Food and drink prohibitions: Difference between revisions

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There are many reasons why some [[meat]]s might be considered [[taboo]] and not others. Sometimes people have a more sentimental connection to some animals than others, for instance [[cows]] are sacred animals in India, and are not eaten there, while [[cats]] and [[dogs]] are kept as household [[pets]] throughout the world and are rarely eaten. Other meats are avoided for religious reasons, for instance some [[Jews]] avoid [[lobster]] and [[pig]] meat because their [[religion]] has forbidden the eating of 'fish without true scales' and all mammals except [[even-toed ungulates]] which are [[ruminants]]; [[camel]] meat is forbidden to Jews because camels have soft toes instead of hooves.

{{short description|Prohibitions related to foods and drinks}}

{{About|practices and beliefs in relation to various [[food]] and potential foods|more discussion on religious views|Unclean animal}}

Some people do not eat various specific foods and beverages in conformity with various [[Religion|religious]], [[Culture|cultural]], [[Law|legal]] or other societal prohibitions. Many of these prohibitions constitute [[taboo]]s. Many food taboos and other prohibitions forbid the meat of a particular [[animal]], including [[Mammal|mammals]] (such as [[Rodent|rodents]]), [[Reptile|reptiles]], [[Amphibian|amphibians]], [[fish]], [[Mollusca|molluscs]], [[Crustacean|crustaceans]] and [[Insect|insects]], which may relate to a [[disgust]] response being more often associated with [[Meat|meats]] than plant-based foods.<ref>Paul Rozin, "Social and Moral Aspects of Food and Eating", In: Rock, I. (ed.), ''The Legacy of Solomon Asch: Essays in Cognition and Social Psychology'', New York: Psychology Press. Chapter 6.</ref> Some prohibitions are specific to a particular part or [[excretion]] of an animal, while others forgo the consumption of [[Plant|plants]] or [[Fungus|fungi]].

Some food prohibitions can be defined as rules, [[Religious law|codified by religion]] or otherwise, about which foods, or combinations of foods, may not be eaten and how animals are to be [[animal slaughter|slaughtered]] or prepared. The origins of these prohibitions are varied. In some cases, they are thought to be a result of health considerations or other practical reasons;<ref>Harris, Marvin, ''Good to Eat'', {{ISBN|0-04-306002-1}}</ref> in others, they relate to human [[symbolic system]]s.<ref>Douglas, Mary, Purity and Danger, {{ISBN|0-415-28995-5}}</ref>

== Pets ==

=== Rabbit ===

[[Leporidae|Leporids]] such as [[rabbit|European rabbit]]s and [[hare]]s make friendly pets for [[animal fancy|fanciers]] or those allergic to cats and dogs. They are also a food meat in (at least) [[Europe]], [[South America]], [[North America]] and [[China]]. The consumption of rabbit meat, however, historically predates their use as pets, and is therefore not considered taboo by most people. The hare is specifically stated to be an [[unclean animal]] the book of [[Leviticus]] in the [[Bible]], making it taboo for Jews.

Some foods may be prohibited during certain religious periods (e.g., [[Lent]]), at certain stages of life (e.g., [[pregnancy]]), or to certain classes of people (e.g., [[priest]]s), even if the food is otherwise permitted. On a comparative basis, what may be declared unfit for one group may be perfectly acceptable to another within the same culture or across different cultures. Food taboos usually seem to be intended to protect the human individual from harm, spiritually or physically, but there are numerous other reasons given within cultures for their existence. An ecological or medical background is apparent in many, including some that are seen as religious or spiritual in origin. Food taboos can help utilizing a resource,{{citation needed|date=December 2023}} but when applied to only a subsection of the community, a food taboo can also lead to the monopolization of a food item by those exempted. A food taboo acknowledged by a particular group or tribe as part of their ways, aids in the cohesion of the group, helps that particular group to stand out and maintain its identity in the face of others and therefore creates a feeling of "belonging".<ref name="Meyer-Rochow 2009">{{cite journal|last=Meyer-Rochow | first= Victor Benno | title=Food taboos: their origins and purposes| journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine| date=2009|volume=5 | issue= 18 | article-number= 18 |doi=10.1186/1746-4269-5-18| pmc=2711054 | pmid=19563636 | doi-access= free }}</ref>

[[Michael Moore]]'s film ''[[Roger and Me]]'' famously features a poor [[Flint, Michigan|Flint]], [[Michigan]] woman selling rabbits "for pets or for food."

==Causes==

=== Prairie Dog &amp; Squirrel ===

[[File:Use of eggs, meet, vine is prohibited. Jaisalmeer. 93.jpg|thumb|"Use of eggs, meet & vine [''meat and wine''] is strictly-prohibited here." [[Jaisalmer]], [[Rajasthan]], India. 1993]]

Both the American [[prairie dog]] and [[squirrel]] were widely hunted for food in the [[United States]] until the mid-20th century, but have recently become exotic pets. The main appeal of these animals as a food source was their abundance and the ease of catching them. Squirrel is still occasionally eaten.

Various religions forbid the consumption of certain types of food. For example, [[Judaism]] prescribes a strict set of rules, called ''[[kashrut]]'', regarding what may and may not be eaten, and notably forbidding the mixing of meat with dairy products. [[Islamic dietary laws|Islam has similar laws]], dividing foods into ''[[haram]]'' (forbidden) and ''[[halal]]'' (permitted). [[Jainism|Jains]] often follow religious directives to observe [[vegetarianism]]. Some [[Hindus]] do not eat beef, and some [[Hindu]]s, especially those from the upper [[caste]]s consider vegetarianism as ideal, and practise forms of vegetarianism.<ref name=":0">Institutions and ideologies: a SOAS South Asia reader - 1993</ref> In some cases, the process of preparation rather than the food itself comes under scrutiny. For instance, in early medieval Christianity, certain uncooked foods were of dubious status: a [[penitential]] ascribed to [[Bede]] outlined a (mild) penance for those who ate uncooked foods, and [[Saint Boniface]] wrote to [[Pope Zachary]] (in a letter preserved in the [[Codex Vindobonensis 751#The Boniface correspondence|Boniface correspondence]], no. 87) asking him how long [[bacon]] would have to be cured to be proper for consumption.<ref>{{cite book|last=Filotas|first=Bernadette|title=Pagan Survivals, Superstitions and Popular Cultures|series=Studies and Texts|volume=151|year=2005|publisher=Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies|___location=Toronto|isbn=0-88844-151-7|page=349|quote=Failing patristic authority, the pope was somewhat at a loss for an answer, finally deciding that it could be eaten smoked or roasted over the fire (presumably at any time) but, if eaten raw, only after Easter (that is, after curing for a minimum of three months, if the hogs had been slaughtered at the beginning of winter).}}</ref> The [[Kapu (Hawaiian culture)|kapu]] system was used in [[Hawaii]] until 1819.

Aside from formal rules, there are cultural taboos against the consumption of some animals. Within a given society, some meats will be considered to be not for consumption that are outside the range of the generally accepted definition of a foodstuff. Novel meats, i.e. animal-derived food products not familiar to an individual or to a culture, generally provoke a [[disgust]] reaction, which may be expressed as a cultural taboo.<ref>Potts HWW (1999), "Human food rejections". PhD thesis, University of London</ref> For example, although [[dog meat]] is eaten, in certain circumstances, in [[Korea]], [[Vietnam]], and [[China]], it is considered inappropriate as a food in virtually all Western countries. Likewise, [[horse meat]] is rarely eaten in the [[English-speaking world]], although it is part of the national cuisine of countries as widespread as [[Kazakhstan]], [[Japan]], [[Italy]], and [[France]].

=== Guinea Pigs ===

[[Guinea pig]]s (''cavies'') were originally bred for their meat, and only became an exotic popular pet when introduced to [[Europe]] from [[America]].

Sometimes food prohibitions enter national or local law, as with the ban on cattle [[abattoirs]] in most of [[India]], and [[Horse slaughter]] in the [[United States]]. Even after reversion to Chinese rule, [[Hong Kong]] has not lifted its ban on supplying meat from dogs and cats, created during [[British Hong Kong|British rule]].

Guinea pigs, or ''cuy'', ''cuye'', ''curí'', continue to be a major part of the diet in [[Peru]], particularly in the [[Andes Mountains]] highlands, where they are an important source of protein and a mainstay of Andean folk medicine. Peruvians consume an estimated 65 million Guinea pigs each year, and the animal is so entrenched in the culture that one famous painting of the [[Last Supper]] in the main cathedral in [[Cusco, Peru]] shows Christ and the 12 disciples dining on Guinea pig. Today guinea pig meat is exported to the United States and [[Japan]].

[[La Molina National University]] [http://www.lamolina.edu.pe/portada/], Peru's most prestigious agrarian [[university]], has bred a larger, faster-growing variety of the animal that it hopes will prove a nutritional boon to the country, as well as a source of export income. This breed grows to about 2 [[kg]], or at least twice the native breed.

[[Environmentalism]], [[ethical consumerism]] and other [[Activism|activist]] movements are giving rise to new prohibitions and eating guidelines. A fairly recent addition to cultural food prohibitions is the meat and eggs of [[endangered species]] or animals that are otherwise protected by law or international treaty. Examples of such protected species include some species of whales, [[sea turtle]]s, and [[bird migration|migratory birds]]. Similarly, [[sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification]] discourage the consumption of certain seafoods due to [[Unsustainable fishing methods|unsustainable fishing]]. [[Organic certification]] prohibits certain [[Chemical synthesis|synthetic]] chemical inputs during food production, or [[genetically modified organism]]s, [[irradiation]], and the use of [[sewage sludge]]. The [[fair trade]] movement and certification discourage the consumption of food and other goods produced in exploitative working conditions. Other [[social movement]]s generating taboos include [[local food]] and ''[[The 100-Mile Diet]]'', both of which encourage abstinence from non-locally produced food, and [[veganism]], in which adherents endeavour not to use or consume animal products of any kind.

=== Dogs ===

In certain cultures, dogs are raised on farms and [[slaughter]]ed as a source of meat. In [[Korea]] dog meat is the basis for winter soups and stews in some segments of the population (see [[Gaegogi]]). The source of the meat and the alleged methods of slaughter has generated friction between dog lovers and people who eat dogs, that occasionally breaks out as headline news.

==Prohibited foods==

In other countries, like the [[Philippines]], dogs have served as a emergency reserve of food. Another example is [[China]] where in times past [[Chow Chow]]s were often posted to guard family storehouses. During a hard season when the food store was depleted, the dog would be slaughtered as an emergency ration. (An "emergency ration" Chow Chow is a recurring character in [[Excel Saga]].)

===Amphibians===

In the United States and [[Canada]], [[Eskimo]] and non-native sled dog teams traditionally fed a dog who expired during a grueling run to the remaining dogs.

[[File:Bag of frogs legs.jpg|thumb|A bag of frog legs from Vietnam.]]

[[Judaism]] strictly forbids the consumption of [[amphibian]]s such as [[frog]]s. The restriction is described in [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]] 11:29-30 and 42–43. Derivative chemical products from amphibians, as well as with other proscribed animals, must be avoided.<ref name=jewish>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/overview-of-jewish-dietary-laws-and-regulations|title=Overview of Jewish Dietary Laws & Regulations|website=jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref>

Historically, dogs were raised specifically for food by the [[Aztec|Aztecs]] and [[Polynesia|Polynesians]].

In other cultures, foods such as [[frog legs]] are treasured as delicacies, and the animals may be raised commercially in some circumstances.<ref name=frogs/> However, environmental concerns over the [[Endangered species|endangerment]] of frogs, even possibly pushing them into [[extinction]], due to [[overconsumption]] has prompted legal action in nations such as [[France]] to limit their use in food. The [[Ministry of Agriculture (France)|French Ministry of Agriculture]] began taking measures to protect native frog species in 1976, and efforts have continued since. Mass commercial harvesting of the animals was banned in 1980, though international imports as well as private, individual hunting and cooking remains legal in many areas.<ref name=frogs>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2009/aug/07/frogs-legs-extinction|title=Why we shouldn't eat frogs' legs|first=Jon|last=Henley|newspaper=The Guardian |date=6 August 2009|via=www.theguardian.com}}</ref>

=== Cats ===

In desperate times, people have been known to resort to cooking and eating [[cat]]s, as occurred in [[Argentina]] in [[1996]]. Cats are eaten in parts of [[Korea]] and [[China]]. In [[Canton, China|Canton]], China, cat is reportedly served along with snake in a dish called "The Dragon and the Tiger".

===Bats===

Cats are also used to produce medicinal potions such as Korean "liquid cat", a remedy for joint pain made by boiling cats (alleged to be alive in some cases) with spices, and for their fur which is used to make [[fur coat]]s and other fur clothing.

{{Main|Bat as food}}

In Judaism, the [[Deuteronomic Code]] and [[Priestly Code]] explicitly prohibit the bat.<ref name=WhatsKosher>[http://www.akhlah.com/jewish-traditions/kosher/kosher-food/ Kosher Food] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725153716/http://www.akhlah.com/jewish-traditions/kosher/kosher-food/ |date=25 July 2018 }}, The Jewish Children's Learning Network, accessed 30 November 2015.</ref> Bat meat, like that of all predatory land animals, is ''[[haram]]'' (prohibited) in Islam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamic-web.com/halal-haram/list-of-permitted-and-prohibited-animals/|title=List of Permitted (Halal) And Prohibited (Haram) Animals & Birds|publisher=islamic-web.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.al-islam.org/islamic-laws-ayatullah-ali-al-husayni-al-sistani/rules-things-allowed-eat-and-drink|title=Rules of Things Allowed to Eat and Drink|date=24 January 2013 |at=Issue 2633|publisher=al-islam.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Al-Tusi|first=Muhammad ibn Hasan|title=Concise Description of Islamic Law and Legal Opinions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FO6CBMZU5xgC|year=2008|publisher=ICAS Press|isbn=978-1-904063-29-2|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FO6CBMZU5xgC&pg=PA394&dq=bats 394]}}</ref>

===Birds===

Cats are sometimes confused with [[civet cat]]s. This has led Americans to accuse some Chinese manufacturer of using cat fur in their products. Others worry that some traditional medicines imported into the United States are of unknown animal origin. In [[2001]], a shipment of cat [[toy]]s imported into the United States from China were recalled and destroyed because they were trimmed with cat fur, which had just been banned in the U.S.

The [[Torah]] ([[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]] 11:13<ref>{{bibleverse||Leviticus|11:13|HE}}</ref>) explicitly states that the [[eagle]], [[vulture]], and [[osprey]] are not to be eaten. A bird now commonly raised for meat in some areas, the [[ostrich]], is explicitly banned as food in some interpretations of Leviticus 11:16.<ref>{{bibleverse||Leviticus|11:16|HE}}</ref> Rabbis have frequently inferred that traditions that explicitly prohibit [[birds of prey]] and natural [[scavenger]]s create a distinction with other avian species; thus, eating [[chickens]], [[ducks]], [[geese]], and [[turkeys]] is allowed.<ref name=jewish/>

In contrast, Islamic dietary rules permit the consumption of ostrich, while birds of prey (defined specifically as those who hunt with [[claws]] and [[talons]]) are forbidden, as in Judaism.

Some [[Australian Aborigine|Australian Aboriginal]] tribes have been known to hunt the [[feral cat]]s as a secondary source of meat. One tribe well known for this activity believe this cat to be either indigenous or of ancient, non-European origin. However, one recent DNA analysis has shown evidence that they are related to British shorthair cats. Feral cats in Australia are regularly hunted, but not eaten, by non-Aboriginals due to their being voracious pests. They are considered a danger to native species. But there is a small minority of scientists contend that they are more likely to eat from rubbish dumps and other food sources provided by humans.

Scavengers and carrion-eaters such as vultures and [[crow]]s are avoided as food in many cultures because they are perceived as carriers of disease and unclean, and associated with death. An exception is the [[rook (bird)|rook]], which was a recognised country dish, and which has, more recently, been served in a [[Scottish cuisine|Scottish]] restaurant in [[London]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.eveningtimes.co.uk/features/display.var.2509759.0.would_you_eat_rook_if_it_was_on_the_menu.php|title=Would you eat rook if it was on the menu|last=Bach|first=Daniel|date=22 May 2009|work=[[Evening Times]]|publisher=Newsquest (Herald & Times) Limited|access-date=19 October 2009|archive-date=17 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217203708/https://www.eveningtimes.co.uk/features/display.var.2509759.0.would_you_eat_rook_if_it_was_on_the_menu.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> In [[Western culture]]s today, most people regard [[songbird]]s as backyard wildlife rather than as food.

The term ''roof-hare'' applies to cat meat presented as that of a hare, another pet used as a source of meat. Subtracting the skin, feet, head and tail, hares and cats are practically identical. The only way to distinguish them is by looking at the [[processus hamatus]] of the feline [[scapula]], which should have a [[processus suprahamatus]]. ''Pasar gato por liebre'' ("to pass off a cat as a hare") is a [[Chile]]an expression equivalent to "to pull the wool over someone's eyes" derived from this basic scam.

A [[Balut (food)|balut]] is a developing bird embryo (usually a duck or chicken) that is boiled and eaten from the shell. Part of the Quran includes understanding and respecting the law that any animal products should not be eaten if the animal has not been slaughtered properly, making the animal or animal-product "maytah". Because balut is an egg containing a partly-developed embryo, Muslims believe this makes it "haram", or "forbidden".

== Work animals ==

=== Horses ===

[[Horses]] are bred by humans for use as food. Meat from (injured) horses that vets have put down with a lethal injection is not used for consumption: the carcasses of such animals are [[cremation|cremated]]. <!-- In some parts of [[Europe]] horses are specially raised for their meat. These horses run wild and are not trained as carriage animals.--> In [[2001]], people consumed an estimated 153,000 tonnes of horse meat worldwide.

The [[ortolan bunting]] developed as a more recent taboo food among French gourmets. The tiny birds were captured alive, force-fed, then drowned in Armagnac, "roasted whole and eaten that way, bones and all, while the diner draped his head with a linen napkin to preserve the precious aromas and, some believe, to hide from God."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.winespectator.com/magazine/show/id/8222 | title= France Bans an Old Culinary Tradition | work = [[Wine Spectator]] | date=30 June 1999 | access-date=11 April 2011}}</ref>

In the late palaeolithic ([[Magdalenien]]) wild horses formed an important source of food.

===Camels===

Horse meat is often of very good quality. It can be tender, and is low in fat and high in protein, something that has led to its being popular among body builders. Horse meat has a slightly sweet taste that some find distasteful, but that can be disguised with seasoning and [[spice]]s.

{{Main|Camel#Food uses}}

[[File:07. Camel Profile, near Silverton, NSW, 07.07.2007.jpg|thumb|Dromedary camel]]

The eating of [[camel]]s is strictly prohibited by the Torah in {{bibleref2|Deuteronomy|14:7}} and {{bibleref2|Leviticus|11:4}}. The Torah considers the camel unclean, even though it chews the cud, or [[Regurgitation (digestion)|regurgitates]], the way bovines, sheep, goats, deer, antelope, and giraffes (all of which are [[Kashrut|kosher]]) do, because it does not meet the [[cloven hoof]] criterion. Like these animals, camels (and llamas) are [[ruminant]]s with a multi-chambered stomach. Camels are [[Artiodactyla|even-toed ungulates]], with feet split in two. However, a camel's feet form soft pads rather than hard hooves.

In Islam, the eating of camels is allowed, and is indeed traditional in the Islamic heartland in [[Saudi Arabia]] and the [[Arabian Peninsula]].{{cn|date=April 2024}}

Today many European countries, including [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Romania]] and [[Belgium]], produce and consume horse meat.

===Cattle===

In [[France]] specialized butcher shops (''boucheries chevalines'') sell horsemeat, as ordinary butcher shops do not have the right to deal in it. According to legend, the French taste for horse meat dates from the [[Battle of Eylau]] in [[1807]], when the surgeon-in-chief of [[Napoleon]]'s Grand Army, [[Baron Dominique-Jean Larrey]], advised the starving troops to eat the flesh of dead battlefield horses. The cavalry used breastplates as cooking pans and gunpowder as seasoning, and thus founded a tradition.

{{More citations needed section|date=May 2007}}

{{Main|Cattle in religion and mythology}}

Cattle hold a traditional place as objects of reverence in countries such as [[India]]. Some Hindus, particularly [[Brahmin]]s, are vegetarian and strictly abstain from eating meat. All of those who do eat meat abstain from the consumption of [[beef]], as the cow holds a sacred place in [[Hinduism]].<ref name="Sharpes2006">{{cite book|author=Donald K. Sharpes|title=Sacred Bull, Holy Cow: A Cultural Study of Civilization's Most Important Animal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s_KxhuShJSEC&pg=PA208|access-date=4 June 2012|year=2006|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-0-8204-7902-6|pages=208–}}</ref> For example, tradition states that the [[goddess]] [[Kamadhenu]] manifests herself as a wish-granting divine cow, with such stories repeated over generations.<ref name=milk/>

During [[World War II]], due to the low supply and high price of beef, the state of [[New Jersey]] legalized the sale of horse meat. At war's end, the state again prohibited such sale (some say in response to pressure from the [[beef]] lobby.)

In contrast to cow slaughter, consumption of [[dairy products]] such as milk, yogurt, and particularly [[ghee]] (a form of [[butter]]) is highly common in India. Cow-derived products play a significant role in [[Hinduism]] with milk particularly being highly revered, often being used in holy ceremonies.<ref name=milk>{{cite web|url=https://www.tweentribune.com/article/junior/milk-something-special-india/|title=Milk is something special in India|website=Smithsonian Tween Tribune}}</ref>

==== The taboo ====

Horse is commonly eaten in many countries in [[Europe]]. Horse may not be eaten in [[Jew]]ish countries, since under [[Mosaic Law]], horse meat is unclean because the horse is not cloven-hoofed or cud-chewing. However, in [[Islam]]ic countries horse is generally considered [[halal]]. In pre-Christian times, horse meat was eaten in northern Europe as part of Teutonic religious ceremonies, particularly those associated with the worship of [[Odin]].

[[Cattle|Bullocks]] were the primary source of agricultural power and transportation in the early days, and as India adopted an agricultural lifestyle, the cow proved to be a very useful animal. This respect, stemming out of necessity, led to abstaining from killing cows for food; for example, if a famine-stricken village kills and eats its bullocks, they will not be available to pull the plough and the cart when next planting season comes. However, little evidence has been found to support this conjecture. Areas suffering from famine may resort to consuming cattle in efforts to survive until the next season.{{citation needed|date=June 2017}}

The eating of horse meat is a [[food taboo]] to some people in the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States|US]], and is sometimes even illegal. Like [[lobster]] and [[camel]], it is forbidden by some followers of [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Kashrut|Jewish]] religions. In [[732]] CE, [[Pope Gregory III]] began an effort to stop the pagan practice of horse eating, calling it "abominable", and the people of [[Iceland]] allegedly expressed reluctance to embrace [[Christianity]] for some time largely over the issue of giving up horse meat. His edicts are based on the same scripture as the Jewish prohibitions. In some countries the effects of this prohibition by the Catholic Church have lingered, and horse meat prejudices have progressed from taboos to avoidance to abhorrence. In other parts of the world, horse meat has the stigma of being something poor people eat and is seen as a cheap substitute for other meats. The problem of horse meat having the reputation of being tough is a popular myth.

By Indian law, the slaughter of female cattle is banned in almost all [[States and territories of India|Indian states]] except [[Kerala]], [[West Bengal]] and the [[Seven Sister States|seven north eastern states]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2945020.stm India targets cow slaughter] by Jyotsna Singh, BBC correspondent in Delhi - Monday, 11 August 2003, 15:52 GMT</ref> A person involved in either cow slaughter or its illegal transportation could be jailed in many states.<ref name="MP goes tough on cow slaughter">{{cite news|title=MP goes tough on cow slaughter|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/MP-goes-tough-on-cow-slaughter/articleshow/11358042.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505163608/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-01-04/india/30588595_1_animal-preservation-act-jail-term-cow-slaughter-prohibition|url-status=live|archive-date=5 May 2013|access-date=19 September 2012|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=4 January 2012}}</ref> Slaughter of cows is an extremely provocative issue for many Hindus.

According to the anthropologist [[Marvin Harris]], some cultures class horsemeat as [[taboo]] because the horse converts grass into meat less efficiently than other beasts, since horses do not function as [[ruminant]]s. When breeding cattle for meat, a cow or a sheep will produce more meat if fed with the same amount of grass. However (apart from the ox) those can not be used as working animals. [[Brigitte Bardot]] has spent her latter years crusading against the eating of horse meat.

Some [[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese Buddhists]] discourage the consumption of beef, although it is not considered taboo. However, for [[Buddhism in Sri Lanka|Sinhalese Buddhists]], it is taboo and considered to be ungrateful to kill the animal whose milk and labour provides livelihoods to many [[Sinhalese people]].

Although people in the [[United States of America]] rarely eat horse meat, many horses from the US are sold for slaughter and consumption in Europe, Mexico or Japan. A [[Food Standards Agency]] (FSA) [[2003]] investigation has revealed that [[salami]] and [[chorizo]] on sale in the UK sometimes contain horse and [[donkey]] meat, without being mentioned on the food label&mdash;something that is required. Much of the horse meat produced in the US is sold to [[zoo]]s for [[carnivore]] feeding, due to its high protein content.

[[Buddhism in Myanmar|Burmese Buddhists]] also have a taboo against eating beef, because they consider cows as an animal responsible for working in the fields with human beings. However, it is not strictly considered taboo in cities such as [[Mandalay]] and [[Yangon]].{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

==== Preparation ====

Those preparing [[sandwich]]es with horse meat usually use it smoked and salted. Horse meat forms an ingredient in several traditional recipes of [[salami]], and in [[Kazakhstan]] it is used in ''[[hazy]]'' (horse sausage).

In the town of [[Kudus, Indonesia|Kudus]] on the [[Indonesia]]n island of [[Java]], there is also a taboo on eating beef, despite most people being Muslim, to avoid offending Hindus.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Isnaeni |first=Nadya |date=2016-07-02 |title=Kisah Sunan Kudus Larang Umat Makan Sapi |url=https://www.liputan6.com/regional/read/2544794/kisah-sunan-kudus-larang-umat-makan-sapi |access-date=2025-06-28 |website=liputan6.com |language=id}}</ref>

[[Japan]]ese call raw horse meat ''sakura'' (cherry blossom) from its pink color. It is often served as [[sashimi]] where it is called ''basashi'' and serve it in thin slices with [[soya sauce]] and [[wasabi]]. In [[Switzerland]] horse meat may be used in [[Fondue#Fondue Bourguignonne|Fondue bourguignonne]]. It is widely believed that traditional [[Belgium|Belgian]] fries (''pommes frites'') were cooked in horse fat, but in fact [[ox]] fat was used, although this has been supplanted by [[nut]] oil (considered inferior by many) for health reasons. In [[Italy]] horse fat used in [[recipe]]s such as [[b:Cookbook:Pezzetti di Cavallo|Pezzetti di Cavallo]]. In [[Chile]] it is used in [[charqui]]. In [[Iceland]] it is used for [[fondue]], but it is mostly used for [[stew]]s for its strong flavor.

[[Mare's milk]] is used by peoples with large horse-herds, such as the [[Mongols]].

They may let it ferment to produce [[kumys]]. However, mares produce a much lower yield of milk than do [[cow]]s.

==Other==

=== Pigs ===

Consumption of pigs is forbidden among Jews and Muslims. There are various theories concerning the origins of this law but none has been universally accepted. One common assumption is pigs are considered 'unclean' compared to other domesticated animals for their [[wallow]]ing habits (preferably in water or mud, but under stress even feces) and more omnivorous tendancies, including the consumption of leftover garbage.

===Chewing Cows gum===

{{See also|Chewing gum ban in Singapore}}

Most [[Hindus]] abstain from eating [[beef]], as the [[cow]] holds a sacred place in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] society. While the injunctions against eating beef arose long after the [[Vedas]] had been written, it is assumed that the largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations of Hindus throughout the centuries relied so heavily on the cow for all sorts of dairy products, tilling of fields and [[fuel]] or [[fertiliser]] that its status as a willing 'caretaker' of humanity grew to identifying it as an almost maternal figure.

A chewing gum sales ban has been in place since 1992 in Singapore. It is currently not illegal to chew gum in [[Singapore]], merely to import it and sell it, with certain exceptions.<ref>{{cite web|title=Why Chewing Gum Is Not Allowed in Singapore|url=http://www.chewinggumfacts.com/chewing-gum-facts/chewing-gum-in-singapore|access-date=2 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180930225032/http://www.chewinggumfacts.com/chewing-gum-facts/chewing-gum-in-singapore/|archive-date=30 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Since 2004, an exception has existed for therapeutic, dental, and nicotine [[chewing gum]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Civil Aviation Authority Singapore (2010) National Regulations and Requirements Gen 1.3: Entry, Transit and Departure of Passenger and Crew |url=http://www.caas.gov.sg/caasWeb2010/export/sites/caas/en/Regulations/Aeronautical_Information/AIP/general/gen1/GEN_1.3.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923195750/http://www.caas.gov.sg/caasWeb2010/export/sites/caas/en/Regulations/Aeronautical_Information/AIP/general/gen1/GEN_1.3.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015 }}</ref> which can be bought from a doctor or registered pharmacist.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB108629672446328324|title=At Long Last, Gum Is Legal in Singapore, But There Are Strings|last=Prystay|first=Cris|date=4 June 2004|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|issn=0099-9660|access-date=31 July 2016}}</ref>

=== Fish Chickens===

[[Ibrahim ibn Yaqub]], a Jewish traveler who visited Slavic territories in the 10th century, described the meat-eating habits of the ancestors of Poles. He saw that these Slavs did not eat [[chickens]] because they believed chicken causes a loss of strength and a red rash.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Daily Diet of Proto-Polish Slavic Tribes|url=https://culture.pl/en/article/the-daily-diet-of-proto-polish-slavic-tribes}}</ref> Some who practice [[Slavic paganism]] will abide by this taboo to this day.

[[Fish]] are forbidden among the [[Maasai]] and some other peoples of [[East Africa]].

===Crustaceans Seafoodand other seafood===

[[File:Blue crab on market in Piraeus - Callinectes sapidus Rathbun 20020819-317.jpg|thumb|Blue crabs, ''[[Callinectes sapidus]]'', for sale at a market in [[Piraeus]].]]

Almost all types of non-piscene [[seafood]] such as [[eel]], [[lobster]], [[shrimp]] or [[crawfish]] is forbidden by some followers of [[Christianity]] (Leviticus 11:10-12) and [[Kashrut|Judaism]] because they live in water but don't have [[Scale (zoology)|scale]]s.

Almost all types of non-[[Fish|piscine]] [[seafood]], such as [[shellfish]], [[lobster]], [[shrimp]] or [[crayfish]], are forbidden by Judaism because such animals live in water but do not have both [[Pterygiophore|fins]] and [[Scale (anatomy)|scales]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Leviticus|11:10-12|HE}}</ref>

As a general rule, all seafood is permissible in the 3 ''[[madh'hab]]'' of [[Sunni Islam]] except Hanafi school of thought. The [[Ja'fari jurisprudence|Ja'fari]] school of [[Fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]], which is followed by most [[Shia Islam|Shia Muslims]], prohibits non-piscine (lacking scales) seafood, with the exception of shrimp.

=== Rats and Mice ===

===Honey===

In most Western cultures, [[rat|rats]] and [[mouse|mice]] are considered either unclean [[vermin]] or pets and thus unfit for human consumption. However, rats are commonly eaten in [[Ghana]] and in rural [[Thailand]]. Historically, rats and mice have also been eaten in the West during times of shortage or emergency, such as during the [[Battle of Vicksburg]] and the [[Siege of Paris]]. Mice were domesticated and raised for food in [[ancient Rome]].

[[Honey]] is concentrated [[nectar]] and [[Honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]] which has been [[regurgitation (digestion)|regurgitated]] by [[bee]]s. It is considered kosher even though [[honey bee]]s are not, an apparent exception to the normal rule that products of an unclean animal are also unclean. This topic is covered in the [[Talmud]] and is explained to be permissible on the grounds that the bee does not originally make the first honey, the flower does, while the bees store and dehydrate the liquid into honey. This is different from [[royal jelly]], which is produced by bees directly and is considered non-kosher.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.1541-4337.2003.tb00018.x | title=The Kosher and Halal Food Laws | date=2003 | last1=Regenstein | first1=J.M. | last2=Chaudry | first2=M.M. | last3=Regenstein | first3=C.E. | journal=Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety | volume=2 | issue=3 | pages=111–127 | pmid=33451233 }}</ref>

Some vegans avoid honey as they would any other [[animal product]].

In some communities the [[muskrat]] is hunted for its meat (and fur).

=== Organ Meats Insects===

{{More citations needed section|date=May 2007}}

In the [[United States]], many people are squeamish about eating [[offal]], or the internal organs of butchered animals. Organ meats such as [[sweetbread|sweetbreads]] and [[kidney]] which are considered edible in other cultures are more often regarded as being fit only for processing into pet food under the [[euphemism]] "meat by-products" in the United States. Except for calf [[liver]], organ meats that are consumed in the U.S. tend to be regional or ethnic specialties; for example, [[tripe]] as ''menudo'' among [[Latino]]s, [[chitterlings]] in the southern states, beef [[testicle|testicles]] as [[mountain oysters]] in the west.

{{See also|Entomophagy|Entomophagy in humans|List of edible insects by country}}

In [[Judaism]] and [[Samaritanism]], certain [[locust]]s could be [[kosher foods]] (Leviticus 11:22). Otherwise, [[insect]]s are considered nonkosher. Kashrut also requires that practitioners check other foods carefully for insects.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kosherquest.org/book.php?id=INSECTS_IN_FOOD.htm |title=Is it Kosher? - KosherQuest |access-date=16 June 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710065113/http://www.kosherquest.org/book.php?id=INSECTS_IN_FOOD.htm |archive-date=10 July 2015 }}</ref>

=== Onions ===

Some Buddhists who eat only shojin ryori vegetarian food avoid [[garlic]], [[onion]]s, [[chives]] and [[leek]]s.

In Islam, the eating of most insects is prohibited, but locusts are considered lawful food<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2023.06.028 | title=Climate change, food systems and the Islamic perspective on alternative proteins | date=2023 | last1=Jameel | first1=Shahid | journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology | volume=138 | pages=480–490 }}</ref> and do not require ritual slaughtering.

== See also==

* [[Cannibalism]]

===Dogs===

* [[Vegetarianism]]

{{Main|Dog meat}}

* [[Veganism]]

{{See also|Dogs in religion}}

[[File:Zhengzong-Huajiang-Li-jia-gourou-dian-0094.jpg|thumb|Dog meat advertised as a "[[Guizhou]] specialty" in [[Hubei]], [[People's Republic of China]].]]

In [[Western world|Western countries]], eating dog meat is generally considered taboo, though that taboo has been broken under threat of starvation in the past. Dog meat has been eaten in every major German crisis at least since the time of [[Frederick the Great]], and is commonly referred to as "blockade mutton".<ref name=Times1940>{{cite magazine

|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,884181,00.html

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016212115/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,884181,00.html

|url-status=dead

|archive-date=16 October 2007

|title=Dachshunds Are Tenderer

|date=25 November 1940

|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]

|access-date=20 January 2008

}}</ref> In the early 20th century, consumption of dog meat in Germany was common.<ref>{{Cite news

|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1907/06/23/106756317.pdf

|title=Germany's dog meat market; Consumption of Canines and Horses Is on the Increase.

|date=23 June 1907

|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]

}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book

|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3mZJAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP5

|title=Monthly Consular and Trade Reports

|volume=64

|issue=240&ndash;243

|year=1900

|publisher= U.S. Government Printing Office

|author1=U.S. Bureau of Manufactures

|author2=U.S. Bureau of Foreign Commerce (1854-1903)

|author3=Bureau Of Statistics, U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor

|access-date=29 September 2009

}}</ref> Suspicions about the provenance of Frankfurter meat sold by German immigrants in the United States led to the coinage of the term '[[hot dog]]'.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} In 1937, a meat inspection law targeting [[trichinella]] was introduced for pigs, dogs, [[boar]]s, foxes, [[badger]]s, and other carnivores.<ref>Fleischbeschaugesetz (Meat Inspection Law), § 1a, [http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno-plus?apm=0&aid=dra&datum=19370007&zoom=2&seite=00000453&x=16&y=9 RGBl. (Reich Law Gazette) 1937 I p. 458], then becoming § 1 para. 3, [http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno-plus?apm=0&aid=dra&datum=19400007&zoom=2&seite=00001463&ues=0&x=8&y=8 RGBl. 1940 I p. 1463] (in German)</ref> Dog meat has been prohibited in Germany since 1986.<ref>Fleischhygienegesetz (Law on Meat Hygiene), § 1 para. 1 sent. 4, [http://www.landtag.nrw.de/portal/WWW/dokumentenarchiv/Dokument/XBCBGI8614.pdf BGBl. (Federal Law Gazette) 1986 I p. 398] (in German).</ref> In 2009 a scandal erupted when a farm near the Polish town of [[Częstochowa]] was discovered rearing dogs to be rendered down into ''smalec'' - [[lard]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/5985367/Polish-couple-accused-of-making-dog-meat-delicacy.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/5985367/Polish-couple-accused-of-making-dog-meat-delicacy.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Polish couple accused of making dog meat delicacy|author=Matthew Day in Warsaw|date=7 August 2009|work=Telegraph.co.uk|access-date=16 June 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

In [[Switzerland]], an article in 2012 by The Local reported the continued consumption of dogs within the nation. Speculation arose suggesting that farmers in the German-speaking cantons of Appenzell and St. Gallen were known to personally slaughter these animals.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Savage |first=James |title=Dogs and cats 'still eaten in Switzerland' |date=27 December 2012 |url=https://www.thelocal.ch/20121227/dogs-still-eaten-in-switzerland }}</ref>

According to the ancient [[Hindu texts|Hindu scriptures]] (cf. [[Manusmṛti]] and medicinal texts like [[Sushruta Samhita]]), ''dog's meat'' was regarded as the most unclean (and rather poisonous) food possible. Dog's meat is also regarded as unclean under Jewish and Islamic dietary laws;<ref>{{Hadith-usc|usc=yes|muslim|21|4752|s=ns}}, "Ibn 'Abbas reported that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) prohibited the eating of all fanged beasts of prey, and all the birds having talons."</ref> therefore, consumption of dog meat is forbidden by both of those religious traditions.

In [[Irish mythology]], legend recounts how [[Cú Chulainn]], the great hero of [[Ulster Cycle|Ulster]] whose name means [[Culann]]'s Hound, was presented with a [[Morton's fork]], forcing him to either break his ''[[geis]]'' (taboo) about eating dog meat or declining hospitality; Cú Chulainn chose to eat the meat, leading ultimately to his death.

In [[Mexico]], in the [[pre-Columbian era]], a hairless breed of dog named [[xoloitzcuintle]] was commonly eaten.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Cortés | first = Hernan | others=[[Anthony Pagden]] (trans.)| title = Letters from Mexico | year = 1986 | publisher = Yale University Press | isbn = 0-300-03799-6}}</ref> After colonization, this custom stopped.

In [[East Asia]], most countries rarely consume dog meat with the exception of [[China]], [[Vietnam]], [[North Korea|North]] [[Dog meat consumption in South Korea|and South Korea]] either because of Islamic or [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] values or animal rights as in Taiwan. [[Manchu]]s have a prohibition against the eating of dog meat, which is sometimes consumed by the Manchus' neighboring [[Northeast Asia|Northeastern Asian]] peoples. The Manchus also avoid the wearing of hats made of dog's fur. In addition to Manchus, [[Mongols in China|Chinese Mongol]], [[Miao people|Miao]], [[Chinese Muslims|Muslims]], [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]], [[Yao people|Yao]] and [[Yi people|Yi]] have a taboo against dog meat.<ref>{{cite book|title=而是以实际中国少数民族风情录|publisher=中国画报出版社|year=2004|author=春歌}} cited in {{cite journal|first=Haiwang|last=Yuan|title=Chinese Ethnicities and Their Culture: An Overview|year=2008|series=DPLS Faculty Publications|journal=Paper 23|url=http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/dlps_fac_pub/23}}</ref> In [[Indonesia]], due to its majority Islamic population, consuming dog meat is prohibited, with exception of Christian [[Batak]] and [[Minahasan]] ethnic groups that traditionally consumed dog meat.

The [[Urapmin people]] of the [[New Guinea Highlands]] do not kill or eat dogs, unlike some neighboring tribes, nor do they let dogs breathe on their food.<ref name="afek">{{cite book

| last = Robbins

| first = Joel

| year = 2006

| contribution = Properties of Nature, Properties of Culture: Ownership, Recognition, and the Politics of Nature in a Papua New Guinea Society

| editor1-first = Aletta

| editor1-last = Biersack

| editor2-first = James

| editor2-last = Greenberg

| title = Reimagining Political Ecology

| publisher = Duke University Press

| isbn = 0-8223-3672-3

| pages = [https://archive.org/details/reimaginingpolit01unse_2/page/176 176–177]

| url = https://archive.org/details/reimaginingpolit01unse_2/page/176

}}</ref>

===Bears===

{{See also|Bear hunting|Bear meat}}

Bears are not considered [[kosher animals]] in Judaism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bluethread.com/kashrut/bearnot.html<!--|date=2006-10-04-->|title=Bear meat is not kosher!|website=Bluethread.com|access-date=12 December 2015}}</ref> Bear meat, like all [[predatory]] [[terrestrial animal]]s, is forbidden by Islam.

===Cats===

{{Main|Cat meat}}

There is a strong taboo against eating cats in many [[Western world|Western parts of the world]], including most of the [[Americas]] and [[Europe]].{{cn|date=April 2024}} Cat meat is forbidden by Jewish{{cn|date=April 2024}} and Islamic law<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/hadith/muslim/021-smt.php#021.4752|title=Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement|access-date=16 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150628014710/http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/hadith/muslim/021-smt.php#021.4752|archive-date=28 June 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> as both religions forbid the eating of carnivores. Cats are commonly regarded as [[pet]]s in Western countries, or as working animals, kept to control [[vermin]], not as a food animal, and consumption of cats is thus seen as a barbaric act by a large part of the population in those countries.{{cn|date=April 2024}}

In [[Switzerland]], a 2012 report by The Local also highlighted the consumption of cats within the country. <ref name=":1" />

===Eggs===

{{main|Egg as food}}

Consumption of eggs is permissible in all Abrahamic faiths.

[[Jainism|Jains]] abstain from eating eggs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-01-10 |title=Jain Diet |url=https://pinkispalate.com/jainism/jain-diet/ |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=Pinki's Palate |language=en}}</ref> Many [[Hindu]] and Orthodox [[Sikh]] vegetarians also refrain from eating eggs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Eating Egg A Sin In Hinduism? {{!}} Dvaita |url=https://www.dvaita.org/is-eating-egg-a-sin-in-hinduism/ |access-date=2023-09-21 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Takhar |first=Opinderjit Kaur |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aeKWQzesOc4C&pg=PA51 |title=Sikh Identity: An Exploration of Groups Among Sikhs |date=2005 |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-0-7546-5202-1 |language=en}}</ref>

An egg that naturally contains a spot of blood may not be eaten under Jewish and Islamic tradition, but eggs without any blood are commonly consumed (and are not considered to be meat, so may be eaten with dairy).<ref name=jewish/>

===Elephants===

{{See also|Elephant meat}}

[[File:CBP Catches Elephant Meat, Dead Primate, Exotic Animal Skins at LAX (8758838522).jpg|thumb|Elephant meat that was seized by [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]] officers.]]

[[Buddhist|Buddhists]] are forbidden from eating elephant meat.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Buddhist Monastic Code II |translator=[[Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu]] |date=2013 |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/bmc2.pdf|quote=One should not consume elephant flesh&nbsp;... horse flesh&nbsp;... dog flesh&nbsp;... snake flesh&nbsp;... lion flesh&nbsp;... tiger flesh&nbsp;... leopard flesh&nbsp;... bear flesh&nbsp;... hyena flesh. Whoever should do so: an offense of wrong doing.}}</ref>

Elephant meat is also not considered kosher by [[Kashrut|Jewish dietary laws]] because elephants do not have [[cloven hoof|cloven hooves]] and are not [[ruminants]].

Some scholars of [[Islamic dietary laws]] have ruled that it is forbidden for [[Muslims]] to eat elephant because elephants fall under the prohibited category of fanged or predatory animals.<ref>{{cite web |author=Mufti Faraz Adam |date=6 May 2012 |title=Is it permissible to consume elephant meat? |url=http://darulfiqh.com/is-it-permissible-to-consume-elephant-meat/ |publisher=Darul Fiqh}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.daruliftaa.com/node/4824?txt_QuestionID= |title=Why Can't I Eat Elephant? |author=Mufti Muhammad ibn Adam |publisher=Darul Iftaa |___location=Leicester, UK |date=20 April 2005}}</ref>

[[Hindus]] strictly avoid any contact with elephant meat due to the importance of the god [[Ganesha]] who is widely worshipped by Hindus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Sacred Animals of Hinduism |url=https://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/essays/sacred-animals-of-hinduism.asp}}</ref>

The [[Kalika Purana]] distinguishes ''bali'' (sacrifice) and ''mahabali'' (great sacrifice), for the ritual killing of [[goat]]s, [[elephant]], respectively, though the reference to humans in [[Shakti]] theology is symbolic and done in [[effigy]] in modern times.<ref>"" Pramatha Nath Bose, ''A History of Hindu Civilization During British Rule'', vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=7jyAnZX6VNkC&pg=PA65 p. 65]

</ref>

===Fish===

{{Main|Fish as food}}

{{quote|Speak not to me with a mouth that eats fish|Somali nomad taunt<ref>Frederick J. Simoons, ''Eat not this flesh: food avoidances from prehistory to the present'', (University of Wisconsin Press: 1994), p.253</ref>}}

Among the [[Somali people]], most [[Demographics of Somalia|clans]] have a taboo against the consumption of fish, and do not intermarry with the few occupational clans that do eat it.<ref>{{cite book |first=Frederick J. |last=Simoons |title=Northwest Ethiopia: peoples and economy? |url=https://archive.org/details/northwestethiopi0000unse |url-access=registration |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |year=1960 |page=[https://archive.org/details/northwestethiopi0000unse/page/158 158] }}</ref><ref name="Simoons">Frederick J. Simoons, ''Eat not this flesh: food avoidances from prehistory to the present'', 1994, p. 261-265, {{ISBN|0-299-14254-X}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=JwGZTQunH00C&pg=PA262 Google Books]</ref>

There are taboos on eating fish among many upland [[Pastoralism|pastoralists]] and [[Farmer|agriculturalists]] (and even some coastal peoples) inhabiting parts of [[Ethiopia]], [[Eritrea]], [[Somalia]], [[Kenya]], and northern [[Tanzania]]. This is sometimes referred to as the "Cushitic fish-taboo", as Cushitic speakers are believed to have been responsible for the introduction of fish avoidance to [[East Africa]], though not all Cushitic groups avoid fish. The zone of the fish taboo roughly coincides with the area where [[Cushitic languages]] are spoken, and as a general rule, speakers of [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] and [[Semitic languages]] do not have this taboo, and indeed many are watermen.<ref name="Simoons"/><ref>{{cite journal |first=J. E. G. |last=Sutton |title=The Aquatic Civilization of Middle Africa |journal=[[Journal of African History]] |volume=15 |issue=4 |year=1974 |page=542 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700013864 |jstor=180989 |s2cid=162456183 }} {{subscription required}}</ref> The few [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] and [[Nilotic peoples|Nilotic]] groups in East Africa that do practice fish avoidance also reside in areas where [[Kingdom of Kush|Cushites]] appear to have lived in earlier times. Within East Africa, the fish taboo is found no further than Tanzania. This is attributed to the local presence of the [[tsetse fly]] and in areas beyond, which likely acted as a barrier to further southern migrations by [[Nomadic pastoralism|wandering pastoralists]], the principal fish-avoiders. [[Zambia]] and [[Mozambique]]'s Bantus were therefore spared subjugation by pastoral groups, and they consequently nearly all consume fish.<ref name="Simoons"/>

There is also another center of fish avoidance in [[Southern Africa]], among mainly [[Bantu languages|Bantu speakers]]. It is not clear whether this disinclination developed independently or whether it was introduced. It is certain, however, that no avoidance of fish occurs among southern Africa's earliest inhabitants, the [[Khoisan]]. Nevertheless, since the Bantu of southern Africa also share various cultural traits with the pastoralists further north in East Africa, it is believed that, at an unknown date, the taboo against the consumption of fish was similarly introduced from East Africa by cattle-herding peoples who somehow managed to get their livestock past the aforementioned tsetse fly endemic regions.<ref name="Simoons"/>

Certain species of fish, such as the freshwater [[eel]] ([[Anguillidae]]) and all species of [[catfish]], are also forbidden by Judaism. Although they live in water, they appear to have no scales (except under a microscope) (see Leviticus 11:10-13<ref name="ReferenceA">{{bibleverse||Leviticus|11:10-13|HE}}</ref>). Sunni Muslim laws are more flexible in this. Catfish and shark are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish. Eel is generally considered permissible in the four Sunni ''madh'hab''. The Ja'fari jurisprudence followed by most Shia Muslims forbids all species of fish that do not have scales, as well as all shell fish species except prawns.<ref>

* {{cite web|url=http://www.albalagh.net/qa/sea_food_madhahib.shtml |access-date=16 February 2007|title=Sea Food in the Four Madhahib|website=Albalagh.net}}

* {{cite web|url=http://www.shariahprogram.ca/eat-halal-foods/catfish-halal.shtml |access-date=16 February 2007|title=Is Catfish Halal?|website=Shariahprogram.ca}}

* {{cite web|url=http://www.shariahprogram.ca/eat-halal-foods/shark-meat-halal.shtml |access-date=16 February 2007|title=Is Shark Meat Halal?|website=Shariahprogram.ca}}</ref>

Many tribes of the [[Southwestern United States]], including the [[Navajo people|Navajo]], [[Apache]], and [[Zuni people|Zuñi]], have a taboo against fish and other aquatic animals, including [[waterfowl]].<ref>Washington Matthews, "Ichthyophobia" ''The Journal of American Folklore'' '''11''':41 (April–June 1898), pp. 105-112 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/533215 at JSTOR]{{subscription required}}</ref>

The people of the [[Blackfoot Confederacy]] have a taboo against the consumption against fish (as well as birds including waterfowl, though the fish taboo has endured the most through generations). According to a lecture by Grant Manyheads of [[Blackfoot Crossing|Blackfoot Crossing Historical Park]],<ref name="Blackfoot Culture and History">{{cite web |last1=Manyheads |first1=Grant |title=Blackfoot Crossing History: Introduction to Siksikaitsitapiiks Nitawahsin-nanni 1874-1879 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h7V1GjeTzUE&t=791s |via=YouTube |date=22 November 2021 |publisher=Blackfoot Crossing Historical Park |access-date=2023-07-27}}</ref> the Blackfoot's cuisine was based in a belief that only certain animals, those with four legs and hooves and which grazed on grass, were seen as "clean" and thus suitable for consumption. This meant that any other animals, including fish, birds (especially waterfowl), and clawed animals such as bears and dogs or wolves, were not considered suitable or clean enough to eat. However, this taboo was broken in times of need and starvation. Breaking the taboo was seen as an especially desperate act among the Blackfoot, but was not seen to carry any particular religious or spiritual repercussions, hence the allowance of breaking the taboo out of desperation.

[[Norse settlements in Greenland|Norse settlers in Greenland]] (10th–15th centuries AD) may have developed a taboo against fish consumption, as recounted in [[Jared Diamond]]'s ''[[Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed]]''. This is unusual, as [[Norsemen]] did not generally have a taboo against fish, Diamond noting that "Fish bones account for much less than 0.1% of animal bones recovered at Greenland Norse archeological sites, compared to between 50 and 95% at most contemporary [[Iceland]], northern [[Norway]], and [[Shetland]] sites."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://yglesias.typepad.com/matthew/2004/12/norse_fish_upda.html |title=Matthew Yglesias: Norse Fish Update |publisher=Yglesias.typepad.com |access-date=16 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNQd9RpuJ-4C&q=%22Fish+bones+account+for+much+less+than+0.1%25+of+animal+bones+recovered+at+Greenland+Norse+archeological+sites%2C+compared+to+between+50+and+95%25+at+most+contemporary&pg=PT263|title=Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive|first=Jared|last=Diamond|date=21 March 2013|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=9780141976969|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ixwOAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Fish+taboo+norse|title=The Guga Hunters|first=Donald S.|last=Murray|date=4 June 2019|publisher=Birlinn|isbn=9781841586847|via=Google Books}}</ref> However, this has been disputed by archaeologists.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-gGUBQAAQBAJ&q=%22Fish+taboo+norse&pg=PA34|title=The Last Vikings: The Epic Story of the Great Norse Voyagers|first=Kirsten A.|last=Seaver|date=30 November 2014|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=9781784530570|via=Google Books}}</ref>

===Foie gras===

[[Foie gras]], the fatty liver of geese that have been force-fed according to French law,<ref>French rural code [http://legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do;jsessionid=943EF0198AA70E691D551179EB5E5A83.tpdjo05v_3?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006584967&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006071367&dateTexte=20091223 Code rural – Article L654-27-1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717111531/https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do;jsessionid=943EF0198AA70E691D551179EB5E5A83.tpdjo05v_3?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006584967&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006071367&dateTexte=20091223 |date=17 July 2020 }}: "{{lang|fr|On entend par foie gras, le foie d'un canard ou d'une oie spécialement engraissé par gavage.}}" ("'Foie gras' is understood to mean the liver of a duck or a goose that has been especially fattened by gavage").</ref> has been the subject of [[Foie gras controversy|controversy]] and prohibitions exist in different parts of the world. In July 2014, India banned the import of foie gras<ref name="Chefs">{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/food-wine/cooked-the-goose/|title=India bans import of foie gras; are Indian chefs happy?|author=Shantanu D.|publisher=The Indian Express|year=2014|access-date=March 12, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/india-bans-foie-gras-583933|publisher=NDTV|title=India Bans Foie Gras|access-date=March 12, 2015}}</ref> making it the first<ref name="Euro">{{cite web|url=http://www.eurofoodlaw.com/policy/animal-welfare/animal-welfare-groups-welcome-indias-ban-on-foie-gras--1.htm|title=Animal welfare groups welcome India's ban on foie gras|publisher=EU food law|year=2014|access-date=March 12, 2015}}</ref><ref name="Agra">{{cite web|url=https://www.agra-net.net/agra/agra-europe/meat-livestock/poultry/india-sets-precedent-with-foie-gras-import-ban-445918.htm|title=India 'sets precedent' with foie gras import ban|publisher=Agra Europe|year=2014|access-date=March 12, 2015}}</ref> and only<ref name=patel>{{cite news |date=7 July 2014 |access-date= 2016-08-02 |author= Atish Patel |newspaper= [[The Wall Street Journal]] |title=India Bans Import of Controversial Foie Gras |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2014/07/07/india-bans-import-of-controversial-foie-gras/}}</ref> country in the world to do so, causing dismay among some of the nation's chefs.<ref name="Chefs"/> In Australia, the production of foie gras is currently forbidden, though it is legal to import it.<ref name="Australia">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-09-10/dishing-up-foie-gras-ruffles-feathers/506172|year=2008|publisher=ABC|title=Dishing up foie gras ruffles feathers|access-date=March 13, 2015}}</ref> In August 2003, Argentina banned foie gras production as it is considered a mistreatment or an act of cruelty to animals.<ref>{{Cite act|type=Resolution|index=413|date=25 August 2003|title=Sanidad Animal: Alimentación Forzada en Aves – Prohibición|trans-title=Animal Health: Forced Feeding in Poultry – Prohibition|url=https://www.argentina.gob.ar/normativa/nacional/resoluci%C3%B3n-413-2003-87865|language=es}}</ref> In 2023 foie gras production was banned in the [[Flemish Region]] of Belgium.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Struna |first=Hugo |date=2023-01-06 |title=Belgian region ends force-feeding as last foie gras farm closes |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/agriculture-food/news/belgian-region-ends-force-feeding-as-last-foie-gras-farm-closes/ |access-date=2023-01-08 |website=www.euractiv.com |language=en-GB}}</ref>

===Animal fetuses===

Many countries observe this as a delicacy but it is a taboo in most countries. Considered as corpses, fetuses of goats and sheep are a delicacy in Anglo-Indian culture, despite being taboo in both parent cultures (English and Indian). This Anglo-Indian dish is known as "[[kutti pi]]"<ref name=NatGeoTab>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/04/0419_040419_TVfoodtaboo_2.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060521093728/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/04/0419_040419_TVfoodtaboo_2.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 May 2006|title=National Geographic Taboo Foods: It's All a Matter of Taste|publisher=[[National Geographic Society]]|access-date=5 July 2016|date=28 October 2010}}</ref> (fetus bag).{{dubious|reason=only one source, no follow-up, widespread controversy. Hoax?|date=July 2024}}

===Fungi===

Vedic [[Brahmins]], Gaudiya [[Vaishnavas]], [[tantriks]] and some [[Buddhist]] priests abstain from [[Fungus|fungi]], which are eschewed as they grow at night.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

In [[Sweden]] and most of [[Scandinavia]] mushrooms and fungi where traditionally not eaten due to strong associations with folk lore, this began to change in the 17th century, when the [[French cuisine|French]] influenced upper class adopted mushrooms into their diet, and began to promote the consumption of mushrooms throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, which has since lead to mushroom eating and collecting becoming normalised.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Svanberg |first1=Ingvar |last2=Lindh |first2=Hanna |date=2019-08-19 |title=Mushroom hunting and consumption in twenty-first century post-industrial Sweden |journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=42 |doi=10.1186/s13002-019-0318-z |pmid=31426821 |pmc=6700795 |doi-access=free |issn=1746-4269}}</ref>

=== Guinea pig and related rodents ===

[[File:Peru Guinea Pig.jpg|thumb|Roast guinea pig (''Cavia porcellus'') in Peru]]

[[Guinea pig]]s, or ''cuy'', are commonly eaten in Peru, in the southwestern cities and villages of [[Colombia]], and among some populations in the highlands of [[Ecuador]], mostly in the [[Andes]] highlands.<ref name=morales>{{Cite book| last = Morales | first = Edmundo | title = The Guinea Pig : Healing, Food, and Ritual in the Andes | url = https://archive.org/details/guineapighealing0000mora | url-access = registration | publisher = University of Arizona Press |year=1995 | isbn = 0-8165-1558-1 }}</ref> Cuyes can be found on the menu of restaurants in [[Lima]] and other cities in Peru, as well as in [[Pasto (Colombia)|Pasto]], Colombia. Guinea pig meat is exported to the United States and European nations.<ref name=cbs>{{Cite news| last = Vecchio | first = Rick | title = India Pushes Guinea Pigs as Food | work = [[CBS News]] | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/10/19/world/main650148.shtml | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20041021052410/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/10/19/world/main650148.shtml | url-status = dead | archive-date = 21 October 2004 | date = 19 October 2004 | access-date = 12 March 2007}}</ref><ref name=csmonitor>{{cite news| last = Mitchell | first = Chip | title = Guinea Pig: It's What's for Dinner | newspaper = [[Christian Science Monitor]] | url= https://www.csmonitor.com/2006/1101/p04s01-woam.html | date = 1 November 2006 | access-date = 12 March 2007}}</ref> In 2004, the [[New York City Department of Parks and Recreation]] took legal action to stop vendors serving ''cuy'' at an Ecuadorian festival in [[Flushing Meadows – Corona Park|Flushing Meadows Park]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Lester Haines|title=Big Apple stamps on guinea pigs|website=The Register|date=20 October 2004|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/10/20/nyc_guinea_pig_clampdown/|access-date=28 May 2007}}</ref> [[New York (state)|New York State]] allows the consumption of guinea pigs, but [[New York City]] prohibits it. Accusations of cultural persecution have since been leveled.<ref>{{cite news| last1 = Montefinise | first1 = Angela | last2 = Mongelli | first2 = Lorena | title = Guinea Pig Cooks Get Skewered | newspaper = [[New York Post]] | date = 20 October 2004 |page = 10 | url=http://www.nypost.com/news/regionalnews/31992.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041020005351/http://www.nypost.com/news/regionalnews/31992.htm | archive-date=20 October 2004 }}</ref>

=== Giraffe ===

Although [[giraffe|giraffes]] are technically considered kosher (since they chew their cuds and have split hooves), the more orthodox interpretation of Kashrut still forbids consumption of the meat, therefore marking the giraffe, despite with otherwise permissible characteristics, as non-kosher. The reason is the animal has no tradition of permissibility, meaning not allowed to be eaten, despite its signs of being a kosher animal. In addition, its large size and more aggressive behaviour puts a strain on logistics when performing ''shechita'' (ritual slaughtering). Their vulnerable status has also played a role in prohibition by many rabbis. The long neck of the giraffe being difficult to perform the slaughter is not the reason why giraffe is non-kosher, despite common knowledge. <ref>{{cite web | title=Is Giraffe Kosher? | url=https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/4655607/jewish/Is-Giraffe-Kosher.htm }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=TORCH: Torah Weekly | url=https://www.torchweb.org/torah_detail.php?id=304 }}</ref><ref>https://ohr.edu/3184</ref>

===Herbs===

Some adherents of the [[Greek Orthodox Church]] avoid [[basil]] due to its association with the cross of Christ. It is believed that the cross was discovered in 325 AD by Saint Helen on a hill covered in beautiful, fragrant basil bushes, a hitherto unknown plant. The plant was named {{lang|grc|βασιλικόν φυτόν}} (''basilikón fytón'') "royal plant" and today is grown and admired rather than eaten. Fine basil plants are brought to church every year on 14 September to commemorate this legend in a celebration known as the [[Elevation of the Holy Cross]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=|first=|title=The Complete Book of Greek Cooking|publisher=HarperPerennial|year=1991|isbn=9780060921293|___location=|pages=7}}</ref>

===Horse meat===

{{More citations needed section|date=September 2007}}

{{Main|Horse meat}}

{{See also|Horse slaughter}}

[[File:Horsemeatsandwich.jpg|thumb|Smoked and salted horse meat on a sandwich.]]

Horse meat is part of the cuisine of many countries in Europe, but is taboo in some religions and many countries. It is forbidden by [[613 Mitzvot|Jewish law]], because the horse is not a ruminant, nor does it have cloven hooves. Similarly to dogs, eating horses was a taboo for the [[Castro culture]] in Northwestern [[Portugal]], and it is still a counter-cultural practice in the region.<ref name="subtus133">Flores Gomes, José Manuel & Carneiro, Deolinda: ''Subtus Montis Terroso''. Câmara Municipal da Póvoa de Varzim (2005), "Economia e ergologia", pp.133-187</ref>

Horse meat is forbidden by some sects of [[Christianity]]. In 732 CE, [[Pope Gregory III]] instructed Saint Boniface to suppress the [[pagan]] practice of eating horses, calling it a "filthy and abominable custom".<ref>J. N. Hillgarth, ''Christianity and paganism, 350-750: the conversion of Western Europe'', p. 174. {{ISBN|0-8122-1213-4}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=pmnHvAZJtYsC&pg=PA174 cited page]</ref> The [[Christianisation of Iceland]] in 1000 CE was achieved only when the Church promised that [[Icelanders]] could continue to eat horsemeat; once the Church had consolidated its power, the allowance was discontinued.<ref>Gwyn Jones, ''The North Atlantic Saga: Being the Norse Voyages of Discovery and Settlement to Iceland, Greenland, and North America'', Oxford University Press, 1986, pp. 149-51.</ref> Horsemeat is still popular in Iceland and is sold and consumed in the same way as beef, [[Lamb and mutton|lamb]] and pork.

In [[Islam]], opinions vary as to the permissibility of horse meat. Some cite a [[hadith]] forbidding it to Muslims, but others doubt its validity and authority. Wild horses and asses are generally seen as halal while domesticated donkeys are viewed as forbidden. Various Muslim cultures have differed in the attitude in eating the meat. Historically, Turks and Persians have eaten the meat, while in North Africa this is rare.

In Canada, horse meat is legal. Most Canadian horse meat is exported to [[Continental Europe]] or Japan.<ref name=Kassensturz>{{cite web |url=http://www.srf.ch/konsum/themen/konsum/quaelerei-auf-pferdefarmen |title=Quälerei auf Pferdefarmen |trans-title=Cruelty to horse farms |first1=Ursula|last1=Gabathuler |first2=Samira|last2=Zingaro |publisher=Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen SRF |date=22 February 2013 |language=de |___location=Zurich, Switzerland |access-date=14 January 2015}}</ref> In the United States, sale and consumption of horse meat is illegal in [[California]]<ref>{{cite web|title=1998 California Initiative to Ban Horse Slaughter - We Won!|publisher=Save the Horses|year=1998|url=http://www.prop6savethehorses.com/}}</ref> and [[Illinois]].<ref name="May 28, 2013">{{cite web|last1=Snider|first1=Brett|title=Is It Illegal To Eat or Sell Horse Meat?|url=https://blogs.findlaw.com/blotter/2013/05/is-it-illegal-to-eat-horse-meat.html|website=findlaw.com|date=28 May 2013 |access-date=27 December 2014}}</ref> However, it was sold in the US during WW II, since beef was expensive, rationed and destined for the troops. The last horse meat slaughterhouse in USA was closed in 2007.<ref name=Kassensturz/> Nevertheless, discarded leisure, sport and work horses are collected and sold at auctions. They are shipped across the country by transporters to the borders of Canada in the north and Mexico in the south to be sold to horse meat butchers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tierschutzbund-zuerich.ch/en/investigation-reports/country/select_category/37.html |title=Investigation reports, USA |publisher=Tierschutzbund Zürich (Animal Welfare Foundation) TSB |___location=Zurich, Switzerland |access-date=14 January 2015 |archive-date=28 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128112119/http://tierschutzbund-zuerich.ch/en/investigation-reports/country/select_category/37.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://tierschutzbund-zuerich.ch/en/investigation-reports/country/select_category/36.html |title=Investigation reports, Canada |publisher=Tierschutzbund Zürich (Animal Welfare Foundation) TSB |___location=Zurich, Switzerland |access-date=14 January 2015 |archive-date=29 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629155935/https://www.tierschutzbund-zuerich.ch/en/investigation-reports/country/select_category/36.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The issue of horse consumption in the UK and Ireland was raised in 2013 with regards to the [[2013 horse meat contamination scandal]].

Horse meat is generally avoided in the [[Balkans]], though not Slovenia, as horse is considered to be a noble animal or because eating horse meat is associated with war-time famine. However, it has a small [[niche market]] in Serbia.<ref name="konjsko meso">{{cite web |url=http://www.konjsko-meso.rs/onama.html |title=A Proof|website=Konjsko-meso.rs |access-date=14 March 2015}}</ref>

===Humans===

{{Main|Cannibalism|Human cannibalism}}

{{See also|Donner Party|Alferd Packer|Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571|Marten Hartwell|Armin Meiwes|The First Crusade}}

Of all the taboo meat, human flesh ranks as the most heavily proscribed. In recent times, humans have consumed the flesh of fellow humans in rituals and out of insanity, hatred, or overriding hunger – never as a common part of their diet, but it is thought that the practice was once widespread among all humans.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-TVHr_XtDJcC&q=paleolithic+cannibalism&pg=PA338|chapter= Once were Cannibals |title=Evolution: A Scientific American Reader|author=Tim D white |access-date=14 February 2008 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-74269-4 |author2=American, Scientific |date=15 September 2006}}</ref>

The [[Fore people|Fore]] people of Papua New Guinea engaged in [[Endocannibalism|funerary cannibalism]] until the Australian government prohibited the practice in the late 1950s. Cannibalism was how the prion disease [[Kuru (disease)|kuru]] spread, though the link was unproven until 1967.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gajdusek|first1=D. C.|last2=Gibbs|first2=C. J.|last3=Alpers|first3=M.|date=13 January 1967|title=Transmission and passage of experimental "kuru" to chimpanzees|journal=Science|volume=155|issue=3759|pages=212–214|doi=10.1126/science.155.3759.212|issn=0036-8075|pmid=6015529|bibcode=1967Sci...155..212C|s2cid=45445649}}</ref>

The consumption of human flesh is forbidden by Hinduism,<ref name="DyalCarpenter1996">{{Cite book|author1=Donald H. Dyal|author2=Brian B. Carpenter|author3=Mark A. Thomas|title=Historical dictionary of the Spanish American War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PvxFKPI6q_oC|year=1996|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-28852-4|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9XC9bwMMPcwC&pg=PA346 346]}}</ref> Islam,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.learnreligions.com/gossip-and-backbiting-2004267|title=Lessons from the Qur'an Regarding Gossip and Backbiting|website=Learn Religions}}</ref> and Rabbinic Judaism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How do we Know that Cannibalism is Forbidden? {{!}} Sefaria |url=https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/65430.1?lang=bi&p2=Mishneh_Torah,_Forbidden_Foods.2.3&lang2=bi |access-date=2024-05-06 |website=www.sefaria.org}}</ref>

===Primates (apes, monkeys, etc.)===

{{See also|Monkey meat|Monkey brains|Carne de chango|Lemur#In Malagasy culture}}

Monkey brains is a dish consisting of, at least partially, the [[brain]] of some species of [[monkey]] or [[ape]]. In [[Western Hemisphere|Western]] popular culture, its consumption is repeatedly portrayed and debated, often in the context of portraying exotic cultures as exceptionally cruel, callous, and/or strange.<ref>{{cite web |title=Taboo Table Offerings: The Intricacies of Intercultural Menu Planning |url=http://www.etiquetteinternational.com/Articles/TableOfferings.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305000453/http://www.etiquetteinternational.com/Articles/TableOfferings.aspx |archive-date=5 March 2016 }}</ref>

Monkeys are revered animals in India, largely because of the monkey god [[Hanuman]]. Many Hindus are vegetarian and do not eat any kind of meat, including monkeys. Meat eating Indians also do not kill or eat monkeys. Killing and eating monkeys (or other animals which are considered wild) is both taboo and illegal in India.

In Malagasy culture, lemurs are considered to have [[soul]]s (''ambiroa'') which can get revenge if mocked while alive or if killed in a cruel fashion. Because of this, lemurs, like many other elements of daily life, have been a source of [[taboo]]s, known locally as ''fady'', which can be based around stories with four basic principles. A village or region may believe that a certain type of lemur may be the [[ancestor]] of the clan. They may also believe that a lemur's spirit may get revenge. Alternatively, the animal may appear as a benefactor. Lemurs are also thought to impart their qualities, good or bad, onto human babies.<ref>{{cite book|last = Ruud|first = J.|title = Taboo: A Study of Malagasy Customs and Beliefs|publisher = Oslo University Press|edition = 2nd|year = 1970|asin = B0006FE92Y |pages=97–101}}</ref> In general, ''fady'' extend beyond a sense of the forbidden, but can include events that bring bad luck.<ref name="2001Simons">{{cite journal|last1 = Simons|first1 = E.L.|last2 = Meyers|first2 = D.M.|title = Folklore and beliefs about the Aye aye (''Daubentonia madagascariensis'')|journal = Lemur News|volume = 6|year = 2001|pages = 11–16|url = http://www.aeecl.org/lemurnews/lemurnews2001_6.pdf|access-date = 19 December 2012|issn = 0343-3528|archive-date = 13 March 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160313061127/http://aeecl.org/lemurnews/lemurnews2001_6.pdf|url-status = dead}}</ref>

Primate species offered fresh and smoked in 2009 at a wildlife market by Liberia's [[Cavally River]] included [[chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes''), [[Diana monkey]] (''Cercopithecus diana''), [[putty-nosed monkey]] (''C. nictitans''), [[lesser spot-nosed monkey]] (''C. petaurista''), [[Campbell's mona monkey]] (''C. campbelli''), [[sooty mangabey]] (''Cercocebus atys''), [[king colobus]] (''Colobus polykomos''), [[olive colobus]] (''Procolobus verus''), [[western red colobus]] (''P. badius'').

[[File:Gorilla gorilla09.jpg|thumb|A gorilla in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2008]]

Between 1983 and 2002, the [[Gabon]] populations of [[western gorilla]] (''Gorilla gorilla'') and [[common chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes'') were estimated to have declined by 56%. This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting, which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure for [[logging]] purposes.<ref name="Nature2003">{{cite journal |author=Walsh, P. D.; Abernethy, K. A.; Bermejo, M.; Beyers, R.; De Wachter, P.; Akou, M. E.; Huijbregts, B.; Mambounga, D. I.; Toham, A. K.; Kilbourn, A. M.;, Lahm, S.A.;, Latour. S.; Maisels, F.; Mbinak, C.; Mihindouk, Y.; Obiang, S. N.; Effa, E. N.; Starkey, M. P.; Telfer, P. M.; Thibault, M.; Tutin, C. E. G.; White, L. J. T.; Wilkie, D. S. |title=Catastrophic ape decline in western equatorial Africa |journal=Nature |volume=422 |issue=6932 |year=2003 |pages=611–614 |doi=10.1038/nature01566 |pmid=12679788 |bibcode=2003Natur.422..611W |s2cid=5905831 |url=http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/ebola_decline_congo_western_equatorial_africa_3.pdf}}</ref>

In the late 1990s, fresh and smoked [[bonobo]] (''Pan paniscus'') carcasses were observed in [[Basankusu]] in the [[Province of Équateur]] in the Congo Basin.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Dupain, J. |author2=Bofaso, M. |author3=Lompongo, J. |author4=Elsacker, L. V. |name-list-style=amp |year=2001 |title=Bonobos at the market of Basankusu (Equateur Province, DRC) in 1999: new evidence for bonobos between the lkelemba and Bosomba rivers |journal=Pan Africa News |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=24–26 |url=https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/143400/1/PAN8(2)_24.pdf|doi=10.5134/143400 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Some people consider consumption of primates to be close to [[human cannibalism]] due to monkeys and apes being close relatives of [[human being]]s.{{cn|date=April 2025}}

===Kangaroo===

[[Kangaroo meat]] has long been a significant part of some [[Indigenous Australians|indigenous Australian]] diets. Kangaroo meat was legalised for human consumption in South Australia in 1980, though in other states it could only be sold as pet food until 1993. Kangaroos, along with most other native Australian animals, are protected under Australian law on a state and federal level, but licences to kill kangaroos can be acquired for hunting or culling purposes. Though kangaroo meat was once unpopular with modern Australians,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-10-24 |title=SBS Food :: Kanga who? |url=http://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/3348/Kanga-who |access-date=2024-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024122517/http://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/3348/Kanga-who |archive-date=24 October 2008 }}</ref> it has become a lot more popular in recent years due to its reputation as a low-fat and low-emission meat, and can be found in most supermarkets.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Malkin |first=Bonnie |date=12 February 2010 |title='Kangatarians' emerge in Australia |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/australiaandthepacific/australia/7222088/Kangatarians-emerge-in-Australia.html |access-date=2 April 2024 |website=The Telegraph}}</ref>

[[Kangaroo meat]] is illegal in [[California]]. The ban was first imposed in 1971; a moratorium was put in place in 2007, allowing the importation of the meat, but the ban was re-implemented in 2015.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/sep/14/california-set-to-ban-kangaroo-imports-despite-lobbying-efforts-by-australia California set to ban kangaroo imports despite lobbying efforts by Australia], ''The Guardian''</ref> Kangaroo meat is also not considered biblically [[kosher]] by [[Jews]] or [[Seventh-Day Adventism|Adventists]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/4660882/jewish/Is-Kangaroo-Kosher.htm|title=Is Kangaroo Kosher?|website=Chabad.org|access-date=2021-08-08|archive-date=8 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808004234/https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/4660882/jewish/Is-Kangaroo-Kosher.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> However, it is considered [[halal]] according to Muslim dietary standards, because kangaroos are herbivorous.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.islamweb.net/en/fatwa/87429/kangaroo-meat| title = Kangaroo meat - Islamweb - Fatwas| access-date = 30 December 2021| archive-date = 30 December 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211230213758/https://www.islamweb.net/en/fatwa/87429/kangaroo-meat| url-status = live}}</ref>

===Living animals===

{{More citations needed section|date=May 2007}}

[[File:Oysters p1040741.jpg|thumb|''Raw oysters'', which are still alive, presented on a plate.]]

[[File:Ikizukuri.jpg|thumb|[[Ikizukuri]], live fish served as sashimi.]]

Islamic law, Judaic law (including [[Seven Laws of Noah|Noahide Law]]), and some laws of some Christians forbid any portion that is cut from a live animal ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 9:4,<ref>{{bibleverse||Genesis|9:4|HE}}</ref> as interpreted in the Talmud, [[Sanhedrin (Talmud)|Sanhedrin]] 59a<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_59.html|title=Babylonian Talmud: Sanhedrin 59|access-date=16 June 2015}}</ref>). However, in the case of a ''[[ben pekuah]]'' where a live offspring is removed from the mother's womb, these restrictions do not apply. Eating oysters raw, [[ikizukuri]], and other similar cases would be considered a violation of this in Jewish law.<ref>See Mishneh Torah, ch. 2 and 5, for further details.</ref>

Examples of the eating of animals that are still alive include [[eating live seafood]], such as "raw [[oyster]] on the half shell" and [[ikizukuri]] (live fish). [[Sashimi]] using live animals has been banned in some countries.

===Offal===

[[File:MarketScene.jpg|thumb|Heads, [[Brain (as food)|brains]], trotters and tripe on sale in an Istanbul market.]]

[[File:Khash 1.jpg|thumb|[[Kale Pache]], a traditional soup made with lamb's head (including brain, eyes and tongues) and hooves in [[Iran]].]]

[[Offal]] is the internal organs of butchered animals, and may refer to parts of the carcass such as the head and feet ("trotters") in addition to organ meats such as [[sweetbread]]s and [[kidney]]. Offal is a traditional part of many [[European cuisine|European]] and [[Asian cuisine]]s, including such dishes as the [[steak and kidney pie]] in the United Kingdom or [[Callos|''callos a la madrileña'']] in Spain. [[Haggis]] has been [[Scotland]]'s [[national dish]] since the time of [[Robert Burns]]. In northeast Brazil, there is a similar dish to haggis called [["''buchada''"]], made with goats' stomach.<ref>

* Fried lamb kidneys or lamb's liver are popular breakfast foods in Ireland, mentioned in ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' by [[James Joyce]], and are usually eaten as part of a [[Mixed grill|mixed fry or "grill"]] on weekends.

* In France and Spain, eating [[calf's brains]] is common. In [[Western Norway]], lamb head, known as ''[[smalahove]]'', is a considered a delicacy and traditionally consumed before [[Christmas]]. A similar dish of lamb's head, ''[[svið]]'', is today commonly eaten in [[Iceland]], although it was originally only consumed during the lean times of late winter/early spring in Iceland, known as ''[[Þorrablót]]''. [[Maghaz]], an offal dish containing cow, goat or sheep brain is considered to be a delicacy in South Asia, while [[Paya (Food)|Paya]], a traditional breakfast dish of Pakistan, Bangladesh and India made with cow, goat or lamb hooves is also popular.{{Cite book |title=Goat meat cookery |publisher=Senac |year=2005 |isbn=978-85-7458-201-6 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4DhWUEcYrdkC&pg=PA129 129], [https://books.google.com/books?id=4DhWUEcYrdkC&pg=PA137 books.google.com] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DhWUEcYrdkC }}</ref>

Except for heart, [[Beef tongue|tongue (beef)]], [[liver]] (chicken, beef, or pork), and intestines used as natural [[sausage]] [[Casing (sausage)|casings]], organ meats consumed in the U.S. tend to be regional or ethnic specialities; for example, [[tripe]] as ''[[Menudo (soup)|menudo]]'' or ''[[sopa de mondongo|mondongo]]'' among [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Latinos and Hispanos]], [[chitterlings]] in the [[Southern United States]], [[scrapple]] on the Eastern Seaboard, [[fried-brain sandwich]]es in the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], and beef [[testicle]]s called [[Rocky Mountain oysters]] or "prairie oysters" in the west. In Argentina and other Spanish language countries, bull's testicles are served as ''huevos de toro'' or 'bull's eggs'.

In some regions, such as the [[European Union]], [[Brain (food)|brains]] and other organs which can transmit [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] ("mad cow disease") and similar diseases have now been banned from the [[food chain]] as [[specified risk material]]s.

Although eating the stomach of a goat, cow, sheep, or buffalo might be taboo,{{where |date=April 2018}} ancient [[Cheesemaker|cheesemaking]] techniques utilize stomachs (which contain [[rennet]]) for turning [[milk]] into [[cheese]], a potentially taboo process. Newer techniques for making cheese include a biochemical process with bacterial enzymes similar to rennin and chymosin. This means that the ''process'' by which cheese is made (and not the cheese itself) is a factor in determining whether it is forbidden or allowed by strict vegetarians.{{Cn|date=January 2025}}

===Poppy seed===

{{main|Poppy seed}}

[[Poppy seed]]s are used as condiments in many cultures, but the trace amounts of [[morphine]] and [[codeine]] present in the seeds can lead to a [[false positive]] when administering a drug test.<ref name="usada">{{cite web |url=https://www.usada.org/can-poppyseeds-cause-a-positive-drug-test/ |title=Can athletes eat poppy seeds without testing positive? |publisher=[[United States Anti-Doping Agency]]|date=2014-02-10 }}</ref> In [[Singapore]], poppy seeds are classified as "prohibited goods" by the [[Central Narcotics Bureau]] (CNB).<ref>{{cite web|title=I would like to know if I am allowed to bring poppy seeds into Singapore for my baking business|url=http://www.ifaq.gov.sg/CNB/apps/fcd_faqmain.aspx#FAQ_4013|website=Ifaq.gov.sg|access-date=31 August 2015|archive-date=19 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419172456/http://www.ifaq.gov.sg/CNB/apps/fcd_faqmain.aspx#FAQ_4013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Pigs/pork===

{{Main|Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork}}

[[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) data reports [[pork]] as the most widely eaten meat in the world. Consumption of pigs is forbidden by Islam, Judaism and certain [[Christian denomination]]s, such as [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]]. This prohibition is set out in the holy texts of the religions concerned, e.g. [[Qur'an]] 2:173, 5:3, 6:145 and 16:115,<ref name="cite quran|16|115|s=ns">{{cite quran|16|115|s=ns}}</ref> Leviticus 11:7-8<ref>{{bibleverse||Leviticus|11:7-8|HE}}</ref> and Deuteronomy 14:8.<ref>{{bibleverse||Deuteronomy|14:8|HE}}</ref> Pigs were also taboo in at least three other cultures of the ancient Middle East: the [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] and [[Babylonia]]ns.<ref name="Abominable Pig" /> In some instances, the taboo extended beyond eating pork, and it was also taboo to touch or even look at pigs.<ref name="Abominable Pig" /><ref name="Golden Bough">{{cite book |last=Frazer |first=James George |title=[[The Golden Bough]] |author-link=James George Frazer |edition=A new abridgement from the second and third editions |year=1994 |publisher=OUP |pages=486–492}}</ref>

The original reason for this taboo is debated. [[Maimonides]] seems to have thought the uncleanness of pigs was self-evident, but mentions with particular aversion their propensity to eat [[feces]].<ref name="Abominable Pig" /> In the 19th century, some people attributed the pig taboo in the [[Middle East]] to the danger of the parasite [[trichinosis|trichina]], but this explanation is now out of favour.<ref name="Abominable Pig" /> [[James George Frazer]] suggested that, in ancient Israel, Egypt and Syria, the pig was originally a sacred animal, which for that reason could not be eaten or touched; the taboo survived to a time when the pig was no longer regarded as sacred, and was therefore explained by reference to its being unclean.<ref name="Golden Bough" />

More recently, [[Marvin Harris]] posited that pigs are not suited for being kept in the Middle East on an ecological and socio-economical level; for example, pigs are not suited to living in arid climates because they require more water than other animals to keep them cool, and instead of grazing they compete with humans for foods such as grains. As such, raising pigs was seen as a wasteful and decadent practice.<ref name="Abominable Pig">{{cite journal |last=Harris |first=Martin |editor=Carole Counihan and Penny Van Esterik |year=1997 |title=The Abominable Pig |journal=Food and Culture |pages=67–79 |___location=London |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> Another explanation offered for the taboo is that pigs are [[Omnivore|omnivorous]], not discerning between meat or vegetation in their natural dietary habits. The willingness to consume meat sets them apart from most other domesticated animals which are commonly eaten (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) who would naturally eat only plants.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Soler |first=Jean |editor=Carole Counihan and Penny Van Esterik |year=1997 |title=The Semiotics of Food in the Bible |journal=Food and Culture |pages=55–66 |___location=London |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> [[Mary Douglas]] has suggested that the reason for the taboo against the pig in Judaism is three-fold: (i) it transgresses the category of ungulates, because it has a split hoof but does not chew the cud, (ii) it eats carrion and (iii) it was eaten by non-Israelites.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Douglas |first=Mary |editor=Carole Counihan and Penny Van Esterik |year=1997 |title=Deciphering a Meal |journal=Food and Culture |pages=36–54 |___location=London |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>

While [[meat alternatives|pork alternatives]] (for example, by [[Impossible Foods]]) do not contain actual pork meat, some conservative religious groups, such as Islam, regard it as forbidden, similar to its meat-based counterpart as it is the said ''haram'' or non-kosher product the pork alternative is trying to mimic and present. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://verifyhalal.com/LatestNews/News9 | title=Verify Halal }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.isahalal.com/news-events/isa-news-events/isas-first-exposure-washington-times-non-meat-pork-dish-too-far-ror-observant-jews-muslims | title=Is 'Impossible Pork' Halal? &#124; ISA }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://thecounter.org/certify-impossible-pork-kosher-halal-jewish-muslim-dietary-traditions/ | title=Is it impossible to certify Impossible Pork as kosher or halal? | date=15 February 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.jpost.com/food-recipes/impossible-pork-is-here-but-plant-based-meat-wont-be-certified-kosher-680511 | title=Impossible Pork is here — but plant-based meat won't be certified kosher | date=28 September 2021 }}</ref> Lab-grown pork might also be considered haram or non-kosher.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-09-11 |title=Lab-grown meat can be kosher and halal, experts say |url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/lab-grown-meat-can-be-kosher-halal-experts-say-2023-09-11/ |access-date=2024-08-18 |work=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-09-13 |title=Islamic scholars rule on how to make lab-grown meat halal |url=https://www.ft.com/content/2f58f99e-5494-458a-9d71-8e6518012e56 |access-date=2024-08-18 |work=Financial Times}}</ref>

===Rabbit===

{{Main|Rabbit#As food and clothing}}

[[File:Rabbit edit.jpg|thumb|[[Cottontail rabbit]]]]

The book of Leviticus in the [[Bible]] classifies the [[rabbit]] as [[unclean animals|unclean]] because it does not have a split hoof, even though it does chew and reingest partially digested material (equivalent to "chewing the cud" among ruminants).<ref>

* {{sourcetext|source=Bible|version=King James|book=Leviticus|chapter=11|verse=6}}

* {{cite web| title = Are Rabbits Erroneously Called Ruminants in the Bible? | access-date=27 August 2007 | publisher = Bible Study Manuals | url = http://www.biblestudymanuals.net/lev11v6.htm}}</ref> The consumption of rabbit is allowed in Sunni Islam,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamweb.net/emainpage/index.php?page=showfatwa&Option=FatwaId&Id=84598|title=Eating Rabbit|date=29 July 2002|publisher=islamweb.net|postscript=(citing Fatwa: Jumaadaa Al-Oula. 20, 1423).}}</ref> and is popular in several majority-Sunni countries (e.g. Egypt, where it is a traditional ingredient in ''[[mulukhiya|molokheyya]]''), but it is forbidden in the Ja'fari jurisprudence of [[Twelvers|Twelver]] Shia Islam.<ref name=RabbitStarvation>{{cite web |url=http://www.medbio.info/Horn/Time%201-2/vilhjalmur_stefansson1.htm |title=Rabbit Starvation – High protein and high fat diets |publisher=medbio.info |access-date=20 May 2008 |archive-date=9 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109092413/http://www.medbio.info/Horn/Time%201-2/vilhjalmur_stefansson1.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Rats and mice===

{{further|Rat meat|Mouse#As food}}

In most Western cultures, [[rat]]s and [[mouse|mice]] are considered either unclean [[vermin]] or pets and thus unfit for human consumption, traditionally being seen as carriers of [[Bubonic plague|plague]].

In [[Ghana]], ''Thryonomys swinderianus'' locally referred to as "Akrantie", "Grasscutter" and (incorrectly) "[[Aethomys|Bush rat]]" is a common food item. The proper common name for this rodent is "Greater Cane Rat", though actually it is not a rat at all and is a close relative of [[porcupine]]s and guinea pigs that inhabit [[Africa]], south of the [[Sahara|Saharan Desert]].<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Child, M.F. |year= 2016 |title= ''Thryonomys swinderianus'' |errata=2017 |page= e.T21847A115163896 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T21847A22278009.en |access-date=1 January 2024}}</ref> In 2003, the U.S. barred the import of this and other rodents from Africa because of an outbreak of at least nine human cases of [[monkeypox]], an illness never before been seen in the [[Western Hemisphere]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=37659 |title=US Bars Imports of "Akrantie" |date=12 June 2003 |publisher=ghanaweb.com |access-date=18 July 2007}}</ref>

Consumption of any sort of rodent, or material originating from rodents, is forbidden by Judaism<ref name=jewish/> and Islam.

===Reptiles===

Judaism<ref name=jewish/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordchabad.org/templates/articlecco_cdo/aid/307920/jewish/Kosher-Foods.htm|title=What Foods are Kosher?|publisher=Oxford Chabad Society|access-date=31 October 2015}}</ref> and Islam strictly forbid the consumption of [[reptile]]s, such as [[crocodile]]s and [[snake]]s. In other cultures, foods such as [[alligator]] are treasured as delicacies, and the animals are [[Crocodile farm|raised commercially]].

===Vegetables, fruits and spices===

In certain versions of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, consumption of vegetables of the [[Allium|onion]] [[genus]] are restricted. Adherents believe that these excite damaging passions. Many Hindus discourage eating onion and garlic along with non-vegetarian food during festivals or [[Hindu calendar|Hindu holy months]] of Shrawan, Puratassi and Kartik. However, shunning onion and garlic is not very popular among Hindus as compared to avoiding non-vegetarian foods, so many people do not follow this custom.<ref name="krishnaprohibited">{{Cite web|title=Onions and Garlic in relation to the practices of Vaishnavism |url=http://www.salagram.net/Onions-Garlic-in-relation2Vaishnavism.html#prohibited|publisher=New Zealand Hare Krishna Spiritual Resource Network|access-date=15 September 2008}}</ref>

[[Kashmiri people|Kashmiri]] Brahmins forbid "strong flavored" foods. This encompasses garlic, onion, and spices such as [[black pepper]] and [[chili pepper]], believing that pungent flavors on the tongue inflame the baser emotions.

[[Jain vegetarianism|Jains]] not only abstain from consumption of meat, but also do not eat [[List of root vegetables|root vegetables]] (such as carrots, potatoes, radish, turnips, etc) as doing so kills the plant and they believe in [[ahimsa]]. In the hierarchy of living entities, overwintering plants such as onions are ranked higher than food crops such as wheat and rice. The ability of onions to observe the changing of the seasons and bloom in spring is believed to be an additional 'sense' absent in lower plants. The amount of bad karma generated depends on the number of senses the creature possesses and so it is thought prudent to avoid eating onions. This also means that in some North Indian traditions, effectively all overwintering plants are considered taboo.

Chinese [[Buddhist cuisine]] traditionally prohibits [[garlic]], ''[[Allium chinense]]'', [[asafoetida]], [[shallot]], and ''[[Allium victorialis]]'' (victory onion or mountain leek).

In [[Yazidism]], the eating of [[lettuce]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theconversation.com/explainer-who-are-the-yazidis-30280 |title=Explainer: who are the Yazidis? |author=Christine Allison |date=8 August 2014 |work=The Conversation}}</ref> and [[Phaseolus lunatus|butter beans]] is taboo. The Muslim religious teacher and scholar, Falah Hassan Juma, links the sect's belief of evil found in lettuce to its long history of persecution by Muslims. Historical theory claims one ruthless potentate who controlled the city of [[Mosul]] in the 13th century ordered an early Yazidi saint executed. The enthusiastic crowd then pelted the corpse with heads of lettuce.

The [[Pythagoreanism|followers of Pythagoras]] were vegetarians, and "Pythagorean" at one time came to mean "vegetarian". However, [[Pythagorean diet|their creed]] prohibited the eating of beans. The reason is unclear: perhaps the [[flatulence]] they cause, perhaps as protection from potential [[Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency|favism]], but most likely for [[magico-religious]] reasons.<ref>

* Gabrielle Hatfield, ''review'' of Frederick J. Simoons, ''Plants of Life, Plants of Death'', University of Wisconsin Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-299-15904-3}}. In ''Folklore'' '''111''':317-318 (2000). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1260611 at JSTOR]{{subscription required}}

* Riedweg, Christoph. ''Pythagoras: his life, teaching, and influence''; translated by Steven Rendall in collaboration with Christoph Riedweg and Andreas Schatzmann, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, (2005), {{ISBN|0-8014-4240-0}}</ref> One legend about Pythagoras' death states that he was killed after he chose not to run through a fava bean field to escape his enemies.{{Citation Needed|date=August 2022}}

Vegetables like [[broccoli]] and [[cauliflower]], while not taboo, may be avoided by observant Jews and other religions due to the possibility of insects or worms hiding within the numerous crevices. Likewise, fruits such as [[blackberry|blackberries]] and [[raspberry|raspberries]] are recommended by kashrut agencies to be avoided as they cannot be cleaned thoroughly enough without destroying the fruit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kof-k.org/BugBrochure_SPREADSKofK.pdf|title=Keeping Vegetables Kosher|website=KOF-K.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060930073742/http://www.kof-k.org/BugBrochure_SPREADSKofK.pdf|archive-date=30 September 2006}}</ref>

The common [[Egyptian cuisine|Egyptian dish]] [[mulukhiyah]], a soup whose primary ingredient is [[jute]] leaves (which did not have any other culinary purpose), was banned by the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] [[Caliph]] [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]] sometime during his reign (996-1021 CE). The ban applied to mulukhiyah, and also to other foodstuffs said to be eaten by Sunnis.<ref>{{cite book|last=Himmich|first=Ben Salem |title=The theocrat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=27I3l-dCjZEC|year=2005|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|isbn=978-977-424-897-9|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=27I3l–dCjZEC&pg=PA21 21]}}</ref> While the ban was eventually lifted after the end of his reign, the [[Druze]], who hold Al-Hakim in high regard and give him quasi-divine authority, continue to respect the ban, and do not eat ''mulukhiyah'' of any kind to this day.

===Whales===

{{Main|Whale meat}}

Sunni Islam permits Muslims to consume the flesh of whales that have died of natural causes as there is a famous Sunni hadith which cites Muhammad's approval of such.<ref>{{Hadith-usc|usc=yes|muslim|21|4756|s=ns}}</ref> Whale meat is forbidden (haram) in Shia Islam as whales do not have scales. In much of the world, whale meat is not eaten due to the endangerment of whales but it is not traditionally forbidden. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, it is illegal to import whale meat into the country.<ref>{{cite web | last1=Meikle | first1=James | title=Do not bring whale meat home from Iceland, British tourists told | work=The Guardian | date=2 November 2011 | url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/nov/02/whale-meat-iceland-british-tourists }}</ref>

==Prohibited drinks==

===Alcoholic beverages===

{{See also|Christianity and alcohol|Islam and alcohol|Religion and alcohol}}

Some religions – including Buddhism,<ref>{{cite book|last=Gudorf|first=Christine E.|title=Comparative Religious Ethics: Everyday Decisions for Our Everyday Lives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CoR-AwAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Fortress Press|isbn=978-1-4514-2621-2|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CoR-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 35]}}</ref> Islam, Jainism, [[Rastafari movement]], [[Baháʼí Faith]], and various branches of Christianity such as the [[Baptists]], the [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]], [[Methodism|Methodists]], the [[Latter Day Saint movement|Latter-day Saints]], Seventh-day Adventists and the [[Iglesia ni Cristo]] – forbid or discourage the consumption of [[alcoholic beverage]]s.

The Hebrew Bible describes a [[Nazirite]] vow ([[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 6:1-21<ref>{{bibleverse||Numbers|6:1-21|HE}}</ref>) that includes [[abstinence]] from alcohol, specifically [[wine]] and probably [[Barley wine|barley beer]] (according to the [[Septuagint]] translation and the [[Bauer lexicon]]: ''σικερα'', from the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] shikaru, for ''barley beer''). The [[New Jewish Publication Society of America Version|New JPS]] translation is: "wine and any other intoxicant". Other versions such as the NIV prohibit both alcohol and all alcohol derived products such as wine vinegar. There is no general taboo against alcohol in Judaism.

There are also cultural taboos against the consumption of alcohol, reflected for example in the [[Teetotalism]] or [[Temperance movement]]. There is also something of a cultural taboo in several countries, against the consumption of alcohol by women during pregnancy for health reasons, as seen, for example, in the [[Maternity Protection Convention, 2000]] by [[International Labour Conference|ILO]].

'''Absinthe'''

[[Absinthe]] was made illegal in the United States in 1912 because of its high alcohol percentage. Absinthe was legalized again in 2007. It was rumored to have been a cause for hallucinations, giving it the nickname “The Green Fairy.” <ref>{{Cite web |title=The History of Absinthe in New Orleans |url=https://www.explorelouisiana.com/articles/history-absinthe-new-orleans|access-date=2024-07-03 |website=www.explorelouisiana.com}}</ref>

===Blood===

<!-- This section is linked from [[Blood]] and [[Blood as food]]-->

{{See also|Blood as food}}

[[File:Dinuguan.jpg|thumb|A bowl of ''[[dinuguan]]'', a Filipino stew with pork blood]]

Some religions prohibit drinking or eating blood or food made from blood. In Islam the consumption of blood is prohibited (''[[Haram]]''). ''[[Halal]]'' animals should be properly slaughtered to drain out the blood. Unlike in other traditions, this is not because blood is revered or holy, but simply because blood is considered [[ritually unclean]] or ''[[Najis]]'', with certain narratives prescribing [[Ritual purification|ablutions]] (in the case of no availability of water) if contact is made with it. In Judaism all mammal and bird meat (not fish) is [[Salting (food)|salted]] to remove the blood. Jews follow the teaching in Leviticus,<ref>{{bibleverse||Leviticus|17:10-14|HE}}</ref> that since "the life of the animal is in the blood" or "blood was reserved for the forgiveness of sins and thus reserved for God", no person may eat (or drink) the blood. [[Iglesia ni Cristo]] and [[Jehovah's Witness]]es prohibit eating or drinking any blood.<ref>Bible verses considered relevant to blood transfusions include {{bibleverse||Acts|15:20|9}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|15:29|9}}, and {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|21:25|9}}.</ref>

According to the Bible, blood is only to be used for special or sacred purposes in connection with worship ([[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] chapters 12, 24, 29, [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 26:29 and [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]]<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|12|9}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Exodus|24|9}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Exodus|29|9}}; {{bibleverse||Matthew|26:28|9}}; {{bibleverse||Hebrews|9:22}}</ref>). In the [[Christianity in the 1st century|first century]], Christians, both former Jews (the [[Jewish Christians]]), and new [[Gentile]] converts, were in dispute as to which particular features of [[Mosaic law]] were to be retained and upheld by them. The [[Apostolic Decree]] suggested that, among other things, it was necessary to abstain from consuming blood:

{{quote|For it seemed good to the [[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]], and to us, to lay upon you no greater burden than these necessary things;

That ye abstain from meats offered to [[idolatry|idols]], and from blood, and from things strangled, and from [[fornication]]: from which if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well, Fare ye well.|{{bibleverse||Acts|15:28-29|KJV}}}}

===Coffee and tea===

"[[Word of Wisdom (Latter Day Saints)#Tea and coffee|Hot drinks]]" are taboo for members of [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].<ref name="MormonDrink">{{cite web|url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/89.1-9?lang=eng|title=Doctrine and Covenants 89 Verse 9|access-date=5 February 2007}}</ref> The term is misleading as the ban is applied exclusively to [[coffee]] and [[tea]] (i.e. not [[Hot chocolate|hot cocoa]] or [[herbal tea]]s). The [[Word of Wisdom]], a code of health used by church members, outlines prohibited and allowed substances. While not banned, some [[Mormon]]s avoid [[caffeine]] in general, including [[cola]] drinks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lds.about.com/library/weekly/aa121202a.htm|title=Christianity - Latter-day Saints: Cola Drinks and Caffeine|publisher=about.com|access-date=27 May 2007|archive-date=30 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930074707/http://lds.about.com/library/weekly/aa121202a.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/article/mormonism-news--getting-it-right-august-29 |title=Mormonism in the News: Getting It Right &#124; August 29 |website=Mormonnewsroom.org |date=29 August 2012 |access-date=12 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ldsliving.com/story/70005-did-the-lds-church-officially-ok-caffeine |title=Did the LDS Church officially 'OK' caffeine? |website=LDSLiving.com |date=31 August 2012 |access-date=12 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sltrib.com/sltrib/news/54797595-78/church-drinks-caffeine-lds.html.csp |title=Utah Local News - Salt Lake City News, Sports, Archive |newspaper=The Salt Lake Tribune |access-date=12 December 2015}}</ref> Members of the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]] also generally avoid caffeinated drinks.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

There is a widely reported story, possibly apocryphal, that around the year 1600, some Catholics urged [[Pope Clement VIII]] to ban coffee, calling it "devil's beverage". After tasting the beverage, the pope is said to have remarked that the drink was "so delicious that it would be a sin to let only misbelievers drink it."<ref>{{Cite book|author=Winston W Borden | title=Ruminations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OeQX1yVnWeMC|year=2007|publisher=Ruminations. Farm Nostalgia. |isbn=978-0-9794804-0-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OeQX1yVnWeMC&pg=PA94 94]}}</ref> (See the [[History of coffee]].)

===Human breast milk===

While [[human breast milk]] is universally accepted for [[Breastfeeding|infant nutrition]], some cultures see the consumption of breast milk after weaning as taboo.<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/offbeat/2010/03/09/moos.breast.milk.cheese.cnn?hpt=C2 Jeanne Moos ''Chest Cheese''], CNN Video on breast milk cheese</ref>

==Prohibited combinations==

[[Kashrut]], the Jewish food regulations, classify all permissible foods into [[Milk and meat in Jewish law|three categories]]: meat products, dairy products, and others, which are considered to be neither (including not just vegetable products, but also fish and eggs). A meal or dish may not contain both meat and dairy products. As well, meat and fish may not be cooked together, nor fish and milk, although fish cooked with other dairy products is permitted.{{cn|date=October 2021}}

In [[Italian cuisine]], there is a widespread taboo on serving cheese with seafood,<ref>Robert Trachtenberg, "Just Grate", ''[[New York Times Magazine]]'', [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/30/magazine/30food-t.html March 30, 2008]</ref><ref>Tony May, ''Italian Cuisine'', {{isbn|0312302800}}, 2005, p. 142</ref><ref>Dan Nosowitz, "Where did the prohibition on combining seafood and cheese come from?", ''Atlas Obscura'', [https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/mixing-seafood-and-cheese May 10, 2018]</ref> although there are several exceptions.

==Prohibited origins==

In the Torah, there is the ''bishul akum'' law, in which the food that has a ''bishul akum'' status means that it was fully cooked by a non-Jew and thus forbidden, even though the ingredients used to prepare the food were initially kosher in and of themselves and the prohibited combinations were to be avoided.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.kosher.com/jewish-learning/jewish-involvement-in-kosher-food-preparation#:~:text=Bishul%20Yisrael,-More%20than%20two&text=This%20prohibition%20is%20known%20as,kosher%20in%20and%20of%20themselves | title=Jewish Involvement in Kosher Food Preparation }}</ref>

==See also==

{{portal|Food}}

{{col div|colwidth=30em}}

* [[Anthropology of religion]]

* [[Diet (nutrition)|Diet]]

* [[Fasting]]

* [[Haram]]

* [[Libation]]

* [[List of diets]]

* [[List of foods with religious symbolism]]

* [[Morality]]

* [[Religion and alcohol]]

* [[Religion and drugs]]

* [[Sacramental bread]]

* [[Semi-vegetarianism]]

* [[Terefah]]

* [[Kashrut]]

* [[HalaalVeganism]]

{{colend}}

* [[Kosher foods]]

* [[Clean animal]]

* [[Unclean animal]]

* [[Muslim dietary laws]]

* [[Bushmeat]]

== References Notes==

{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==

*''Unmentionable Cuisine''; Calvin W. Schwabe ISBN 0-8139-1162-1

* {{Cite book| author=Stewart Lee Allen | title=In the Devil's Garden: A Sinful History of Forbidden Food | year=2002 | publisher=Ballantine Books | isbn=0-345-44015-3}}

* {{Cite book| author=Calvin W. Schwabe | title=Unmentionable Cuisine | year=1979 | publisher=University of Virginia Press | isbn=0-8139-1162-1}}

* {{Cite book| author=Frederick J. Simoons | title=Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present | year=1994 | publisher=University of Wisconsin Press | isbn=0-299-14250-7}}

* {{Cite book| author=Marvin Harris | title=Good to Eat | year=1986 | publisher=Allen & Unwin | isbn=0-04-306002-1}} Harris applies [[cultural materialism (anthropology)|cultural materialism]], looking for economical or ecological explanations behind the taboos.

* {{Cite book| last = Morales | first = Edmundo | title = The Guinea Pig: Healing, Food, and Ritual in the Andes | url = https://archive.org/details/guineapighealing0000mora | url-access = registration | publisher = University of Arizona Press |year=1995 | isbn = 0-8165-1558-1 }}

* Gidi Yahalom, "The Pig's Testimony", [[Antiguo Oriente]] 5 (2007): 195–204.

== External links ==

* [http://www.cbcsptimes.cacom/2002/09/news04/featuresColumns/horse_meat_industryAmericans_squeamish_o.htmlshtml GlobalAmericans Appetitessqueamish forover Horsehorse Meatmeat]

* [http://www.ighareligiousrules.orgcom/USDAindex.htmlhtm U.S.D.A.Laws of PromotesJudaism Horseand &Islam Goatconcerning Meatfood]

* [http://www.food-insects.com/ Insects as food] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030311131121/http://www.food-insects.com/book7_31/Chapter%2025%20Other%20Countries%20in%20SE%20Asia.htm |date=11 March 2003 }}

*[http://www.sptimes.com/2002/09/04/Columns/Americans_squeamish_o.shtml Americans squeamish over horse meat]

* [http://www.karlammann.com/ Karl Ammann, wildlife photographer and bushmeat activist] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627082449/http://www.karlammann.com/ |date=27 June 2014 }}

*[http://www.koreananimals.org/index.htm Korean Animal Protection Society]

* [http://www.fws.gov/migratorybirds/intrnltr/treatlaw.html Guide to Migratory Bird Laws and Treaties] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421185816/http://www.fws.gov/migratorybirds/intrnltr/treatlaw.html |date=21 April 2021 }}

*[http://www.china.org.cn/english/Life/36202.htm China exotic food FAQ]

* [http://www.koshergrocer.info/ Health and diet aspects of kosher food] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209074959/http://www.koshergrocer.info/ |date=9 December 2021 }}

{{Consumer Food Safety}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Food And Drink Prohibitions}}

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[[Category:Diets]]

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[[Category:Food- and drink-related lists]]

[[Category:Halal food]]

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[[Category:Meat]]

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