041
* Koerner, Joseph Leo. ''Bosch and Bruegel: From Enemy Painting to Everyday Life.'' Princeton University Press, 2016. {{ISBN|9780691172286}}
* Koldeweij, Jos & Vermet, Bernard & van Kooij, Barbera. ''Hieronymus Bosch. New Insights Into His Life and Work''. Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2001. {{ISBN|90-5662-214-5}}
* Malizia, Enrico. ''Hieronymus Bosch. Insigne pittore nel crepuscolo del medio evo. Stregoneria, magia, alchimia, simbolismo''. Roma: Youcanprint Ed., 2015. {{ISBN|978-88-91171-74-0}}
* Marijnissen, Roger. ''Hiëronymus Bosch. Het volledige oeuvre''. Haarlem: Gottmer/Brecht, 1987. {{ISBN|90-230-0651-8}}
* Pokorny, Erwin. "Hieronymus Bosch und das Paradies der Wollust". In: ''Frühneuzeit-Info'', Jg. 21, Heft 1+2 ("Sonderband: Die Sieben Todsünden in der Frühen Neuzeit"), 2010. 22–34.
* Strickland, Debra Higgs. ''The Epiphany of Hieronymys Bosch. Imagining Antichrist and Others from the Middle Ages to the Reformation'' (''Studies in Medieval and Early Renaissance Art History''), Turnhout: Harvey Miller, 2016, {{ISBN|978-1-909400-55-9}}
{{refend}}
== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last1=Ilsink |first1=Matthijs |last2=Koldeweij |first2=Jos |title=Hieronymus Bosch: Painter and Draughtsman – Catalogue raisonné |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |date=2016 |page=504 |isbn=978-0-300-22014-8}}
== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{EB1911 poster|Bosch, Jerom}}
* [https://jheronimusbosch-artcenter.nl/en/ Jheronimus Bosch Art Center]
* [https://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/bosch/ Hieronymus Bosch] at Ibiblio
* [https://www.percontra.net/archive/5silver.htm "Hieronymus Bosch, Tempter and Moralist"] Analysis by Larry Silver.
* [http://www.hieronymus-bosch.org/ Hieronymus Bosch{{snd}}The complete works] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230720165915/https://www.hieronymus-bosch.org/ |date=20 July 2023}}, 188 works by Bosch
* [http://boschproject.org/ Bosch Research and Conservation Project (BRCP)]
* [https://colourlex.com/project/resources-hieronymus-bosch/ Hieronymus Bosch, General Resources], ColourLex
* [https://www.museodelprado.es/en/whats-on/exhibition/bosch-the-centenary-exhibition/f049c260-888a-4ff1-8911-b320f587324a Bosch, the Fifth Centenary Exhibition: At the Prado]
* [https://openlibrary.org/authors/OL246574A Works] at [https://openlibrary.org/ Open Library]
* K. Katelyn Hobbs, ''[https://publications.philamuseum.org/entries/102119# "Ecce Homo by a follower of Hieronymus Bosch (cat. 352)"]{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}'' in ''The John G. Johnson Collection: A History and Selected Works'', a Philadelphia Museum of Art free digital publication.
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[[Category:Dutch draughtsmen]]
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