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[[Women]] have been portrayed in in [[comic books]] since the [[mass media|medium]]'s beginning, with their portrayals often the subject of controversy. [[Sociologists]] with an interest in [[gender roles]] and [[stereotyping]] have outlined the role of women as both supporting characters and as potential leaders struggling to be accepted as equals. Another point of study has been the depiction of women in comics, in which, as in other forms of [[popular culture]], body types are unrealistically portrayed.
{{Women in society sidebar}}
{{Sex in SF mini}}
The '''portrayal of women in''' '''American comic books''' has often been a subject of controversy since the medium's beginning. Critics have noted that both lead and supporting female characters are substantially more subjected to gender stereotypes (with femininity and/or sexual characteristics having a larger presence in their overall character / characteristics) than the characters of men.
 
==History==
==Golden Age of comic books==
===Golden Age of Comic Books===
There was a time when more girls read comics than boys<ref>[[Trina Robbins|Robbins, Trina]]. ''From Girls to Grrrlz: A History of Women's Comics from Teens to Zines'' (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1999), p. 7; ISBN 0756781205</ref> One of the first books geared to these readers was ''[[Archie Comics]]'', starring a group of all-American teens &mdash; [[Archie Andrews]], [[Jughead Jones]], and [[Veronica Lodge]] &mdash; who had debuted in ''[[Pep Comics]]'' #22. <!--([[Betty Cooper]] would join the gang in '''issue/date here'''.)-->
[[File:True Bride-to-Be Romances No 18 Harvey, 1956 SA.jpg|thumb|Cover of ''True Bride-to-Be Romances''#18]]
In the [[Golden Age of Comic Books]] (a time when the medium evolved from [[comic strips]]), women who were not [[superheroes]] were primarily portrayed in secondary roles. Some examples include: being classified as career girls, romance-story heroines, or lively teenagers.<ref name=Robbins7>[[Trina Robbins|Robbins, Trina]]. ''From Girls to Grrrlz: A History of Women's Comics from Teens to Zines'' (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1999), pp. 7-8; {{ISBN|0-7567-8120-5}}</ref> Career-oriented girls included such characters as Nellie the Nurse, Tessie the Typist, and [[Millie the Model]], who all appeared in comic books working jobs that non-wartime women of the era typically worked.<ref name=Robbins7/> Romance heroines were popular in the [[Romance comics in the United States (1946–1975)|romance]] genre, pioneered by [[Joe Simon]] and [[Jack Kirby]]. Typically, the heroine was either a "good girl" or "bad girl", with both attributes not really affecting male characters' decisions. In the [[Archie Comics]], the titular character can never definitively choose between his two love interests [[Betty Cooper|Betty]] and [[Veronica Lodge|Veronica]]. These characters typify the dichotomy between the good [[Girl-Next-Door]]-type versus the dangerous allure of her foil, the "[[wiktionary:bad girl|Bad Girl]]". The duo got a comic of their own in 1950. ''[[Betty and Veronica (comic book)|Betty and Veronica]]'' quickly became popular, featuring the two lead characters, who continually obsessed about boys, and fought over who would get to date Archie.<ref>{{cite web |first=Hanna |last=Rosin |title=Why Betty and Veronica Are the Real Stars of Riverdale |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/betty-veronica-real-stars-riverdale-180959498/ |work=smithsonianmag.com |date=July 2016}}</ref>
 
[[File:Crimes by Women 2.jpg|thumb|Cover of ''Crimes by Women''#1]]
During the [[1930s]]-[[1940s]] period that fans and historians call the [[Golden Age of comic books]], a time during which the medium evolved from [[comic strips]], women who were not [[superheroes]] were primarily portrayed three ways: as career girls, romance-story heroines, or perky teenagers.<ref>Robbins, [[Ibid.]]</ref>
Costumed female crimefighters were among the early comic characters. One of the earliest female superheroes appearing in newspaper strips was the [[Invisible Scarlet O'Neil]] by Russell Stamm.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cartoonician.com/not-seen-but-not-forgotten-the-invisible-scarlet-oneil/ |title="Not Seen but Not Forgotten: The Invisible Scarlet O'Neil", ''Hogan's Alley'' #17, 2010 |access-date=2013-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612085603/http://cartoonician.com/not-seen-but-not-forgotten-the-invisible-scarlet-oneil/ |archive-date=2013-06-12 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The tough, fighting [[Miss Fury]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.toonopedia.com/missfury.htm|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20240525211336/https://www.webcitation.org/66nTzorDi?url=http://www.toonopedia.com/missfury.htm|url-status=dead|title=Don Markstein's Toonopedia: Miss Fury|archivedate=May 25, 2024|website=toonopedia.com}}</ref> debuted in the eponymous comic strip by female cartoonist [[Tarpé Mills]] in 1941. A particular publisher, [[Fiction House]], featured several progressive heroines such as the [[jungle queen Sheena]], whose sex appeal helped launch the comic series.<ref name=":0" /> As [[Trina Robbins]], in ''The Great Women Superheroes'' wrote:<ref>''The Great Women Superheroes'' Kitchen Sink Press, 1996, {{ISBN|0-87816-481-2}} page?</ref>
{{quotation|[M]ost of [Fiction House's] pulp-style action stories either starred or featured strong, beautiful, competent heroines. They were war nurses, aviatrixes, girl detectives, counterspies, and animal skin-clad jungle queens, and they were in command. Guns blazing, daggers unsheathed, sword in hand, they leaped across the pages, ready to take on any villain. And they did not need rescuing.}}
 
[[File:Sheena No 4.JPG|thumb|Cover of ''Sheena''#4]]
Career-oriented girls included such characters as [[Nellie the Nurse]], [[Tessie the Typist]], and [[Millie the Model]], each of whom appeared in comic books geared toward female readers using the types of jobs that non-wartime woman of the era typically worked: [[nurse]], [[secretary]], and [[actress]]/[[Model (person)|model]]. [[Teachers]] were also sometimes portrayed.
[[File:GingerNumber1.jpg|thumb|"America's Typical Teenage Girl": ''Ginger'' number 1, 1952. Artwork by George Frese.]]
[[File:TheSpirit.jpg|thumb|''[[Spirit (comics character)|The Spirit]]'', volume 1, number 22, August 1950. Artwork by [[Will Eisner]].]]
One of the earliest female superheroes is writer-artist, [[Fletcher Hanks]]'s minor character [[Fantomah]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.toonopedia.com/fantomah.htm|title=Don Markstein's Toonopedia: Fantomah, Mystery Woman of the Jungle|website=toonopedia.com}}</ref> She is an ageless, [[ancient Egypt]]ian woman living in modern times, who could transform herself into a skull-faced creature with superpowers to fight evil. She debuted in [[Fiction House]]'s ''Jungle Comics'' #2 (Feb. 1940), credited to the pseudonymous "Barclay Flagg". The first widely recognizable female superhero is ''[[Wonder Woman]]'', from [[All-American Publications]], one of three companies that would merge to form [[DC Comics]].
 
In an October 25, 1940, interview conducted by former student [[Olive Byrne]] (pseudonym 'Olive Richard'), and published as "Don't Laugh at Comics" in ''[[Family Circle]]'', [[William Moulton Marston]] described what he saw as the great educational potential of comic books. A follow-up article was published two years later in 1942.<ref>Richard, Olive. [http://www.wonderwoman-online.com/articles/fc-marston.html Our Women Are Our Future] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060727002702/http://www.wonderwoman-online.com/articles/fc-marston.html |date=2006-07-27}}</ref> This article caught the attention of comics publisher [[Max Gaines]], who hired Marston as an educational consultant for National Periodicals and [[All-American Publications]]. Two of these companies that would merge to form [[DC Comics]].
The second role was evident in the very popular romance genre, pioneered by [[Joe Simon]] and [[Jack Kirby]]. A woman in those stories could be the good girl or the bad girl. A good girl gets her heart broken while the bad girl breaks all the boys’ hearts. A good girl could also be happily married while a bad girl who tries to be good but can’t give up her wild side and goes back to being bad.
 
At that time, Marston decided to develop a new superhero. In the early 1940s the DC line was dominated by super-powered male characters such as the [[Green Lantern]], [[Batman]], and his flagship character, [[Superman]]. According to the Fall 2001 issue of the [[Boston University]] alumni magazine, it was his wife [[Elizabeth Holloway]]'s idea to create a female superhero.<ref name="Who Was Wonder Woman">'[http://www.bu.edu/alumni/bostonia/2001/fall/wonderwoman/ Who Was Wonder Woman?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208045132/http://www.bu.edu/alumni/bostonia/2001/fall/wonderwoman/ |date=2007-12-08}}</ref> Marston introduced the idea to Max Gaines, (co-founder along with [[Jack Liebowitz]]) of [[All-American Publications]]. Given the go-ahead, Marston developed ''Wonder Woman'' with Elizabeth (whom Marston believed to be a model of that era's unconventional, liberated woman).<ref name="Who Was Wonder Woman" /> In creating Wonder Woman, Marston was also inspired by Olive Byrne, who lived with the couple in a [[polygamous]]/[[polyamorous]] relationship.<ref>Les Daniels, ''Wonder Woman: The Complete History'', (DC Comics, 2000), pp. 28-30.</ref> In a 1943 issue of ''[[The American Scholar (magazine)|The American Scholar]]'', Marston wrote:
The third role was as a perky teenager. This is embodied by characters such as those in titles such as Betty and Veronica. The lead characters were both boy crazed and completely fun loving teenagers. Betty and Veronica spent all their time fighting over who would get to date Archie. Josie and her band, the Pussycats, always managed to find their way into some sort of adventure but emerged unscathed.<ref>[http://www.viciousgrin.com/writings/womencomic.html "Women in Comics": College English paper by Jennifer Robinson (2000)]</ref> <!--I'm not sure a college English paper is a source up to Wikipedia standards. The works that the paper cites would be better-->
 
{{quotation|"Not even girls want to be girls so long as our feminine archetype lacks force, strength, and power. Not wanting to be girls, they don't want to be tender, submissive, peace-loving as good women are. Women's strong qualities have become despised because of their weakness. The obvious remedy is to create a feminine character with all the strength of Superman plus all the allure of a good and beautiful woman."}}
===Superheroes===
''See also: [[List of superheroines]]''
 
Wonder Woman is an Amazon Princess; the Amazons were daughters of Ares, the god of war in Greek Mythology. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |date=14 November 2019 |title=Amazon Women |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/amazon/ |access-date=2 October 2024 |website=worldhistory.org}}</ref> and were created to be stronger and wiser than men.
The first known female superhero is writer-artist [[Fletcher Hanks]]'s minor character [[Fantomah]],<ref>[http://www.toonopedia.com/fantomah.htm Don Markstein's Toonopedia: Fantomah]</ref> an ageless, [[ancient Egypt]]ian woman in the modern day who could transform into a skull-faced creature with superpowers to fight evil; she debuted in [[Fiction House]]'s ''Jungle Comics'' #2 (Feb. 1940), credited to the pseudonymous "Barclay Flagg".
 
Some of Marston's early stories portrayed Wonder Woman in some non-traditional roles such as President of the United States{{ref label|Note1|a|a}} and a modern-day [[Inca]]n [[Sun God]]{{ref label|Note1|b|b}}.
Another seminal superheroine is [[Invisible Scarlet O'Neil]], a non-costumed character who fought crime and wartime saboteurs using the superpower of invisibility; she debuted in the eponymous [[print syndication|syndicated]] [[newspaper]] [[comic strip]] by [[Russell Stamm]] on June 3, 1940. A superpowered female [[antihero]], the [[Black Widow (Timely Comics)|Black Widow]] &mdash; a costumed emissary of [[Satan]] who killed evildoers in order to send them to [[Hell]] &mdash; debuted in ''[[Mystic (comics)|Mystic Comics]]'' #4 (Aug. 1940), from [[Timely Comics]], the 1940s predecessor of [[Marvel Comics]]. The superpowered [[Nelvana of the Northern Lights]] debuted in [[Canada|Canadian]] publisher Hillborough Studio's ''Triumph-Adventure Comics'' #1 (Aug. 1941).
 
Despite these portrayals of women in leadership roles, editor [[Sheldon Mayer]] was disturbed by the recurring [[bondage (BDSM)|bondage]] imagery.<ref>Daniels, [[Ibid.]] p. 6</ref> If Wonder Woman's bracelets were chained together, she became as weak as any other woman. According to Marston this bondage imagery was a reflection of the suffragette movement's use of bondage. Suffragettes would tie themselves to well-known buildings, in protest.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muriel Matters chained to the Grille |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/electionsvoting/womenvote/parliamentary-collections/ladies-gallery-grille/grille-incident/ |access-date=2 October 2024 |website=parliament.uk}}</ref> He insisted it was important that she could be seen freeing herself, both literally and symbolically, from man-made bondage,<ref name=":3" /> but he also upheld some ideals of submission to "peace, restraint and good judgement".<ref>{{Cite book|title=The psychology of superheroes : an unauthorized exploration|last=Jennifer|first=Rosenberg, Robin S. Canzoneri|date=2008|publisher=BenBella Books|isbn=978-1933771311|pages=123|oclc=874302721}}</ref>
The first widely recognizable female superhero is [[Wonder Woman]], from [[All-American Publications]], one of three companies that would merge to form [[DC Comics]]. Co-created by psychologist [[William Moulton Marston]] and his wife [[Elizabeth (Sadie) Holloway Marston|Elizabeth]], she debuted in ''[[All Star Comics]]'' #8 (Jan. 1942). William Moulton Marston, was hired as an advisor for All-American's publisher, [[Max Gaines]], who had read a Marston magazine article on comic books.<ref>Foreword, Les Daniels, ''The Wonder Woman Archives'', Vol. 3, p. 5, ISBN 1-56389-814-4</ref> Marston, who wrote under the pen name Charles Moulton, told Gaines he would create a positive role model for girls, in the form of a female superhero:
 
One issue dealt with Wonder Woman losing control because her bracelets had broken; she was driven mad because the bracelets represented restraint, and stated "power without self-control tears a girl to pieces".{{ref label|Note1|c|c}}
{{Cquote|America's woman of tomorrow should be made the hero of a new type of comic strip. By this, I mean a character with all the allure of an attractive woman, but with the strength also of a powerful man. There isn't enough love in the male organism to run this planet peacefully. What women presently lacks is the dominance or self-assertive power to put over and enforce her love diaries. I have given Wonder Woman this dominant force, but kept her loving. It is my hope to make this strip as appealing to adults as it has proved to kids.<ref>Daniels, Ibid. p. 240</ref>}}
Other writers portrayed Wonder Woman in more conventional female roles of the time. After a survey was conducted among Justice Society Readers, Wonder Woman was admitted to ''All-Star Comics # 11''.
 
Although it was published concurrently with Marston's run in ''Sensation Comics'', the writer of Justice Society kept Wonder Woman in the limited position as Secretary of the League, rarely involving her in action.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The secret history of wonder woman.|last=Lepore|first=Jill|date=2015|publisher=Vintage|isbn=9780804173407|pages=204–205 and 210–211|oclc=941724731}}</ref> In 1947 Marston died, and although his widow petitioned to be hired as a writer, DC instead hired [[Robert Kanigher]]. Under his direction Wonder Woman's physical prowess declined. She was no longer depicted in chains, she became more and more submissive, and her priorities shifted to be more conventional to gender roles of the time.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The secret history of wonder woman.|last=Lepore|first=Jill|date=2015|publisher=Vintage|isbn=9780804173407|pages=286|oclc=941724731}}</ref> Between crime fighting, Diana Prince engaged in more so-called feminine jobs as a babysitter, fashion model, or movie star and in her classic job as Steve Trevor's secretary, with a new dedication to marrying him.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=The secret history of wonder woman.|last=Lepore|first=Jill|date=2015|publisher=Vintage|isbn=9780804173407|pages=271|oclc=941724731}}</ref> A new form of bondage that Wonder Woman craved was the mantle of wife and mother. In one ''Sensational Comics'' issue, Wonder Woman tells a woman that she envied her life as a mother and wife.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Secret History of Wonder Woman|last=Lepore|first=Jill|publisher=Vintage Books|year=2014|isbn=978-0-8041-7340-7|___location=New York|pages=286}}</ref>
Some of Marston Moulton's early stories included Wonder Woman as president of the United States<ref>''Wonder Woman'' #7 (Winter 1943)</ref> and as a modern-day [[Inca|Incan]] [[Sun God]],<ref>"The Secret City of the Incas", ''Sensation Comics'' #18 (June 1943)</ref> both non-traditional roles for women. Despite such portrayals of women in leadership roles, however, editor [[Sheldon Mayer]] was disturbed by the recurring [[bondage (BDSM)|bondage]] imagery.<ref>Daniels, [[Ibid.]]. p. 6</ref> One issue dealt with Wonder Woman losing control because her bracelets had broken; she was driven mad because the bracelets represented restraint, and stated "power without self-control tears a girl to pieces".<ref>"The Unbound Amazon", ''Sensation Comics'' #19 (June 1943)</ref>
 
During World War II, women assumed jobs formerly occupied by men, becoming truck drivers, stevedores, and welders. The same was reflected in comic books, as heroes such as Hawkman turned to their wives or girlfriends for help, creating a new category of heroines: the partners.<ref name=":0" /> Many women, after World War II, refused to give up their newfound freedom, creating a massive crisis in formerly assumed definitions of masculinity and femininity.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Women's America: Refocusing the Past |date=2015-02-04 |isbn=9780199349357 |editor-last1=Kerber |editor-first1=Linda K. |edition=8 |pages=699–700 |chapter="Goesaert v. Cleary, 1948" |publisher=Oxford University Press |oclc=915351966 |editor-last2=De Hart |editor-first2=Jane Sherron |editor-last3=Dayton |editor-first3=Cornelia Hughes |editor-last4=Wu |editor-first4=Judy Tzu-Chun |editor-link4=Judy Tzu-Chun Wu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://time.com/4606107/wonder-woman-breaks-through/|title=Why We Need Wonder Woman Now|magazine=Time|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> The [[femme fatale]] (prevalent in ''[[Spirit (comics character)|The Spirit]]'' comic book) exemplified this crisis: a strong, sexually aggressive woman who refused to stay in her traditional "proper" place.<ref>Thomas Andrae, ''Carl Barks and the Disney Comic Book: Unmasking the Myth of Modernity'', University Press of Mississippi, 2006, {{ISBN|1-57806-858-4}}, p. 95</ref>
As superheroes began to fade out of fashion in the post-[[World War II]] era, comic book publishers scrambled to explore new types of stories, characters, and audiences. In an attempt to appeal to young female readers, comics companies began introducing some of the first significant superheroines since Wonder Woman. These new female leads would include Timely's [[Blonde Phantom]], [[Golden Girl]], [[Miss America (Marvel Comics)|Miss America]], [[Namora]], [[Sun Girl (Marvel comics)|Sun Girl]], and [[Venus (comics)|Venus]]; [[Fox Feature Syndicate|Fox Comics]]' revival of [[Quality Comics]]' [[Phantom Lady]]; and DC's [[Black Canary]].
 
This post-war tension affected the comic book industry directly when a Senate Subcommittee was created to address a perceived rise of juvenile delinquency. Influenced largely by [[Fredric Wertham]]'s book published that same year, ''[[Seduction of the Innocent]]'', a public hearing was held to determine if juvenile delinquency and comic books were linked. Wertham had specifically attacked the portrayal of many comic book women, stating: "They are not homemakers. They do not bring up a family. Mother-love is entirely absent... Even when Wonder Woman adopts a girl there are Lesbian overtones".<ref>{{Cite book|title=The secret history of wonder woman.|last=Lepore|first=Jill|date=2015|publisher=Vintage|isbn=9780804173407|pages=269|oclc=941724731}}</ref>
===Costumed crimefighters===
Like [[Batman]], the [[Phantom (comics)|Phantom]] and other non-superpowered heroes, female costumed crimefighters were among the early comics characters. [[The Woman in Red (comics)|The Woman in Red]],<ref>[http://www.toonopedia.com/womanred.htm Don Markstein's Tonnopedia: The Woman in Red] and [http://www.comics.org/details.lasso?id=675 Grand Comics Database: ''Thrilling Comics'' #2]</ref> introduced in [[Standard Comics]]' ''Thrilling Comics'' #2 (March 1940), was a [[police officer]] with a dual identity. [[Lady Luck (comics)|Lady Luck]], debuted in the Sunday-[[newspaper]] comic-book insert ''[[The Spirit|The Spirit Section]]'' on June 2, 1940. The tough-fighting [[Miss Fury]],<ref>[http://www.toonopedia.com/missfury.htm Don Markstein's Toonopedia: Miss Fury]</ref> debuted in the eponymous comic strip by female cartoonist [[Tarpé Mills]] on April 6, 1941, and the equally formidable [[Phantom Lady]] was introduced in [[Quality Comics]] ''Police Comics'' #1 (Aug. 1941). [[Harvey Comics]] had the motorcycle-riding [[Black Cat (Harvey Comics)|Black Cat]],<ref>[http://www.toonopedia.com/blackcat.htmon Markstein's Toonopedia: Black Cat] and [http://www.comics.org/details.lasso?id=1572 Grand Comics Database: ''Pocket Comics'' #1]</ref> introduced in ''Pocket Comics'' #1 (also Aug. 1941).
 
Comic books were deemed to be a threat to the standards of American decency, and instead of undergoing government regulation, the Comics Magazine Association of America agreed to create and adhere to its own code of self-censorship. The code explicitly censors violence, sexuality and "abnormal" romance for the implicit purpose of "emphasiz[ing] the value of the home and the sanctity of marriage" and a re-enforcement of traditional gender roles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/origin-story-wonder-woman-180952710/|title=The Surprising Origin Story of Wonder Woman|last=Lepore|first=Jill|website=Smithsonian|language=en|access-date=2018-12-06}}</ref>
One publisher in particular, [[Fiction House]], featured several progressive heroines such as the jungle queen [[Sheena, Queen of the Jungle|Sheena]]. As [[Trina Robbins]], in ''The Great Women Superheroes'' (Kitchen Sink Press, 1996, ISBN 0-87816-481-2), wrote:
{{cquote|[M]ost of [Fiction House's] pulp-style action stories either starred or featured strong, beautiful, competent heroines. They were war nurses, aviatrixes, girl detectives, counterspies, and animal skin-clad jungle queens, and they were in command. Guns blazing, daggers unsheathed, sword in hand, they leaped across the pages, ready to take on any villain. And they did not need rescuing.}}
 
===TheSilver SpiritAge andof femmeComic fatalesBooks===
Between 1961 and 1963, romance comics were one of the top two comic book genres. This genre influenced many superhero comics of the era. Although superhero titles would eventually become the leading [[genre]], DC Comics' [[Young Romance]] would end its thirty-year run in 1977.<ref>Trina Robbins, From Girls to Grrrlz: a History of Women's Comics from Teens to Zines, p.77, Diane Pub Co, 1999, {{ISBN|0-7567-8120-5}}</ref>
During World War II, women assumed jobs formerly occupied by men, becoming truck drivers, stevedores, and welders. Many women refused to give up their newfound freedom, creating a massive crisis in formerly naturalized definitions of masculinity and feminity.
 
After the implementation of the [[Comics Code]], DC Comics implemented its own in-house Editorial Policy Code regarding the portrayal of women, which stated: "The inclusion of females in stories is specifically discouraged. Women, when used in plot structure, should be secondary in importance, and should be drawn realistically, without exaggeration of feminine physical qualities".<ref name=Uslan5>Uslan, Michael. ''Batman in the Fifties'' (2002) Introduction, p.5. {{ISBN|1-56389-810-1}}, 2002</ref> Most of DC's [[Silver Age superheroes]] each had a major female supporting character. These included three career women: [[journalist]] [[Lois Lane]], who worked at ''The Daily Planet'' with [[Superman]]'s alter ego, Clark Kent; [[Jean Loring]], lawyer and girlfriend of [[Atom (Ray Palmer)|Ray Palmer]] a.k.a. [[Atom (comics)|The Atom]]; and [[aircraft manufacturer]] executive [[Carol Ferris]], the boss of [[Green Lantern]]'s alter ego, Hal Jordan. [[Iris West]] was the on-again, off-again girlfriend of the [[Flash (comics)|Flash]]'s alter ego, Barry Allen.
The [[femme fatale]] (prevalent in [[The Spirit]] comic book) exemplified this crisis-a strong, sexually aggressive woman who refused to stay in her traditional "proper" place.<ref>Thomas Andrae, ''Carl Barks and the Disney Comic Book: Unmasking the Myth of Modernity'', University Press of Mississippi, 2006, ISBN 1578068584, p. 95</ref>
 
Batman's supporting cast, beginning in the 1950s, occasionally included journalist [[Vicki Vale]] and heiress Kathy Kane, whose alter ego was the [[motorcycle]]-riding masked crimefighter [[Batwoman (Kathy Kane)|Batwoman]]. With a tip of her cowl to the [[Harvey Comics]] character the [[Black Cat (Harvey Comics)|Black Cat]], who preceded her by 15 years as a superheroine on a motorcycle, Batwoman used weapons as well, although hers included powder puffs, charm bracelets, perfume, a hair net, a compact mirror, and a shoulder bag utility case with matching bolo strap.<ref name="Uslan5" /> Batwoman was created to be a romantic interest for Batman to invalidate the growing idea of a homosexual relationship between Batman and Robin.<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal |last=Nelson |first=Kyra |date=2015-01-01 |title=Women in Refrigerators: The Objectification of Women in Comics |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/awe/vol2/iss2/9 |journal=AWE (A Woman's Experience) |volume=2 |issue=2}}</ref>
In the Spirit's many adventures, the femme fatale was a character that sought revenge usually through blackmail or exploitation. One such adventure includes Broadway Lily, who attempts to exploit political tensions between the Spirit's confidant, Commissioner Dolan, and the Mayor. A doctored photograph of Dolan and Broadway Lily is given to the Mayor with the intention of forcing Dolan to resign. The Spirit discovers that Broadway Lily was bitter that the Commissioner arrested her lover, Foxy Dan, and wanted to exact revenge.<ref>''The Spirit Section'' (August 29, 1943)</ref> When women turn away from feminine wiles to commit violent crime, however, the Spirit finds himself shocked:
<blockquote>
; Spirit: "Women in organized crime! Doing what hardened men generally do – I’m amazed."
 
During this time frame, the comics of the [[Silver Age of Comic Books]] published by Marvel and DC were different enough that if someone liked one, they were liable not to like the other. If they wanted the classic feel of the original 1940s superheroes, they would prefer DC offerings. If they wanted fast action mixed with the emotional angst reflecting a world where social unrest was slowly coming to a boil, they were more likely to read the Marvel offerings.<ref>Foreword, Doom Patrol Archives, Volume 2, pp.5-6, Roy Thomas, writer, {{ISBN|978-1-4012-0150-0}}, 2004</ref> When [[Atlas Comics]] became [[Marvel Comics]] in 1961, many brand new women superheroes were introduced; these superheroes were given supporting roles. The first female superhero from the newly named Marvel Comics was the [[Invisible Girl (Marvel Comics)|Invisible Girl]], a.k.a. Susan Storm, charter member of the Fantastic Four.
; Crook: "Didn’t you ever hear of the manpower shortage, handsome?"<ref>''The Spirit Section'': "Woman Crooks" (Sept. 12, 1943)</ref>
</blockquote>
 
Although female characters would develop and become cornerstones of the Marvel Universe, their early treatment would show a struggle to be recognized as equals.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = The Supergirls: Fashion, Feminism, Fantasy, and the history of Comic Book Heroines|last = Madrid|first = Mike|publisher = Exterminating Angel Press|year = 2009|isbn = 978-1-935259-03-9|___location = United States of America|url-access = registration|url = https://archive.org/details/supergirlsfashio00mike}}</ref> Supergirl of DC Comics went through such a struggle as she fights against the title of "Superman's kid cousin" to earn her own title as Power Girl.<ref name=":0" />
==The Silver Age of Comic Books==
{{essay-entry|section}}
Between 1961 and 1963, one of the top two comic book genres was romance comics. Many influences from this genre overlapped in the comics of the era. Although the superheroes would eventually take over, DC Comics’ Young Romance would end its thirty-year run in 1977.<ref>Trina Robbins, From Girls to Grrrlz: a History of Women’s Comics from Teens to Zines, p.77, Diane Pub Co, 1999, ISBN 0756781205 </ref>
 
===Bronze Age of Comic Books===
During this time frame, the comics of the silver age published by Marvel and DC were different enough that if you liked one, you were liable not to like the other. If you wanted the classic feel of the original 1940’s superheroes, you were a DC partisan. If you wanted fast action mixed with the emotional angst reflecting a world where social unrest was slowly coming to a boil, you were more likely to read the Marvel offerings<ref> Foreword, Doom Patrol Archives, Volume 2, pp.5-6, Roy Thomas, writer, ISBN 978-1401201500, 2004 </ref>
The Bronze Age of Comics reflected many of the feminist tensions of the era. The number of female characters, both heroes and villains, increased substantially in the 1970s, in response to the feminist movement, and in an attempt to diversify readership.<ref name=CBnation250>Wright, p. 250</ref> However, these characters were often stereotypical, such as the man-hating Thundra or angry-feminist [[parody]] Man-killer.<ref name=CBnation250/>
 
Meanwhile in the [[underground comix]] circle The Women's Liberation Basement Press published a one-shot comic titled ''[[It Ain't Me, Babe (comics)|It Ain't Me, Babe]]'' in 1970 that featured many of the most famous female comic icons.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The secret history of wonder woman.|last=Lepore|first=Jill|date=2015|publisher=Vintage|isbn=9780804173407|pages=283–284|oclc=941724731}}</ref> This would evolve into ''[[Wimmen's Comix]]'', an underground anthology series that would run through 1992, dealing with many controversial women's issues. Other all-female underground anthology series soon followed, the most notable being ''[[Tits & Clits Comix]]'' and ''[[Twisted Sisters (comic)|Twisted Sisters]]'', as well as the one-shot ''Mama! Dramas'', published by [[Educomics]].
===DC Comics===
After the implementation of the [[Comics Code]], DC Comics implemented its own in-house Editorial Policy Code regarding the portrayal of women. As an example, here is what stated about sex in DC Comic Books:
 
The character [[Ms. Marvel]] is an example of Marvel's struggle with the issues of feminism. Debuting in 1977 at the height of the [[women's liberation movement]], with the honorific "[[Ms.]]" part of her [[cryptonym]], the heroine's name was a strong symbol of [[feminist]] solidarity, as was her civilian job as editor of ''Woman'' magazine (a reference to the then-new ''[[Ms. Magazine]]''). The first couple of issues of her self-titled comic book even included the cover line "This Female Fights Back!" The reality, however, was decidedly mixed. The controversial Ms. Marvel rape was handled poorly by Marvel Comics: Ms. Marvel was the victim of a man's attempt to escape from Limbo, and gave birth to the child of the man that raped her; her teammates were confused as to why she would not want the child, and she subsequently fell in love with him and moved into Limbo with him.<ref>''The Supergirls: Fashion, Feminism, Fantasy, and the history of Comic Book Heroines''</ref> Chris Claremont, a writer most famous for the ''Uncanny X-Men'' series, shared in the disgust in the misogynistic treatment of Danvers in that story and wrote a follow-up in response. Danvers, who has returned to Earth and is living at Professor [[Charles Xavier]]'s school, is visited by The Avengers. At that meeting, Danvers rebukes the team for their treatment at her being raped and manipulated by Marcus while they were being complicit in that violation, condemning it as a betrayal by them, which the team comes to agree to their profound chagrin.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Claremont |first1=Christ |last2=Golden |first2=Michael |title=By Friends - - Betrayed! |journal=The Avengers Annual |volume=1 |issue=10 }}</ref>
<blockquote>''“The inclusion of females in stories is specifically discouraged. Women, when used in plot structure, should be secondary in importance, and should be drawn realistically, without exaggeration of feminine physical qualities. ”''</blockquote><ref>Batman in the Fifties, Introduction, p.5, Michael Uslan, ISBN 1-56389-810-1, 2002</ref>
 
Throughout most of the Silver and Bronze Age, women in comics were not given leadership positions. In the 1980s, under writer-artist [[John Byrne (comics)|John Byrne]], [[Invisible Woman Susan Richards]] found new uses for her powers and developed an assertive self-confidence to use her powers more aggressively. She changed her alias from the Invisible Girl to the [[Invisible Woman]]. Eventually, the Invisible Woman would chair the Fantastic Four, while over in the Avengers, [[Wasp (comics)|Wasp]] chaired the team.<ref name=":0" />
Every major super hero of DC's silver age did have a female who had some type of communication with the heroes alter ego. [[Lois Lane]] worked at the Daily Planet with Superman's alter ego, Clark Kent. [[Carol Ferris]] was the boss of Green Lantern's alter ego, Hal Jordan. [[Iris West]] was the on-again, off-again girlfriend of the Flash's alter ego, Barry Allen.
 
Enormous impact was made both within comic book storylines and amongst comic book fans by the radical portrayal of women in the ''[[Uncanny X-Men]]'' comics, which had been relaunched in 1975. Previously existing female characters were given huge increases in [[superpower levels]], new code-names, flashier costumes, and strong, confident, assertive personalities: Jean Grey went from being Marvel Girl to the nigh-omnipotent Phoenix, and Lorna Dane became Polaris. New creation Storm (Ororo Munroe) was unique in many ways: not only was she (at the time) the most famous black superhero in history, she was portrayed as incredibly powerful, confident and capable from her very first appearance.
====The Women of Batman====
In the 1950’s, Batman’s supporting cast would expand. This expansion would parallel the expansion of [[Superman]]’s growing supporting cast. Although the decade would see the [[Bat-Mite]], [[Ace, the Bat-Hound]] and the Bat-Ape join Batman’s family, two female characters would enter the fold. [[Vicki Vale]], Batman’s version of [[Lois Lane]], and the [[Batwoman]] would make their debuts in the 1950’s.
 
Younger/teen-age female super-heroines, which heretofore had been portrayed as inept or limited in power, were re-examined by the portrayal of [[Kitty Pryde]], who at age 13 became the youngest member of the X-Men. In the 1980s, the X-Men met with the Morlock tribe, who kidnapped Kitty Pryde and forced her to marry one of their own. When Kitty escapes, she meets with a Japanese Sorcerer who uses mind control on her and she escapes from him as well, but changed greatly.<ref name=":0" /> Much credit for the "turnaround" of portrayals of female super-heroes that happened in the 1970s could be given to X-Men writer [[Chris Claremont]]: his portrayals of Storm, Jean Grey, Emma Frost, Kitty Pryde, Rogue and Psylocke in The Uncanny X-Men (as well as his work on Ms. Marvel, Spider-Woman, Misty Knight and Coleen Wing) became known in the industry and amongst fandom as "Claremont Women": smart, powerful, capable, multi-faceted women super heroes.
The Batwoman aka Kathy Kane, heiress, explodes onto the scene in 1956, and the first response she gets from a testerone filled bad guy is “Ha-ha! What can she do?”<ref> Detective Comics 233, “The Batwoman”, p. 2, Edmond Hamilton, Writer, Sheldon Moldoff, Artist, DC Comics, July 1956 </ref> With a tip of her cowl to [[Harvey Comics]] character, “The Black Cat”, who preceeded her by 15 years as a superheroine on a motorcycle, Batwoman had weapons as well.<ref> Batman in the Fifties, Introduction, Michael Uslan, Writer, DC Comics, 2002, ISBN 1-56389-810-1</ref> The weapons she had were powder puffs, charm bracelets, perfume, a hair net, a compact mirror, and a shoulder bag utility case with matching bolo strap. Batwoman’s debut in [[Detective Comics]] 233 would also feature more examples of what feminists would call sexist.
 
During the events of Alan Moore's graphic novel ''[[Batman: The Killing Joke]]'', [[Barbara Gordon]], a.k.a. [[Batgirl]] was shot in the spine by the Joker, resulting in the paralysis of her lower body. Writers [[Kim Yale]] and [[John Ostrander]] remade her into Oracle, a vital information broker for the [[DC Universe]]'s superhero community who also leads her own superhero team, the [[Birds of Prey (comics)|Birds of Prey]].
*'''Crook''': There’s only two of them. The girl doesn’t count.<ref> Detective Comics 233, “The Batwoman”, p. 11, Edmond Hamilton, Writer, Sheldon Moldoff, Artist, DC Comics, July 1956 </ref> '''Robin''': A girl saving you? It’s ridiculous! '''Batman''': This is no place for a girl. '''Batwoman''': How could any woman ever equal the great Batman?
 
===Modern Age of Comic Books===
In [[1964]], editor [[Julius Schwartz]] introduced a modernized Batman to fans. This “new-look” Batman not only had a revamped [[Batcave]], a souped-up [[Batmobile]], and new Bat-gadgets, but a new love interest would enter Batman’s life. Policewoman Patricia (Pat) Powell would start to appear in the monthly Batman comic book.<ref>Batman 165, “The Dilemma of the Detective’s Daughter”, Ed “France” Herron, Writer, Bob Kane, Artist, DC Comics, August 1964</ref> At the Annual Graduation Exercises of Gotham City’s Police Academy, Batman is scheduled to present an award to the trainee who ranked first in Academics, Physical, Firearms, and Overall. The winner, much to Batman’s surprise, is the daughter of Detective Mike “Bulldog” Powell, Patricia.<ref>Batman 165, “The Dilemma of the Detective’s Daughter”, p.4, Ed “France” Herron, Writer, Bob Kane, Artist, DC Comics, August 1964</ref> Batman is shocked that such an award is going to a policewoman. He is even more shocked when Patricia shares a secret with him.
In the [[1990s in comics|1990s]], a popular feminist comic book girl was [[Tank Girl]] (by [[Jamie Hewlett]] and [[Alan Martin (writer)|Alan Martin]]), who sported punk-influenced clothing and a shaved head. Her popularity in ''[[Deadline (comics magazine)|Deadline]]'' magazine was such that [[Tank Girl (film)|a movie]] was eventually made. She represented the new modern woman as one who no longer had to live under traditional images of beauty or manners.
 
Due to the fan–based nature of the comic book industry, many of the readers feel, either directly or indirectly, that they are involved in a social practice.<ref name=blacksuperheroes129>By Jeffrey A. Brown, ''Black Superheroes: [[Milestone Comics]] and Their Fans'', p. 129, 2001, [[University Press of Mississippi]], {{ISBN|1-57806-282-9}}</ref> The attachment to the titles and the characters obtains a life all its own. There is a sense of social contact with the books and the characters themselves.<ref name=blacksuperheroes129/> A unique relationship is developed by the reader upon adopting these properties. This relationship has various effects in the way women are presented in comic books.
“But I’m concerned about something, Batman - - something that might interfere with my work! You see - - I’ve got a crush on a man, and I have unexpected lapses where I can think of nothing but him!” '''Batman''': “Lucky man! Who is he?” '''Patricia''': “Bruce Wayne!”<ref>Batman 165, “The Dilemma of the Detective’s Daughter”, pp. 5-6, Ed “France” Herron, Writer, Bob Kane, Artist, DC Comics, August 1964</ref>
 
This portrayal would be put to the test in the [[Modern Age of Comic Books|Modern Age]]. While there were many examples of strong female characters getting their own titles it was not uncommon that sex was used to sell comics as well. In the 21st century, the roles of many women have changed. Roles and choices such as single parenting, same-sex relationships, and positions of power in the workplace have come to define many women in modern society. These roles have found their way into the comic books of the 21st century as well.
While working on her first case with Batman, Patricia gets distracted. She sees a tobacco package with the initials BW. She gets distracted and starts to dream of Bruce Wayne.<ref>Batman 165, “The Dilemma of the Detective’s Daughter”, p. 9, Ed “France” Herron, Writer, Bob Kane, Artist, DC Comics, August 1964</ref> Like many other female characters of DC’s early years, she does not know that the man she loves is the secret identity of a famous superhero. Eventually, she meets Bruce Wayne at a charity function at his estate.<ref>Batman 166, “A Rendezvous with Robbery!”, p. 1, Ed “France” Herron, Writer, Bob Kane, Artist, DC Comics, September 1964</ref>
 
Lesbianism has become increasingly common in modern comic books. In 2006, [[DC Comics]] could still draw widespread media attention by announcing a new, lesbian incarnation of the well-known character [[Batwoman]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Ferber |first=Lawrence |title=Queering the Comics |work=The Advocate |page=51 |date=July 18, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last = Moos | first = Jeanne |author-link = Jeanne Moos |title = CNN: Batwoman comes out of the cave |publisher = CNN |date=June 1, 2006 |url = http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/moos/2006/06/01/moos.gay.batwoman.affl | access-date = September 12, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Mangels |first=Andy |title=Outed in Batman's Backyard |work=The Advocate |page=62 |date=May 27, 2003}}</ref> even though openly lesbian minor characters such as [[Gotham City]] police officer [[Renee Montoya]] already existed in the franchise (Renee would become the new Question in the same story arch revealing the new Batwoman, and in fact the two were past lovers).<ref name="out">{{cite magazine | last = Sherrin | first = Michael | title = Batwoman Comes Out! | magazine = [[Out (magazine)|Out]] |date=May 31, 2006 | url = http://www.out.com/detail.asp?id=18499 | access-date = September 12, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Helberg |first=Michele |title=Batwoman's Lesbian Identity is No Secret to Comic Book Fans |publisher=[[AfterEllen]] |date=July 24, 2006 |url=http://www.afterellen.com/archive/ellen/Print/2006/7/batwoman.html |access-date=January 12, 2008 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120721174452/http://www.afterellen.com/archive/ellen/Print/2006/7/batwoman.html |archive-date=July 21, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
====Green Lantern and Carol Ferris====
Of the women of DC's Silver Age, [[Carol Ferris]] in ''Green Lantern'' was unique in that she was Hal Jordan's boss. Despite his best efforts to date her, Carol firmly rejects his advances and adapts a business-first mentality.<ref>Carol Ferris: "You heard what dad said. I've got to satisfy his faith in me &mdash; and that means that during the next two years, I'll have absolutely no time for romance! I'm your boss Hal Jordan and that's orders". &mdash; ''Showcase'' #22 (Sept. 1959), "The Menace of the Runaway Missile", pp. 8-9, writer [[John Broome]] </ref>
 
In 1999, a new website was launched entitled "[[Women in Refrigerators]]". It featured a list of female comic book characters who had been injured, killed, or depowered within various superhero comic books and sought to analyze why these [[plot device]]s were used disproportionately on female characters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lby3.com/wir/|title=Women in Refrigerators|website=lby3.com|access-date=2018-11-27}}</ref> It noted that even though female comic characters were becoming more powerful, they were still inferior to the male counterparts, which can be seen by them appearing more disposable.<ref name="auto"/>
She later assumed the role of a superheroine. Women from the Planet Zamaron (in their language meaning Land of Lovely Women) notice Ferris resembles of their fallen Queen.<ref>''Green Lantern'' #16 (Oct. 1962), "The Secret Life of Star Sapphire", p.3, writer [[Gardner Fox]]</ref> The Zamaronians give Carol the identity of [[Star Sapphire]] and convince her to fight Green Lantern.
 
Portrayals of women characters as sex objects continues to attract comment and controversy: in 2007, [[Sideshow Collectibles]] produced a 14.25-inch "comiquette" statuette designed by [[Adam Hughes]] that appeared to depict [[Mary Jane Watson]] hand-washing Peter Parker's [[Spider-Man]] costume.<ref>{{cite news | last = Brady | first = Matt | title = Adam Hughes on the Mary Jane Statue | work = [[Newsarama]] | url = http://forum.newsarama.com/showthread.php?t=113690 | date = May 22, 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070905105510/http://forum.newsarama.com/showthread.php?t=113690 | archive-date = September 5, 2007 | url-status = dead}}</ref> The statuette has received criticism for MJ's ostensibly highly sexualized and objectifying pose.<ref name="star">{{cite news | last = Arpe | first = Malene | title = No plumber's butt for Spidey? | work = [[Toronto Star]] | date = May 17, 2007 | url = https://www.thestar.com/article/214778}}</ref> Harley Quinn of DC Comics is most famously known for her torrid love affair with the Joker and her sex appeal to the male audience. Even if a female character is not sexualized, there are still characteristics reflecting traditional definitions of womanhood. There is a habit amongst cartoonists when they characterize their animals as females. Around the 1980s was when the oversexualization of both males and females rose. Males became even taller, muscular, and smarter. Females, too, became taller, but only in the legs. Their breast proportions became exaggerated, as well as their waists.
Despite this new identity, the influence of the romance genre carries over into the battles of Star Sapphire and Green Lantern. A strategy is devised in which Star Sapphire will weaken Green Lantern to such an extent that she will propose marriage to him.<ref>''Green Lantern'' #26 (Jan. 1964), "Star Sapphire Unmasks Green Lantern", p. 9, writer Gardner Fox</ref>
 
Characterizations of women as sex objects has declined in recent decades, and depictions of women as victims of physical brutality have significantly decreased over the past 20 years. Additionally, recent comics indicate a possible reversal of the trend of portraying characters according to rigid gender stereotypes.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Dan Rudh |author2=Andrew Meichtry |author3=Arne Laudwehr |author4=Michael Iacob |author5=Jordan Augustdt |title=Depiction of Gender in American Superhero Comic Books, 1960-2010, a quantitative content analysis|url=https://superherostudy.blogspot.com/|work=(Portland State University research)}}</ref>
While recharging the ring, Star Sapphire unmasks Green Lantern, and he promises to marry her. With his power ring, Green Lantern reads her mind and discovers that she is Ferris. He erases her memory of what occurred so that he can put off marriage.
 
==Critical analysis==
====Rita Farr and the Doom Patrol====
=== Overview ===
DC's Doom Patrol had many similarities to Marvel's X-Men. Its leader was in a wheelchair, its members were seen as outcasts, and there was an attractive female, Rita Farr (Elasti-Girl), who added an edge of romantic tension. She was involved solely with her future husband, Steve Dayton ([[Mento]]), who wanted her to leave the team.<ref>''Doom Patrol'' #91 (Nov. 1964), "Mento - The Man Who Split the Doom Patrol", writer [[Arnold Drake]]</ref>
Prior to the Silver age of comics, comic books of all genres were available, including romance, adventure, crime, science fiction and many others. This began to change in the late 1950s and continued into the 80s, and as the superhero genre grew, others shrunk.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Problem of Women in Comics: Where they are (and Aren't) |url=http://comicsalliance.com/superhero-comics-women-sexism/ |website=Comics Alliance |access-date=11 November 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119221410/http://comicsalliance.com/superhero-comics-women-sexism/ |archive-date=19 November 2015}}</ref> This also began the marginalization of female voices in comics. The portrayals of female characters and superheroes were targeted towards a predominantly male demographic, rather than towards female readers.<ref name=CBnation250/> Sexism can be found in many examples throughout the history of comic books by use of [[Sexualization|hypersexualization]] of female characters as well as benevolent sexism.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite journal |last1=Facciani |first1=Matthew |last2=Warren |first2=Peter |last3=Vendemia |first3=Jennifer |year=2015 |title=A Content-Analysis of Race, Gender, and Class in American Comic Books |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26505357 |journal=Race, Gender & Class |volume=22 |issue=3–4 |pages=216–226 |jstor=26505357 |issn=1082-8354}}</ref> Male creators did not focus on what women wanted to read about, and therefore did not try very hard to include female stories.<ref name="Reading Comics">{{cite book|last1=Wolk|first1=Douglas|title=Reading Comics: How Graphic Novels Work and What They Mean|date=1 June 2008|publisher=Da Capo Press|pages=70–74|ref=27}}</ref> Although many female superheroes were created and featured in comics, very few starred in their own series or achieved stand-alone success outside straightforward [[Adult comics|erotic works]]. Most female heroines in comic books were merely supporting characters; for example, the Wasp and the Invisible Girl were both introduced as team characters, fighting alongside male superheroes, and Batgirl and Catwoman both debuted as supporting characters in the Batman comics. Wonder Woman is the only female heroine studied who earned her own comic book title.<ref name=":2">Dunne, Maryjane: "The Representation of Women in Comic Books, Post WWII Through the Radical 60s". ''PSU McNair Scholars Online Journal'' 2.1 (2006): 1-13. Web. 19 Dec. 2016.</ref> It has been debated whether the perceived lack of female readership was due to male writers being uncomfortable with writing about or for women, or whether the comic book industry is male dominated due to actual lack of women's interest in comics.<ref name=CBnation250/> Primary readership continues to be white males which might relate to the still "overrepresentation of white men" (79% of characters as of 2015) in comic books.<ref name="auto1"/>
 
===Marvel Introduction of the Comics Code Authority ===
There is a historical context for the lack of female representation in comics. In 1954, the comics industry was attacked by parents, psychologists, and politicians who were concerned that comic books were unfit for children. Superheroines, who had made their debut in 1941, were criticized for violating gender norms and for perceived [[lesbian]] and sadomasochistic content. In response to the threat of government regulation, the [[Comics Magazine Association of America]] imitated the film industry's self-governed [[Hays Code]] with the creation of the [[Comics Code Authority]] in 1954. The code limited content of all newsstand comic books. As a result, code-approved comics portrayed women in a mostly conservative, traditional manner for the next few decades.<ref name="Supermom1228" /> As social norms changed, the code was occasionally revised to be less restrictive. As the [[direct market]] developed in the early 1980s, publishers were able to sell comics without code approval easily, so fewer publishers subjected themselves to it. The code became less important until it was completely abandoned in 2011.
[[Image:SueFF27.jpg|thumb|left|100px| One of the Sub-Mariner's many attempts to win Sue's affections, from ''Fantastic Four'' #27, art by [[Jack Kirby]].]]
 
=== Feminism in comics ===
When [[Atlas Comics]] became [[Marvel Comics]] in 1961, many brand new women superheroes were introduced. The first female superhero from Marvel Comics was the [[Invisible Girl]], aka Susan Storm, charter member of the Fantastic Four.
The enforcement of gender roles within comics continued well past the 1950s. The roles of women in comics during the 1960s and 70s shifted to become more diverse and began to extend past traditional roles as a result of the civil rights movement, second wave feminism, and the sexual revolution, when more women in society were taking on predominantly male professions and advocating for social rights.<ref name=":2" /> In the 1970s, female characters in comics and other mainstream media were sometimes depicted as "playing with the boys" and taking more traditionally male-dominated roles, though they still tended to be cast as love interests or to take maternal roles.<ref name="Supermom1228">{{cite journal|last1=D'Amore|first1=Laura Mattoon|title=The Accidental Supermom: Superheroines and Maternal Performativity, 1963-1980|journal=The Journal of Popular Culture|date=1 December 2012|volume=45|issue=6|pages=1226–1233|ref=26|doi=10.1111/jpcu.12006|url=https://docs.rwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1164&context=fcas_fp|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Prominent superheroines that were introduced during this period in comics were Spider-Woman, Ms. Marvel, the Cat, and Valkyrie.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lent |first=J. A. |date=2007 |chapter=Comics/Comic Strip |editor-last=Malti-Douglas |editor-first=F. |editor-link=Fedwa Malti-Douglas |title=Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender |volume=1 |pages=318-321 |___location=Detroit |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |url=http://libraries.state.ma.us/login?gwurl=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GVRL.lesref&sw=w&u=les_main&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CCX2896200140&asid=7c23acc17e51fc8ad1e228f3af0f7820}}</ref>
 
Despite the industry's historically and culturally backed creation of a male-dominated market, there has been an increase in female readership, as well as an increase in [[Comic book convention|convention]] attendance by women.<ref name="Reading Comics" />
These superheroes were given a strong supporting role but seemed to be maligned. The Wasp (Janet Van Dyne) was an early example. She would have to endure the tone of the fatherly [[Giant-Man]] (Henry Pym), who would ignore her romantic advances. Although these characters would develop and become cornerstones of the Marvel Universe, their early treatment would resemble a struggle to be recognized as equals.
 
In addition to historical censorship, the male domination of comic book culture has been self-perpetuating. The view that comic book reading was a hobby strictly for males created a hostile environment for the female comic book reader. Women that read comics were often viewed as "doing womanhood wrong" or as individuals that "read comics wrong". This led to a cyclical pattern of hostility towards females in the comic book audience. Author Douglas Wolk states: "I remember seeing a Marvel sales plan, sometime in the early '90s--a huge document, several hundred pages long; near the back, a little section labeled "Female Readers" listed the two titles Marvel published for half of their potential audience: Barbie and Barbie Fashion".<ref name="Reading Comics" />
The Fantastic Four's early adventures in the Silver Age had the feel of the Romance Genre. The Invisible Girl is central to this. An instant attraction occurs when she meets Prince Namor, the [[Sub-Mariner]].<ref> Fantastic Four # 4, "The Coming of the Sub-Mariner", p.21, Stan Lee, Writer (1962) </ref> He immediately asks for her hand in marriage, with the agreement that he will not attack the human race. When she reluctantly agrees, Namor becomes insulted, as he feels that she is sacrificing herself. An attack by the rest of the Fantastic Four, results in Namor fleeing the scene.
 
In the 1980s there was a shift in the way comics were written; instead of treating each issue of a comic as if it were the reader's first issue, or an "on ramp", as it had been done previously,<ref name="Reading Comics" /> comics began to be written in a way that demanded continuous readership from the beginning of a series in order for the plot to be understood. It is possible that this may have led to a further decline in female readership, as the female readers that might have tried to start during this era would find themselves confused and lost.
Despite this confrontation, the romance element is evident when the Invisible Girl’s brother, the [[Human Torch]], aka Johnny Storm, finds a photograph of the Sub-Mariner on a bookshelf.<ref> Fantastic Four # 6, "Captives of the Deadly Duo", Stan Lee, Writer (1962) </ref> Both struggle to get the picture when the Human Torch decides to burn the picture.
 
[[Carol Danvers]], a superhero who has been known as Ms. Marvel, Binary, and Captain Marvel, is one of Marvel's most popular female superheroes, and has been considered a feminist icon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mashable.com/2014/10/28/marvel-first-female-superhero-powerful/|title=Carol Danvers, Marvel's first female superhero, is also the most powerful|last=Dickey|first=Josh|website=Mashable|date=29 October 2014 |access-date=2016-12-19}}</ref> She is considered one of the strongest superheroes created by Marvel.
After this confrontation, Namor enters the Baxter Building and the Human Torch attempts to attack him. The Invisible Girl stands in front of Namor and tries to protect him from the attack. The romantic tension between the two would come to define the image of the Invisible Woman during Marvel’s early years.
 
=== Sexualized superheroes ===
Another example of the romance genre's influence would include [[Marvel Girl]] (aka Jean Grey) of the X-Men. In the early days of the X-Men, Jean Grey is the object of two members of the X-Men's affection. In issue #25, the Betty and Veronica portrayal plays a role reversal. Cyclops (aka Scott Summers) and Warren Worthington III (aka The Angel) both have feelings for Jean Grey after she goes off to college.
During the late 1980s, comics had undergone a stylistic shift in terms of character proportions. The sexual characteristics of comic book characters became more exaggerated, which affected both male and female characters. Male characters were typically drawn with bigger muscles, smaller heads, broader shoulders and chests. Female characters developed larger breasts and rears, very thin waists, longer legs, large lips, and more revealing costumes. While male characters generally had a variety of poses, females often were drawn in suggestive poses that further accentuated their breasts and rears. Female characters that were deemed to represent feminist views were also portrayed in a sexualized manner.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fantasy-magazine.com/non-fiction/articles/the-objectification-of-women-in-graphic-novels/|title=The Objectification of Women in Comic Books {{!}} Fantasy Magazine|website=www.fantasy-magazine.com|date=26 August 2008 |access-date=2016-12-19}}</ref> For example, when Black Widow was first introduced in the 1964 comic, ''[[Tales of Suspense]]'' #52, she wears a green dress, tight-fitting but with minimal cleavage and accentuation of her rear. She also wears a brown fur [[shawl]] on top, which covers much of her body, and keeps a hat on with her hair tied back. In the 2019 comic series, ''The Web of Black Widow'',<ref>Houser, Mooney, Farrell, ''The Web of Black Widow'' (Marvel Comics, 2019)</ref> she also wears a form-fitting green dress; however, this one is very low cut both at the front and at the back, with substantial cleavage. She also frequently pulls her dress up in a suggestive manner. The trend has become the target of satire by feminists, especially on websites like "[[The Hawkeye Initiative]]".
 
=== Independent comics ===
When Thor was introduced in [[Journey Into Mystery]], his civilian alter ego was Dr. Don Blake. Don Blake developed a crush on his nurse, [[Jane Foster (comics)]]. Like the women of the Golden Age, Foster was categorized into the category of a career girl. This crush would create tension between the relationship of Thor, and his father Odin.
Many female readers sway towards [[Independent comics|independent]] works, where there is a lot more female representation. The independent comics industry, whose products are often referred to as indies, have become a huge source of authentically represented females in comics. More women than ever before are becoming comic book artists and writers, and many of them have flocked to the independent industry. This, combined with a large female readership, has resulted in greatly increased numbers of female-driven stories in this industry. [[Manga]], another form of graphic novel, has also led to a rise in female readership of comics. The trend towards [[Sexualization|hyper-sexualized]] female characters in mainstream comics is part of the reason that independent comics have become so popular among women; independent artists, regardless of gender, tend to draw both male and female characters in a similar style. When those characters do have noticeable sex characteristics, such as breasts or broader shoulders, they are not exaggerated to the point that they are in the mainstream comic book industry.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/gender/trinarobbins.htm|title=Gender Differences in Comics by Trina Robbins|website=imageandnarrative.be|access-date=2016-12-19|archive-date=2015-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203010924/http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/gender/trinarobbins.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Robbins">{{cite journal|date=September 2002|title=Gender Difference in Comics|url=http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/gender/trinarobbins.htm|journal=Image & Narrative|issue=4|ref=28|last1=Robbins|first1=Trina|access-date=12 January 2015|archive-date=3 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203010924/http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/gender/trinarobbins.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
=== LGBTQ superheroes ===
The tension would continue between father and son. Eventually, a decision was made by Odin to turn Jane Foster into an immortal. Stan Lee had introduced another plot twist. Before she could become immortal, Jane Foster would need to pass a test to prove her worthy of being an immortal. Jane Foster had shown fear and in effect, failed her test.<ref> Thor # 136, ”To Become an Immortal”, pp.9-11, Stan Lee, 1967 </ref> The result of Jane Foster being refused for godhood created another Betty and Veronica scenario. In the same issue, Odin would attempt to have Thor forget about Jane Foster by re-introducing him to the goddess Sif.
Recently LGBTQ superheroes are becoming more prevalent and available. In 2011 ''Batwoman'' title DC reinvented Batwoman from a casual sidekick in need of saving to an independent lesbian superheroine. This version fights back against female stereotypes, and lacks the traditional female superhero physique. Her body sports more muscles and less chest and hip padding. She also lacks the traditional long flowing hair, instead sporting a short cut. She fights the more grotesque images of womanhood including the gorgons, her undead mother, and the ghost of her previous incarnation.<ref>Race, Kristen Coppess. ''Batwoman and Catwoman: Treatment of Woman in Comics''. Diss. Wright State U, 2013. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2016.</ref>
 
In 2016, [[Wonder Woman]] was announced by [[Greg Rucka]], comic book writer, to be bisexual. Although, in her early comics, Wonder Woman was known to have possible same-sex attraction subtext, her sexuality was downplayed afterwards.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/woman-bisexual-dc-comics-article-1.2813018|title=Wonder Woman is bisexual - 'obviously' says DC Comics|newspaper=Daily News|___location=New York|access-date=2016-12-19}}</ref>
====Women of Spider-Man====
The most noticeable example of women playing a supporting role is the women involved in the life of Marvel’s flagship character – [[Spider-Man]] (aka Peter Parker). Spider-Man’s first appearance in Amazing Fantasy # 15 features the most important woman in his life enduring a traumatizing moment. His Aunt May witnesses the murder of her husband, Peter's beloved Uncle Ben. Throughout the rest of the [[Silver Age of Comic Books]], Aunt May would be constantly sick. Spider-Man (as Peter Parker) would work for the [[Daily Bugle]] as a way to help ends meet. Parker's going to college would lead to guilt about his Aunt May.
 
=== Black women in comics ===
; Peter Parker: "You're a great guy Parker. Worrying about getting your own apartment, buying a new cycle, thinking only of number one. - While the woman who's devoted her life to you does without her medicine because she can't afford a new bottle."<ref> The Amazing Spider-Man # 42, p. 20, Stan Lee, writer, 1965 </ref>
[[African-American]] women did not start appearing regularly in comic books until the 1970s, in the [[Bronze Age of Comic Books]]. One of the first black female superheroes, and one of the most popular female black superheroes to this day, was [[Storm (Marvel Comics)|Storm]] of the [[X-Men]], who had the power to control the weather. She first appeared in 1975. In several reincarnations of the X-Men, she is the leader.<ref>''Uncanny X-Men'' #201
</ref>
 
[[Monica Rambeau|Captain Marvel (Monica Rambeau)]] first appeared in 1982, and received her own comic in 1989.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.comics.org/series/3833/|title=GCD :: Series :: Captain Marvel|website=comics.org|access-date=2016-12-19}}</ref> Captain Marvel had the power to transform herself into any form of energy, and obtains the properties of that energy. She has also joined [[Avengers (comics)|the Avengers]] on several occasions.<ref>The Avengers #273-277</ref> There are several other characters who have the name [[Captain Marvel (Marvel Comics)|Captain Marvel]], one of the most famous being [[Carol Danvers]], who is white.
After Aunt May, the next woman in the Spider-Man mythos would be an employee of the ''Daily Bugle''-[[Betty Brant]]. She is the receptionist for J. Jonah Jameson, publisher of the Daily Bugle. A big part of Peter Parker’s identity is that he is not liked in school, but Betty respects Peter and sees him as more than just a bookworm.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Like all the other women in Spider-Man’s life, Brant's personal tragedy would have an impact on his life. Betty’s tragedy would be that her brother, [[Bennett Brant]] was accidentally murdered during a fight with Spider-Man and Doctor Octopus, and she blamed Spider-Man. This event would dramatically alter Peter and Betty’s friendship.<ref>The Amazing Spider-Man # 11, Stan Lee, writer, 1963</ref>
 
Despite the growth of African-American females in comic books in the post-[[civil rights movement]] era, there still continues to be a lack of them in comic books.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Facciani |first1=Matthew |last2=Warren |first2=Peter |last3=Vendemia |first3=Jennifer |title=A Content-Analysis of Race, Gender and Glass in American Comic Books |journal=Race, Gender & Class |year=2015 |volume=22 |issue=3–4 |pages=216–226}}</ref> When African-American women are represented in comic books, they are often not fully human, like Storm, and are given stereotyped features and powers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.popmatters.com/columns/johnson/031218.shtml |title=PopMatters {{!}} Columns {{!}} Lynne d Johnson {{!}} Black Thoughtware {{!}} Bearing the Black Female Body as Witness in Sci-Fi |date=2008-04-23 |access-date=2016-12-19 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423011821/http://www.popmatters.com/columns/johnson/031218.shtml |archive-date=2008-04-23 }}</ref> Oftentimes, black comic book characters are stereotyped with ghetto characteristics. African-Americans in comics are also more likely to be considered sidekicks rather than superheroes, and they are less likely to have their own comic series about them.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Black Superheroes, Milestone Comics and Their Fans|url=https://archive.org/details/blacksuperheroes00brow|url-access=limited|last=Brown|first=Jeffrey|publisher=University Press of Mississippi|year=2001|isbn=978-1578062829|___location=Jackson, Mississippi|pages=[https://archive.org/details/blacksuperheroes00brow/page/n39 5]}}</ref>
[[Image:mjface.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Mary Jane's face is shown for the first time. Art by John Romita Sr from ''Amazing Spider-Man'' #42.]]
 
=== Latina women in comics ===
It would also be in the Silver Age that Peter Parker would meet another important woman in his life – [[Mary Jane Watson]]<ref>The Amazing Spider-Man # 40, Stan Lee, writer, 1965</ref>
[[File:Fight Comics 47 Renée.jpg|thumb|Cover of ''Fight Comics''#47, published by Fiction House in December 1946. Art by Lily Renée.]]
Mary Jane is the niece of Aunt May’s best friend, Anna Watson. Although her personal relationship with Parker would not develop until the tail end of the [[Bronze Age of Comic Books]], she was part of the Amazing Spider-Man's supporting cast. Her presence would make [[Gwen Stacy]], another woman in his life, jealous. One of the first examples was evident when Peter's friends throw a party for [[Flash Thompson]], who was going to Vietnam.
The earliest Latino superheroes were The Cisco Kid and Zorro, who were introduced in short comic stories in the early 1900s.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-08-09|title=Happy 100th Anniversary, Zorro!|url=https://www.zorro.com/general/happy-100th-anniversary-zorro/|access-date=2020-12-10|website=Zorro Productions, Inc.|language=en-US}}</ref> Latino roles in comics are often as side-characters that are of little importance to the plot.<ref>{{cite book |last1=PHILLIPS |first1=NICKIE D. |last2=STROBL |first2=STACI |title=Comic Book Crime: Truth, Justice, and the American Way |date=2013 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-0-8147-6787-0 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qfrfh |chapter="AREN'T THERE ANY BROWN PEOPLE IN THIS WORLD?" RACE, ETHNICITY, AND CRIME FIGHTING|jstor=j.ctt9qfrfh }}</ref> An exception was done in 1942, when Señorita Rio (Ritta Farrar) became the first Latina character to appear in American comics. She made her first appearance in [[Fiction House|Fiction House's]] ''Fight Comics'' #19. She was a rising Hollywood actress and stuntwoman, until she faked her death and became a secret agent to avenge the death of her fiancé. Her abilities include acting, singing, and dancing, as well as being skilled in Ju-Jitsu and fencing.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Nicholson|first=Hope|title=The Spectacular Sisterhood of Superwomen: Awesome Female Characters From Comic Book History|publisher=Quirk Books|year=2017|isbn=978-1-59474-948-3|___location=|pages=39–40}}</ref>
 
Latinos began to appear in comic books in the 1970s, but the characters were mainly male and were associated with street life. This includes popular superheroes like [[White Tiger (comics)|White Tiger]] and El Aguila (The Eagle), as well as villains [[Senor Muerte / Senor Suerte#Ramon|Senor Muerte/Senor Suerte]], [[Jaguar (Marvel Comics)|El Jaguar]], and [[Cheetah (Marvel Comics)|Cheetah]].<ref>Captain Marvel #48 (January 1977)</ref> The only notable female character at the time was [[Fire (comics)|Fire]] (Beatriz da Costa), who was introduced by DC Comics in 1979. She started as a model in Rio de Janeiro before becoming an undercover agent for the Brazilian government. In one of her missions, she was exposed to pyroclastic explosions, which gave her fire-based super-human powers.<ref>''[[Super Friends]]'' #25 (October 1979)</ref>
Peter enters the party with Mary Jane and starts to talk to Gwen. This behaviour is also recognized by another partygoer, Betty Brant. The dynamic between Gwen and Mary Jane is reminiscent of the very popular romance genre. One is the good girl while the other is the bad girl. At the party, Gwen and Mary Jane were supposed to give out burgers to the partygoers but try to outdance each other.
 
Latina women did not have many appearances in comics until 1981, when Latino brothers [[Jaime Hernandez|Jaime]], [[Mario Hernandez (comics)|Mario]], and [[Gilbert Hernandez]] published the first issue of [[Love and Rockets (comics)|Love and Rockets]]. In their ''Hoppers 13'' (aka ''Locas'') stories, most of the characters were prominently Chicano teenagers. Their most notable characters were Margarita "Maggie" Luisa Chascarrillo and Esperanza "Hopey" Leticia Glass, who were on an on-and-off romantic basis with each other.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davis-McElligatt|first=Joanna|year=2007|title=Review of Locas: The Maggie and Hopey Stories|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30029806|journal=MELUS|volume=32|issue=3|pages=267–270|doi=10.1093/melus/32.3.267 |jstor=30029806 |issn=0163-755X|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
==The Bronze Age of Comic Books==
{{essay-entry|section}}
===Marvel Comics===
The Bronze Age of Comics reflected many of the feminist tensions of the era. One of the examples, from the Bronze Age, where women are seen for their strength is in the works of [[Steve Gerber]]. The characters of [[Beverly Switzler]] in the [[Howard the Duck]] title and [[Jennifer Kale]] in the [[Man-Thing]] title play a very strong supporting role. In the first issue of Howard the Duck, Beverly prevents Howard from committing suicide. The friendship with Beverly is what helps Howard the Duck cope with being on Earth. Jennifer Kale is the only human that has any psychic link with the Man-Thing.<ref>Adventure into Fear 14, The Demon Plague, p.8, Writer, Steve Gerber, Artist, Val Mayerik, Marvel Comics Group</ref>
 
In the late 1980s, both Marvel and DC comics decided that they wanted to include more diversity in their characters. Thus, popular superheroes began to be re-cast with different ethnicities. This includes [[Wildcat (DC Comics)|Wildcat]], whose alter ego was initially [[Wildcat (Ted Grant)|Ted Grant]], but was later temporarily replaced by his goddaughter [[Wildcat (Yolanda Montez)|Yolanda Montez]].<ref>''Crisis on Infinite Earths'' #6 (September 1985). DC Comics.</ref> However, in this comic book age, more Latino superheroes were more acclaimed than Latina superheroes. More originally created Latina characters began to appear in the 1990s and 2000s, including commonly known characters such as Renee Montoya,<ref name=":5" /> [[Anya Corazon|Anya Corazon (Spider-Girl)]],<ref>{{Cite news|date=2010-11-17|title=Is Spider-Girl the new Spider-Man?|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-11766494|access-date=2020-11-27}}</ref> and [[Aquagirl|Lorena Marquez (Aquagirl)]].<ref>''Aquaman'' vol. 6 #16 (May 2004)</ref>
Despite their strong roles, both are still portrayed as victims and as sex objects. Beverly makes ends meet by posing as a nude model. Her beauty seems to lead her into various problems, as she is kidnapped by [[Dr. Bong]], a character who knew Bev as a teenager and was obsessed with her. His obsession leads him to wanting to marry her. Beverly marries Dr. Bong in exchange for Howard’s life. The result is that Howard the Duck is turned into a human as a punishment for trying to rescue her. In another adventure, Beverly is kidnapped by a shiek who wants to enslaver her, and Howard must try to rescue her once more.<ref>Howard the Duck Annual 1, Steve Gerber, Writer, Marvel Comics Group </ref>
[[File:11.6.14EdgardoMiranda-RodriguezByLuigiNovi3.jpg|thumb|Edgardo Miranda-Rodriguez, Marvel Entertainment writer and Editor-in-Chief at Darryl Makes Comics LLC, originally created La Borinqueña.]]
Currently, the most mainstream Latina superhero is [[Miss America (America Chavez)]]. She was first introduced in the Marvel Comics by writers [[Joe Casey]] and Nick Dragotta in 2013, but became so acclaimed that she was given her own series written by openly gay writer [[Gabby Rivera]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gustines|first=George Gene|date=March 26, 2017|title=Adventures in Comics and the Real World|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/26/books/comics-diversity-america-chavez.html|access-date=|website=The New York Times}}</ref> Though Chavez is claimed to be a Puerto Rican, she has no actual biological roots to Latin America. She grew up in a Utopian Parallel, a reality that is out of time and in the presence of the being known as the Demiurge, and had two mothers. What is most notable about Chavez' character is that although she is illustrated as the conventional beautiful and young female superhero, she is also given masculine characteristics, including super strength and marksmanship.<ref>Kostanjšak, Domagoj. ''Diversity, Political Correctness and Social Justice in Contemporary Marvel Comics''. Diss. University of Zagreb. Faculty of Teacher Education, 2018.</ref>
 
Latina women in comics have created a positive societal impact. When [[Hurricane Maria]] devastated Puerto Rico in September 2017, comic book writers and artists contributed in making an anthology called ''Ricanstruction: Reminiscing & Rebuiliding Puerto Rico''. [[Edgardo Miranda-Rodriguez]] produced and wrote some of the stories in the comics, and included his original character [[La Borinqueña (graphic novel)|La Borinqueña]] fighting along well-known superheroes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The superhero 'La Borinqueña' is at the Smithsonian. We speak to her proud creator.|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/superhero-la-borinque-smithsonian-we-speak-her-proud-creator-n1010896|access-date=2020-12-10|publisher=NBC News|date=29 May 2019 |language=en}}</ref> Marisol Rios De La Luz, aka La Borinqueña, is an Afro-Boricua Earth and Environmentalist college student that later discovers her powers and abilities to fly, dive, use super strength, and control storms. 100% of the proceeds contribute to the reconstruction and the hurricane relief of Puerto Rico.<ref>{{Cite web|title=La Borinqueña Graphic Novel {{!}} Created and Written by Edgardo Miranda-Rodriguez|url=https://www.la-borinquena.com/#About|access-date=2020-12-10|website=www.la-borinquena.com}}</ref>
[[Jennifer Kale]] finds trouble in her first appearance in comics. She steals an enchanted book, and accidentally summons demons from another world.<ref>Adventure into Fear 11, Night of the Nether-Spawn, pp. 2-4, Writer, Steve Gerber, Artist, Rich Buckler, Marvel Comics Group</ref> The released demon chases Jennifer to a movie theatre where the Man-Thing comes to her rescue. The Man-Thing and the demon resume their fight in the swamp where Jennifer burns the enchanted book and the demon disappears. Jennifer is apologetic to the Man-Thing for her behaviour.
 
=== Moving forward ===
When Jennifer’s grandfather discovers that she has a psychic link with the Man-Thing, Jennifer is still portrayed as a victim. The two are kidnapped by Dakimh the enchanter and brought to the world Sandt where the Man-Thing must fight Mongu the Gladiator so that both can be freed or else they will die.<ref>Adventure into Fear 14, The Demon Plague, p.8, Writer, Steve Gerber, Artist, Val Mayerik, Marvel Comics Group</ref>
The portrayal of women in comics is still highly contested. Despite the more realistic portrayal of women in independent comics, the mainstream comic book industry still sometimes struggles with portraying women realistically.<ref name=Robbins/> There continues to be a difference in the way female superheroes are treated (by both their on-page counterparts and their writers) when compared to male superheroes of the same caliber.<ref name="Forbes">{{cite web|last1=Blanch|first1=Christina|title=What Do Comic Books Teach Us About Gender Attitudes?|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbeswomanfiles/2013/01/23/what-do-comic-books-teach-us-about-gender-attitudes/|work=Forbes|access-date=17 January 2015|ref=29}}</ref> However, more recently steps have been made towards equality and de-sexualization with specific stories and comics.
 
There is a distinct effort being made by some to address these issues; there is a Gender in Comics panel at [[San Diego Comic Con]] which, in 2014, "included noted comic book journalists, editors, writers and behind-the-scenes figures all currently working to further awareness of the gender issues within the comic book industry".<ref name=GenderInComics>{{cite web|last1=White|first1=Brett|title=SDCC: Gender in Comics|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbeswomanfiles/2013/01/23/what-do-comic-books-teach-us-about-gender-attitudes/|website=Comic Book Resources|date=August 11, 2014|access-date=16 January 2015|ref=30}}</ref> One of the panelists, Laura Hudson, said this in regards to gender roles in comics and the criticism that they are facing:
In the 1980s, under writer-artist [[John Byrne]], Susan Richards found new uses for her powers and developed an assertive self-confidence to use her powers more aggressively. She changed her alias from the Invisible Girl to the [[Invisible Woman]].<ref>''Fantastic Four'' #283, 1985 </ref>
<blockquote>The panel spoke about how ingrained a lot of these false gender-based ideas have become thanks to decades of unchallenged existence. "A metaphor I use a lot is it's like working in a bell factory.... If you work in the bell factory long enough you stop hearing the bells. I think super hero comics has stopped hearing the bells for a long time, but now you have other people coming in from the outside and [the gender issues in super hero comics are] very apparent. Having the Internet, having these other perspectives that are suddenly in front of us and are not subject to gatekeepers and are far more able to be heard exposes a lot of [these issues]".<ref name=GenderInComics /></blockquote>
 
==See also==
[[Image:UncannyXMen101.jpg|150px|Cover to ''Uncanny X-Men'' #101. Art by Dave Cockrum.|thumb]]
{{Portal bar|Comics|Feminism|Society}}
One of the first women from the history of Marvel would undergo a huge transformation in the Bronze Age of Comics. Jean Grey aka Marvel Girl would not only become romantically involved with Cyclops, but would have to deal with the advances of Wolverine.<ref> Classic X-Men #1, Chris Claremont, 1986 </ref> The Betty and Veronica situation that occurred with Cyclops and Angel during the Silver Age had now carried on to Cyclops and Wolverine in the Bronze Age. Despite these romantic issues, Jean Grey was transformed into the omnipotent Phoenix.<ref> X-Men #101,Chris Claremont, 1986 </ref> In an era that represented the Women's Liberation Movement, this transformation reflected the changes of society.
* [[Bad girl art]]
* [[Friends of Lulu]]
* [[Good girl art]]
* [[List of female comics creators]]
* [[List of feminist comic books]]
* [[List of superheroines]]
* [[Gender and webcomics]]
* [[Gender representation in video games]]
* ''[[Shōjo manga]]'' and [[Josei manga|''Josei'' manga]]
* [[Sexism in American comics]]
* [[Women in refrigerators]]
 
==Notes==
Throughout most of the Silver and Bronze Age, women in comics were not given leadership positions. Men (led by characters such as Mr. Fantastic, [[Captain America]], and Cyclops) chaired teams such as the Avengers, [[Fantastic Four]], and the [[X-Men]]. In the Bronze Age and early Modern Age, characters such as Invisible Woman and the Wasp would chair the Fantastic Four and the Avengers, respectively. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}
{{note label|Note1|a|a}} ''Wonder Woman'' #7 (Winter 1943)<br />{{note label|Note1|b|b}}"The Secret City of the Incas", ''Sensation Comics'' #18 (June 1943)<br />{{note label|Note1|c|c}}"The Unbound Amazon", ''Sensation Comics'' #19 (June 1943)
 
==References==
The [[Bronze Age of Comic Books]] represented a change for the X-Men. The forming of a new group representing various nationalities of the world would mark a turning point in the history of the team. Storm aka [[Ororo Munroe]], would be the first relevant African-American superheroine of the era. One of her defining moments would be eventually succeeding Cyclops as leader of the X-Men during the early years of the Modern Age of Comics.<ref> Uncanny X-Men #201, Chris Claremont, writer, 1985 </ref> This was unique because Storm was a visible minority and would join [[Monica Rambeau]], aka the second Captain Marvel (who chaired the Avengers) as minorities in leadership positions.
'''Citations'''
{{Reflist|30em}}
 
'''Sources'''
==The Modern Age of Comic Books==
* {{Cite book|title= Comic book nation: the transformation of youth culture in America|last= Wright|first= Bradford W.|year= 2001|publisher= JHU Press|isbn= 978-0-8018-6514-5|url-access= registration|url= https://archive.org/details/comicbooknationt00wrig}}
{{essay-entry|section}}
* {{Cite book |title= Feminism in the Worlds of Neil Gaiman: Essays on the Comics, Poetry, and Prose|last= Prescott|first= Tara|author2=Aaron Drucker |year= 2012|publisher= McFarland Press|isbn=978-0-7864-6636-8}}
Due to the fan–based nature of the comic book industry, many of the readers feel, either directly or indirectly, that they are involved in a social practice.<ref> By Jeffrey A. Brown, Black Superheroes: Milestone Comics and Their Fans, p. 129, 2001, University Press of Mississippi, ISBN 15780628291 </ref> The attachment to the titles and the characters obtains a life all its own. There is a sense of social contact with the books and the characters themselves.<ref> By Jeffrey A. Brown, Black Superheroes: Milestone Comics and Their Fans, p. 129, 2001, University Press of Mississippi, ISBN 15780628291 </ref> By adopting these properties, a unique relationship for the reader develops. Due to this relationship, the context in which women are presented in comic books can have various effects.
 
==Further reading and films==
This portrayal would be put to the test in the Modern Age. While there were many examples of strong, female characters getting their own titles, including Ghost from Dark Horse Comics, [[Strangers in Paradise]] from Terry Moore, [[9 Chickweed Lane]], [[Birds of Prey]] and the newly invented Supergirl at DC Comics, it was not uncommon that sex was used to sell comics as well. In the 2000’s, Frank Cho’s [[Liberty Meadows]] was a key example of having strong female roles but blending it with skimpy outfits and the occasional nudity.
* [[Maurice Horn|Horn, Maurice]]. ''Women in the Comics'' (Chelsea House, 1977)
 
* Madrid, Mike, foreword by Maria Elena Buszek (2013) ''Divas, Dames & Daredevils: Lost Heroines of Golden Age Comics''. Exterminating Angel Press. {{ISBN|978-1935259237}}
===Bad Girl Trend===
* ''[[Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines]]'' (2012) – documentary film
The creation of sexy female characters was very common with independent publishers. The most infamous example of this type was in Team Youngblood #14, from Image Comics, and published in the mid-1990’s. The character Riptide poses nude for a men’s magazine and is dismissed from Team Youngblood. [[Image Comics]] continued to set the trend with its very popular [[Gen¹³]], in which many of the characters appeared in bikinis or in skimpy clothing holding guns. Other characters from Image included Voodoo and Witchblade (later part of the Top Cow Imprint).
{{Comics}}{{stock characters}}
 
The decade would continue with other sexually suggestive characters from the independents including [[Barb Wire]] (from Dark Horse Comics), [[Lady Death]] (from Chaos! Comics), Lady Rawhide (from Topps Comics), [[Mantra (comic book)|Mantra]] (from Malibu Ultraverse), and [[Vampirella]] (from Harris Comics). Even a popular brand like DC Comics’ Vertigo imprint started to capitalize on the trend. Books such as Codename: Knockout and Vamps were published in the 1990’s. By the time the speculator market crashed, most of these “bad girl” comics met their end.
 
====Marvel and DC====
The trend towards sexually suggestive characters was also felt at Marvel Comics. In the early 1990s, characters such as the Invisible Woman (see Fantastic Four # 375) and the [[Scarlet Witch]] (see Scarlet Witch #1) started wearing revealing outfits. She-Hulk was also doing a nude jump rope issue in The Sensational [[She-Hulk]] #40. It is worth noting that the first truly sexually suggestive character in the Marvel Comics mythos appeared in the [[Bronze Age of Comic Books]] in the form of the White Queen. The White Queen appeared in the X-Men during the [[Dark Phoenix]] saga and her lingerie-like outfits and sadistic treatment of people bordered on the limits of good taste. At DC Comics, writer [[William Messner-Loebs]] and artist [[Mike Deodato]]'s run on [[Wonder Woman#Post-P.C3.A9rez|Wonder Woman]] was known for having the Amazons in skimpy clothing.
 
===Body Image===
[[Image:Strangers in Paradise v3 no1 cover b.jpg|thumb|''Strangers in Paradise'' volume 3, issue 1 alternate cover. Francine at left, Katchoo at right.]]
 
During the Modern Age of Comics, an issue that has gained attention in society is body image. Many images of women in popular culture have been accused of altering what people perceive as appropriate body types. The learned body image that develops is deeply tied to gender identity. The range of eating disorders and body image that are developed come from what people believe to be the cultural ideal.<ref>Margaret L. Andersen and Howard F. Taylor, Sociology: The Essentials, Third Edition, p. 275, Thomson Wadsworth, 2005 </ref> An example of a character with an imperfect body type but still has a fan following is Francine from [[Strangers in Paradise]]. Francine has a round face and a small collection of fat underneath the chin, while appearing as slightly overweight. Her stomach is not flat and does not display any discernable muscle tone. She is what Trina Robbins describes as “pleasingly plump” and is very far from the stereotypes of anorexic and exaggerated female forms.<ref>Trina Robbins, From Girls to Grrrlz: a History of Women’s Comics from Teens to Zines, p. 139, Diane Pub Co, 1999, ISBN 0756781205 </ref>
 
Another example of body image in comics is in a flashback tale set in Smallville. Set in Clark Kent’s high school days, Clark sees others laughing at an overweight girl that is called “Marge the Barge” because she does not have a date for the homecoming dance. Clark Kent decides to reject Lana Lang’s offer to be his date for the homecoming dance, and asks out Marge the Barge.<ref>ACTION COMICS #791, “The Invitation”, Benjamin Raab, DC Comics, July 2002 </ref>
 
She actually rejects him because she feels he is asking her out due to self-pity. She tells him that after the dance, she will be long gone. Clark interprets this as suicide and is concerned. Upon seeing her standing on the edge of the bridge in town, he screams at her to not jump. After a discussion, Clark finds out the she will be long gone due to early admissions to college.<ref>ACTION COMICS #791, “The Invitation”, Benjamin Raab, DC Comics, July 2002 </ref>
 
After getting to know each other, Clark takes her to homecoming. With some help from Lana Lang, the Homecoming vote is rigged and Clark and Marge become Homecoming King and Queen. Once the event is over, Marge goes home and is hit by a drunk driver on the same bridge where she talked to Clark. The driver was a drunk teenager who was bitter that he was not made Homecoming King. Clark assumed that because she was overweight, that she was suicidal, and once he got to know her, he found that she was a likeable person.<ref>ACTION COMICS #791, “The Invitation”, Benjamin Raab, DC Comics, July 2002 </ref>
 
====Satire====
The excess of exaggerated comic-book women has been satirized on occasion within the medium. Writer-artist [[Jhonen Vasquez]] featured a tall, blonde, buxom, scantily clad, dumb superheroine in the [[alternative press]] comic ''Squee!'' #2, with the storyline addressing her ability to stand up straight with an improbably tiny waist and overlarge chest. After a poke to the forehead, she tips over and her superhero career comes to an end as her spine snaps from the weight.
 
In 2002, writer [[Steve Gerber]]'s ''[[Howard the Duck]]'' [[miniseries]] for [[Marvel Comics]]' mature-reader imprint [[Marvel MAX]] approached the topic of scantily clad superheroines, within a larger satirical framework. Issue #2 featured nudity, as Beverly's bare chest was visible in the shower. In issue #3, Howard and his human companion [[Beverly Switzler]] run across a woman police officer who has acquired the "Doucheblade", a parody of [[Image Comics]]' [[Witchblade]], which transforms the officer into a superheroine whose chest expand and whose clothes disappear.
 
===Gen¹³===
{{Unreferenced|date=January 2007}}
[[Image:G13_05.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Gen¹³ #5 cover by [[J. Scott Campbell]]]]
''[[Gen¹³]]'' was subjected to controversy in its early years, as most controversy emerged from J. Scott Campbell’s depiction of the female form.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The title often depicted the main character, Caitlin Fairchild, a teenager, scantily clothed. The innuendoes were also part of the covers, as some were known for being risqué. Said covers were as follows:
 
* '''Gen¹³ Encore''': Featured Fairchild in a skimpy French maid's outfit.
* '''Gen¹³''', Volume 2, Issue #1, Alternate Cover: A satire of the Janet Jackson topless ''Rolling Stone'' cover, in which Freefall appears with Grunge's hands covering/holding her bare breasts.
* '''Gen¹³''', Volume 2, Issue #2: Shows a villain looking through a video monitor at Fairchild in a bikini.
* '''Gen¹³''', Volume 2, Issue #30: Fairchild is in a bikini, while in the background, Grunge drops sunscreen on a topless Freeall, lying on her stomach.
*'''Gen¹³ Bootleg''', Volume 1, Issue #9: The headline on the cover is ''All-Exploitation Issue''
*'''Gen¹³ Bootleg''', Volume 1, Issue #10: Fairchild and Grunge are both nude and tied up and gagged. The Bondage Imagery is prevalent throughout the title.
 
====Rainmaker====
Volume #1, Issue #2 created controversy when the character of [[Sarah Rainmaker]] was revealed to be a [[lesbian]], with the following issue's letters pages containing letters protesting that lesbianism was not appropriate for comic books. The [[gay community]] did not react positively to the portrayal of Rainmaker as a flighty lesbian when, in the next few issues, she made out with male teammate [[Burnout]] while drunk. Further controversy followed when it was made known{{Fact|date=February 2007}} that a panel showing Rainmaker sharing an open mouth kiss with another woman was replaced with one of a tepid kiss on the forehead. In addition, Native American critics noted{{Fact|date=February 2007}} that Rainmaker was the latest in a long line of exotic Indian princesses meant to titillate white males with a hint of forbidden sex.
 
==Evolving themes==
In the 21st Century, the roles of many women have changed. Roles and choices such as single parenting, same-sex relationships, and positions of power in the workplace have come to define many women in modern society. These roles have found their way into the comic books of the 21st Century as well. Lesbian relationships were initially featured in [[underground comics|underground]] and in alternative titles, such as Julie Doucet's ''Dirty Plotte'', before entering the mainstream with [[Image Comics]]' [[Gen¹³]] and [[Marvel Comics]]' ''[[Exiles]]'' #34 (Nov. 2003).
 
===Lesbian relationships===
Marvel Comics' Exiles is a team of mutants from [[alternate-reality]] universes. Each member of the loose-knit group is attempting to find his or her way back home by repairing "broken chains of time". One of the characters an alternate version of [[Mariko Yashida]], known in her universe as the superpowered mutant [[Sunfire]]. She and her teammate [[Nocturne (comics)|Noctunre]] end up on a version of Earth where most of the characters are plagued by the [[Legacy Virus]].<ref>''Exiles'' #34 (Nov. 2003)</ref> In this alternate Earth, [[Mary Jane Watson]] has Spider-Man's powers and abilities. The two characters are romantically linked and kiss each other. While Nocturne speaks with the alternate-Earth version of [[Hank McCoy]], Watson and Yashida are seen sharing a bed in a post-coital scene, with Watson saying she'd always known Yashida was gay.
 
===Single parenting===
Single Parenthood starts to become a prevalent issue in this age with both Marvel and DC. Jessica Jones, the wife of [[Luke Cage]], aka Power Man, leaves the United States with their baby, out of fear for the events of the Civil War.<ref>New Avengers 22, New Avengers Disassembled: Part Two, Brian Michael Bendis, Writer, Marvel Comics Group, 2006</ref> Jones goes to [[Toronto]] with her child, while Luke Cage fights with Captain America’s “Secret Avengers”, in opposition to the [[Superhero Registration Act]]. DC’s [[Birds of Prey]] series also tackles the issue of single parenting. The [[Black Canary]] gives up being a hero to take care of her newly adopted daughter. “It’s more important for me to be faithful to you, and that means getting you away from all the costumes and crazies. See, the mistake mom was afraid I’d repeat was that I wouldn’t spend enough time with my own kid.”<ref>Birds of Prey 100, “Keepsakes”, Tony Bedard and Gail Simone, p. 50, DC Comics, January 2007 </ref>
 
==Women as victims==
Another impact on the role of women is their role as victims. The death of [[Mockingbird (Marvel Comics)|Mockingbird]] in ''[[Avengers West Coast]]'' #100, and the distraught condition of the [[Invisible Woman]] after the death of Mr. Fantastic in ''[[Fantastic Four]]'' #381 reinforce the perceived [[misogynist]] trend in comics called [[Women in Refrigerators]], a term coined by [[Gail Simone]]. The term refers to an incident in a ''[[Green Lantern]]'' comic book in which [[Kyle Rayner|title hero]] comes home to his apartment to find that his girlfriend, [[Alexandra DeWitt|Alex DeWitt]], had been killed by the villain [[Major Force]] and stuffed in a [[refrigerator]].<ref>Green Lantern #54, No Title, Ron Marz, Writer, 1994.</ref>
 
In theory,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} female characters are made to suffer more than their male counterparts. Women close to heroes suffer in order to increase dramatic tension for the heroes themselves, and more often than their male characters are not allowed to return to their former [[status quo]] &mdash; a trend John Bartol called "Dead Men Defrosting", giving the example of both [[Batman]] and [[Batgirl]] suffering similarly severe [[Vertebral column|spinal]] injuries, with the former eventually recovering and the latter remaining in a [[wheelchair]].<ref>[http://www.unheardtaunts.com/wir/r-jbartol2.html/ Women in Refrigerators: "Dead Men Defrosting"]</ref>
 
==See also==
*[[William Marston]]
*[[Good girl art]]
*[[Bad girl art]]
*[[Women in Refrigerators|Woman in Refrigerator syndrome]]
*[[9 Chickweed Lane]]
*[[Silver Age of Comic Books]]
*[[Bronze Age of Comic Books]]
*[[Modern Age of Comic Books]]
 
==Footnotes==
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==References==
* Walker, Douglas J. (EDT) Cognitive Technology: essays on the transformation of thought and society, 2004, McFarland and Company, ISBN 0786419741
 
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[[Category:Women in comics| ]]
[[Category:History of American comics]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of women| ]]
[[Category:Feminist comics| ]]
[[Category:Depictions of people in comics]]
[[Category:Women and comics]]
[[Category:Women in the United States]]