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{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{about|the species of bird}}
{{speciesbox
| status =
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2020 |title=''Terathopius ecaudatus'' |volume=2020 |page=e.T22695289A174413323 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22695289A174413323.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| image = Bataleur - Kruger National park (37161617713).jpg
| image_upright = 1.2
| genus = Terathopius
| parent_authority = [[René Primevère Lesson|Lesson]], 1830
| display_parents = 2
| species = ecaudatus
| authority = ([[François Marie Daudin|Daudin]], 1800)
| range_map = Gaukler Terathopius ecaudatus world.png
| range_map_upright = 1.2
| range_map_caption =
}}
The '''bateleur''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|b|æ|t|ə|ˈ|l|ɜːr|,_|ˈ|b|æ|t|əl|ɜːr}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref> '''''Terathopius ecaudatus'''''), also known as the '''bateleur eagle''', is a medium-sized [[eagle]] in the family [[Accipitridae]]. It is often considered a relative of the [[snake eagle]]s and, like them, it is classified within the subfamily [[Circaetinae]].<ref name= BOTW>Kemp, A. C., G. M. Kirwan, and D. A. Christie (2020). ''Bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus)'', version 1.0. In Birds of the World (J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal, D. A. Christie, and E. de Juana, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA.</ref> It is the only member of the [[genus]] ''Terathopius'' and may be the origin of the "[[Zimbabwe Bird]]", the national emblem of [[Zimbabwe]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victoriafalls-guide.net/zimbabwe-bird.html|title=Zimbabwe Bird|work=victoriafalls-guide.net}}</ref> Adult bateleurs are generally black in colour with a chestnut colour on the mantle as well as also on the rump and tail. Adults also have gray patches about the leading edges of the wings (extending to the secondaries in females) with bright red on their cere and their feet. Adults also show white greater coverts, contrasting with black remiges in males, gray patches on the underwing primaries and black wingtips. The juvenile bateleur is quite different, being largely drab brown with a bit of paler feather scaling. All bateleurs have extremely large heads for their size, rather small bills, large feet, relatively short legs, long, bow-like wings and uniquely short tails, which are much smaller still on adults compared to juvenile birds.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees>{{cite book |last1=Ferguson-Lees |first1=J. |last2=Christie |first2=D. |year=2001 |title=''Raptors of the World'' |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=0-618-12762-3}}</ref><ref name=Roberts>Hockey, P.A.R.; Dean, W.R.J. and Ryan, P.G. 2016. Roberts VII Birds of Southern Africa. John Voelcker Book Fund.</ref>
This species is native to broad areas of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] and scarcely up into [[Arabia]]. It is characteristically a bird of somewhat [[Open terrain|open habitats]] such as [[savanna]] with some trees present and open dry [[woodland]].<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> It is in life history, a rather peculiar bird of prey with a free-wheeling [[Generalist and specialist species|generalist]] diet that includes much [[carrion]] but also tends to hunt a wide range of live prey, including many small to unexpectedly relatively large [[mammal]]s and [[reptile]]s along with generally relatively small [[bird]]s.<ref name= Steyn>Steyn, P. (1983). ''Birds of prey of southern Africa: Their identification and life histories''. Croom Helm, Beckenham (UK). 1983.</ref> Bateleurs are highly aerial birds that spend much time soaring and will frequently fly with exaggerated embellishments, perhaps when excited or angered.<ref name= Display>Watson, R. T. (1989). ''Aggressive display and territoriality of the bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus''. African Zoology, 24(2), 146-150.</ref> They tend to build a relatively small if sturdy stick nest in a large tree and lay only a single egg.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> Despite being a rather aggressive bird in other contexts, bateleurs are easily flushed from their own nest, making them exceptionally vulnerable to nest predators, including humans, and nest failures.<ref name= Herholdt>Herholdt, J. J., Kemp, A. C., & Du Plessis, D. (1996). ''Aspects of the breeding status and ecology of the Bateleur and Tawny Eagle in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, South Africa''. Ostrich, 67(3-4), 126-137.</ref> It may take as long as 7 to 8 years to attain full maturity, perhaps the longest stretch to maturity of any raptor.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/> This species has long been known to be declining rather pronouncedly in overall population and it is mostly confined to [[protected areas]] today.<ref name= Brown>Brown, L. & Amadon, D. (1986). ''Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World''. The Wellfleet Press. {{ISBN|978-1555214722}}.</ref><ref name= Thiollay>Thiollay, J. M. (2007). ''Raptor declines in West Africa: comparisons between protected, buffer and cultivated areas''. Oryx, 41(3), 322-329.</ref><ref name= Garbett>Garbett, R., Herremans, M., Maude, G., Reading, R. P., & Amar, A. (2018). ''Raptor population trends in northern Botswana: A re-survey of road transects after 20 years''. Biological Conservation, 224, 87-99.</ref> Currently the [[IUCN]] classifies the bateleur as an [[Endangered species]] due primarily to [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] causes such as [[habitat destruction]], [[pesticide]] usage and [[persecution]].<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />
==Taxonomy and etymology==
The bateleur has been found to be a proper member of the subfamily [[Circaetinae]], commonly called snake or serpent eagles, via a variety of genetic studies.<ref name= GRIN>Global Raptor Information Network. 2021. Species account: ''Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus''. Downloaded from http://www.globalraptors.org on 7 Oct. 2021.</ref> Given the outward similarities of the bateleur to snake eagles, the relationship has long been inferred by authors.<ref name= Brown/> In particular, the bateleur was suggested to have their closest living relations in the similarly large ''[[Circaetus]]'' snake eagles.<ref name= BOTW/><ref name= Sibley>Sibley, C. G., & Monroe, B. L. (1990). ''Distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world''. Yale University Press.</ref> This relationship was well borne-out by a genetic study that found that this species and the [[short-toed snake eagle]] (''Circaetus gallicus'') form a [[Monophyly|monophyletic]] [[clade]], based on [[Nucleic acid sequence|nucleotide sequences]] in the [[Cytochrome b|cytochrome ''b'']] [[gene]].<ref name= Wink>Wink, M., & Sauer-Gürth, H. (2000). ''Advances in the molecular systematics of African raptors''. Raptors at risk, 135147.</ref> Even though, when contrasted with snake eagles, bateleurs appear to differ greatly in plumage patterns, the two genera show certain similarities in food, feeding behavior, and breeding biology.<ref name= GRIN/> However, Lerner and Mindell (2005), based on the molecular sequence from two [[mitochondrial gene]]s and one [[Intron|nuclear intron]], indicated a previously unsuspected close relationship of the bateleur with similarly "aberrant" but extremely different, in nearly every respect of appearance and life history, member of the Circaetinae, the [[Philippine eagle]] (''Pithecophaga jefferyi'').<ref name= Lerner>Lerner, H. R., & Mindell, D. P. (2005). ''Phylogeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA''. Molecular phylogenetics and evolution, 37(2), 327-346.</ref> [[Chromosome]] banding studies have also found a relatively recent genetic relationship of the bateleurs with the [[Old World vulture]]s.<ref>Bed'Hom, B. T., Darré, R., & Fillon, V. (1998). ''Chromosome banding studies in the Bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus, Aves, Accipitridae)''. Chromosome research: an international journal on the molecular, supramolecular and evolutionary aspects of chromosome biology, 6(6), 437-440.</ref>
The common name of "''Bateleur''" is [[French language|French]] for "street performer".<ref name="dictionary.reverso.net">{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reverso.net/french-english/bateleur|title=bateleur translation English - French dictionary - Reverso|work=reverso.net}}</ref> Meanwhile, the [[Binomial nomenclature|scientific name]] is from name ''teras'' ([[Greek language|Greek]]) for "marvelous"; ''ops'' (Greek) for "face"; ''e'' ([[Latin]]) for "without"; ''caudatus'' (Latin) "tail".<ref name="Steyn" /> The bird was given its common name by [[François Levaillant]], a French naturalist and explorer.<ref name="Steyn" /> The original scientific name was ''[[Falcon|Falco ecaudatus]]'', given by [[François Marie Daudin]], as the concept of disparate genera between birds of prey was devised later on (nor were [[falcon]]s then known to be unrelated to many other variety of diurnal birds of prey).<ref>Cassin, J. (1867). ''Fasti Ornithologiæ''. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 212-221.</ref>
==Description==
[[File:Terathopius-ecaudatus-01.jpg|thumb|left|Close-up of head]]
[[File:Terathopius ecaudatus Flickr1.jpg|thumb|right|A captive immature bateleur]]
The bateleur is of note for its unique morphology and plumage, with some anatomical similarities to both snake eagles and [[Old world vulture|vultures]]. The species has a thick neck and a very large, rather conspicuously [[cowl]]ed head with a proportionately short bill, albeit one covered with a very large cere. The cowl is also present on snake eagles but in those it is less dramatically apparent.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/> The other features in perched adult bateleurs are rather oddly stumpy, such as the short legs and exceptionally short tail, possibly the shortest proportionately of all raptors.<ref name= Clark>Clark, B., & Davies, R. (2018). ''African Raptors''. Bloomsbury Publishing.</ref> Its posture while perched is extremely upright, making them look like quite a tall raptor on the ground despite its rather short legs. Even while perched, the body tends to be dominated by their exceptionally large wings, which possess some 25 [[Flight feather|secondary feathers]], perhaps more than any other raptor.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> The adult bateleur usually has a chestnut coloration along the [[Mantle (bird anatomy)|mantle]], back, rump and tail, including the undertail [[Covert feather|coverts]]. The adult male bateleur is predominantly black with grey shoulders, which appear edged with white when freshly [[Moulting|moulted]]. The adult female differs by having grey-brown, not black, on the greater coverts and black-tipped grey, not black, secondaries. Furthermore up to 7% of adults have a "cream morph" where they have chestnut tails but the other chestnut areas are almost fully replaced by cream to pale brown coloring. The cream morph may reportedly be slightly more prevalent in drier areas.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= GRIN/><ref name="Newmans">Newman, K (1998). ''Newman's Birds of Southern Africa''. Halfway House: Southern Book Publishers. {{ISBN|1868127680}}.</ref> The bare parts of adult bateleurs are exceptionally conspicuous, with the adult cere, bare facial skin and feet all being rather bright red, however in some they can also temporarily fade to pink, pale pink or yellowish at times, such as when they are perching in the shade or bathing. The bare parts flush the most red during times of excitement. The [[Beak|bill]] itself is black with a yellow centre and red base. The eyes are dark brown.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/>
The juvenile is very distinct from the adults of the species. Juveniles of the bateleur have a longer tail than mature birds. They furthermore have essentially all brown coloring, with dull rufous to creamy edging apparent on some areas. The head of the juvenile bateleur is paler and tawnier than elsewhere on its body while the eyes are brown, the cere a rather unique greenish-blue and the feet whitish in colour.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Zimmerman>Zimmerman, D. A., Pearson, D. J., & Turner, D. A. (2020). ''Birds of Kenya and northern Tanzania''. Bloomsbury Publishing.</ref><ref name=":1">BirdLife International (2019) Species factsheet: ''Terathopius ecaudatus''. Downloaded fromhttp://www.birdlife.org on 29/07/2019.</ref> At as late as 2–3 years of age, the immature bateleur is still much the same in appearance as the juvenile but by the fourth year becomes more sooty-brown, with [[sexual dimorphism]] already evidenced by the more extensive dark wing markings of males. In the 5th year, the plumage may show the first signs of chestnut and the grey colour about back and shoulders tend to manifest. Also from 3–5 years old, the cere and feet turn yellow then to dull-pink. By the sixth and seventh years of life, the plumage of subadult bateleurs blackens and the chestnut portions of the plumage increase. The shoulders become fully grey by the 8th year, the likely age of maturity.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown2>Brown, L. H., & Cade, T. J. (1972). ''Age classes and population dynamics of the Bateleur and African Fish Eagle''. Ostrich, 43(1), 1-16.</ref> As for the bare parts in juvenile bateleurs, the cere and facial skin are a distinct pale grey-blue to green-blue. The juvenile's feet are greenish-white to greyish-white, at 4-5 the cere, facial skin and feet turn yellow, then pink before finally reddening. The eyes are similar in hue to those of adult bateleurs but are a slightly lighter, being more honey-brown, while the bill of juveniles are mainly pale grey-blue in colour.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/>
[[File:Bateleur Eagle (Terathopius ecaudatus) female (12908938095).jpg|thumb|left|Adult female bateleurs show more grey to the wing than males.]]
In flight, the bateleur appears as a rather large raptor with disproportionately elongated, rather narrow and slightly bow-shaped wings, which appear pinched in at the bases, broad across the secondaries and regularly narrow, pointed and upturned at the tips. Upon sighting, the wings often catch the eye before the large head, which is proportionately slightly bigger even than their cousins, the snake eagles.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Kemp2>Kemp, A., & Kemp, M. (2006). ''Sasol Birds of Prey: New Edition''. Struik.</ref> The tail is so short in adult bateleurs that the feet extend below the tail tip, almost giving the impression that the raptor nearly has no tail.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Clark/> This is as opposed to juveniles, where the feet come up about {{convert|5|cm|in|abbr=on}} short of the tail tip, with the feet coming to exceed the tail, which is shrinking via [[Moulting|moults]], in length around the 5th year of maturation.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/> The adult bateleur's wingspan is an extraordinary 2.9 times greater than its total length.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> The adult male bateleur is mostly black above with a chestnut back and tail and grey forewings, below he is black on the body, contrasting with a chestnut tail, as well as with the white wing linings and black flight feathers except for the greyish based primaries. The adult female bateleur is similar in plumage to the male overall but differs in her black-tipped grey secondaries above and more extensively white underwings with the black on the female confined to the wingtips and trailing edges.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Clark/> The juvenile bateleur on the wing appears broader winged and especially longer tailed with a largely uniform brown coloration, including the greater coverts, with paler feather mainly about the head as well as on the flight feathers.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/>
===Size===
The bateleur is a mid-sized eagle and large raptor. It is likely the second heaviest of the [[Circaetinae]] subfamily of accipitrids. By far the largest of the subfamily is the [[Philippine eagle]] which is more than twice as massive and is far larger in all aspects of measurement than the bateleur, with a drastically differing structure (broad, relatively short wings, very long legs and tail). One traditional snake eagle, the [[brown snake eagle]] ('' Circaetus cinereus''), rivals the bateleur in most aspects of size including body mass but possesses a rather longer tail and slightly shorter but broader wings. Additionally, the widespread and slightly broader-winged [[short-toed snake eagle]] and proportionately long and slender-winged [[black-breasted snake eagle]] (''Circaetus pectoralis'') can be nearly as large in wingspan as the bateleur but tend to be somewhat less heavy.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= BOTW/><ref name= CRC>{{cite book |title=''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses'' |edition=2nd |editor-first=John B. Jr. |editor-last=Dunning |publisher=CRC Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4200-6444-5}}</ref> The total length of the bateleur is {{convert|55|to|70|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Sinclair>Sinclair, I., Hockey, P., Tarboton, W., Ryan, P., & Perrins, N. (2020). ''Sasol birds of Southern Africa''. Penguin Random House South Africa.</ref> Typical length of a full-grown bird is around {{convert|63.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref>Chittenden, R. (2014). ''Birds of Prey of the World''. St. Martin's Publishing Group.</ref><ref>Hancock, P., & Weiersbye, I. (2015). ''Birds of Botswana (Vol. 103)''. Princeton University Press.</ref> The wingspan of bateleurs can vary from {{convert|168|to|190|cm|ftin|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> Body mass of bateleurs can vary from {{convert|1800|to|3000|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Clark2>Clark, W. S. (1999). ''A Field Guide to the raptors of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa''. Oxford University Press, USA.</ref> One sample of 10 unsexed bateleurs weighed an average of {{convert|2200|g|lb|abbr=on}} while a smaller sample of three weighed an average of {{convert|2392|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= CRC/><ref>J. M. Mendelsohn, A. C. Kemp, H. C. Biggs, R. Biggs & C. J. Brown(1989) ''Wing Areas, Wing loading and Wing Spans of 66 Species of African Raptors''. Ostrich, Vol. 60, No.1, p.35-60</ref> Additionally, a median body mass of {{convert|2385|g|lb|abbr=on}} was cited in one study.<ref name= Shaw>Shaw, P., Kibuule, M., Nalwanga, D., Kaphu, G., Opige, M., & Pomeroy, D. (2019). ''Implications of farmland expansion for species abundance, richness and mean body mass in African raptor communities''. Biological conservation, 235, 164-177.</ref>
The bateleur evidences some [[sexual dimorphism]] in favour of the female as is expected in raptorial birds but this size difference is fairly minimal relative to many other accipitrids, averaging up to about 6%.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> Among standard measurements, males have a [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] length of {{convert|476|to|553|mm|in|abbr=on}} while that of the female is {{convert|530|to|559|mm|in|abbr=on}}. In [[tail]] length, adult males measure {{convert|98|to|124|mm|in|abbr=on}} and can be even shorter in adult females at {{convert|105|to|113|mm|in|abbr=on}}, in some cases the adult's tail may reportedly measure as short as {{convert|72|mm|in|abbr=on}}. This contrasts with the tail of juvenile bateleurs which measures {{convert|142|to|172|mm|in|abbr=on}}. The [[Tibiotarsus|tarsus]] can measure from {{convert|67|to|75|mm|in|abbr=on}} in males and {{convert|72|to|75|mm|in|abbr=on}} in females. Unsexed adult bateleurs in [[Tsavo East National Park]] were found to average {{convert|513|mm|in|abbr=on}} in wing chord length, {{convert|34.5|mm|in|abbr=on}} with a range of {{convert|28.6|to|38|mm|in|abbr=on}} in [[Beak|culmen]] length and a relatively small [[Claw|hind claw]] length of {{convert|30.6|mm|in|abbr=on}}. While the hind or hallux claw is usually the most enlarged in most species of accipitrid, on the other hand in the Tsavo East bateleurs, unusually the middle claw on the front of the foot was slightly larger at {{convert|32|mm|in|abbr=on}}. Notably the proportions of bateleurs are similar to snake eagles with robust feet with rough, thick skin and short talons, the bateleur in particular having very thick, large toes structurally almost like those of a big [[owl]] and very sharp talons reminiscent in sharpness of highly predaceous larger African raptors. Further like snake eagles, bateleurs have a rather large headed but with a smallish beak coupled with a large gape. These adaptations generally equip the subfamily to better handle and ingest snakes relative to other accipitrids.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Smeenk>Smeenk, C. (1974). ''Comparative-ecological studies of some East African birds of prey''. Ardea 62 (1-2) : 1-97.</ref><ref name= Steyn2>Steyn, P. (1965). ''Some observations on the bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus (Daudin)''. Ostrich, 36(4), 203-213.</ref><ref>'' The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Micropaedia: Knowledge in Depth: Vol 15''. Encyclopædia Britannica (1997).</ref>
===Identification===
[[File:Terathopius ecaudatus 376752964.jpg|thumb|The practically unmistakable form of a bateleur in flight.]]
The bateleur, particularly in its adult plumage, is often considered one of the most distinctive raptors in the world.<ref name= Unwin>Unwin, M., & Tipling, D. (2018). ''The Empire of the Eagle: An Illustrated Natural History''. Yale University Press.</ref> When perched or flying adults or older immatures are quite unmistakable.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> The bateleur can be readily be distinguished even by inexperienced observers from the very differently-shaped and usually rather smaller-bodied and winged [[augur buzzard]]s (''Buteo augur'') and [[jackal buzzard]]s (''Buteo rufofuscus''). These do not overlap with bateleurs in nearly all respects of morphology, proportions nor flight actions. Nonetheless, both of these buzzards are sometimes mistaken for bateleurs due to their own combinations of black, white and chestnut, which are completely differently composed than those of the bateleur.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Clark/><ref name= Kemp2/> Despite how distinctive the buzzards are from the bateleur, some reports of bateleurs from areas where they are currently gone are almost certain to have been misidentified jackal buzzards.<ref name= Steyn/> Juveniles and immatures of up to 2–3 years old are hardly less distinctive in shape but could be confused, largely due to similar proportions of their large head, brown plumage and whitish legs with certain snake eagles. The [[brown snake eagle]] is perhaps the most similar to the juvenile bateleur but it has yellow eyes, longer legs, much broader, shorter and differently shaped wings with the tips of wings reaching its banded tail.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/> Even the [[Black-chested snake eagle|black-chested]] and the rather slight [[Beaudouin's snake eagle]] (''Circaetus beaudouinii'') are sometimes considered potentially confusable with juvenile bateleurs, but both of these respective species are rather uniform and darker brown ventrally and about the head and much paler dorsally, with a highly different contrasting whitish cream colour below.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/>
===Vocalizations===
Bateleurs are usually silent for much of the year.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> The main call, uttered whether perched or in aerial display, or when pirating from other raptors, is a far-carrying, loud raucous ''schaaaa-aw''. They may too vocalize in a similar manner during courtship. Alternatively, bateleur calls may consist of resonant barking calls, ''kow-aw''. The barking call can be accompanied by half-spread wings and jerking of the body up and down or may too be uttered in flight, the latter in a similar manner to that of a [[African fish eagle|fish eagle]].<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/> Distraction display are sometimes accompanied by subdued barking chatter, ''ka-ka-ka-ka''....<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn2/> A not dissimilar call of ''kau-kau-kau-koaagh-koaggh'' has been described as given by perched birds.<ref name= Brown/> Other softer calls are uttered when perched near the nest.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> The young of the bateleur tend to engage harsh squealing call is ''kyup-kyup keeaw keeaw'', usually as a hunger call at approach of parent with food. Also the species' young may make a melodious ''twip'' call.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn2/>
==Distribution and habitat==
[[File:Bateleur des savanes.jpg|thumb|left|A savannah bateleur in Bénin]]
The bateleur occupies a very large range through mainly sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Allan>Allan, D. (1996). ''A Photographic Guide to Birds of Prey of Southern, Central and East Africa''. Cape Town: New Holland Publishers. {{ISBN|1853689033}}.</ref> The species resides in [[West Africa]] from southern [[Mauritania]] to [[Senegal]], [[The Gambia]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Guinea]], the northern portions of [[Sierra Leone]], [[Ivory Coast]] and much of [[Ghana]] through western [[Burkina Faso]], much of [[Togo]] and [[Benin]] and northern and central [[Nigeria]].<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /><ref name= Borrow>Borrow, N., & Demey, R. (2001). ''Birds of West Africa: an Identification Guide''. Helm Identification Guide Series, London.</ref><ref>Thiollay, J. M. (1985). ''The birds of Ivory Coast: Status and Distribution''. West African Ornithological Society.</ref><ref name= Cheke>Cheke, R. A., & Walsh, J. F. (1996). ''The Birds of Togo: an Annotated Check-list (No. 14)''. British Ornithologists' Union.</ref> It is possibly [[Local extinction|extinct]] in Mauritania, range restricted in Guinea (mainly to [[Kiang West National Park|Kiang West]]) and Liberia but is still locally common where good habitat remains elsewhere in this region.<ref name= Isenmann>Isenmann, P., Benmergui, M., Browne, P., Ba, A. D., Diagana, C. H., Diawara, Y., & El Abidine ould Sidaty, Z. (2010). ''Birds of Mauritania/Oiseaux de Mauritanie''. Société d’Études Ornithologiques de France, Paris.</ref><ref>Gore, M. E. J. (1990). ''Birds of the Gambia''. BOU Check-list, (3).</ref> Similarly far north, a rare population is believed to persist out of Africa in extreme southwestern [[Saudi Arabia]] and western [[Yemen]].<ref>Jennings, M. C. (1981). ''The Virds of Saudi Arabia: a Check-list''. MC Jennings.</ref><ref>Martins, R. P., Bradshaw, C. G., Brown, A., Kirwan, G. M., & Porter, R. F. (1996). ''The status of passerines in southern Yemen and the records of the OSME survey in spring 1993''. Sandgrouse, 17, 54-72.</ref> In central and east Africa, the bateleur may be found in northern [[Cameroon]], southern [[Niger]], southern [[Chad]], southern [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], northern [[Central African Republic]], [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Djibouti]], western [[Somalia]], northern, eastern and southern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and a majority of [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]].<ref>Nikolaus, G. (1987). ''Distribution atlas of Sudan's Birds with notes on Habitat and Status''. Zoologisches Forschungsinstitut und Museum Alexander Koenig.</ref><ref name= Ash>Ash, C. P., & Atkins, J. D. (2009). ''Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: an Atlas of Distribution''. A&C Black.</ref><ref name= Ash2>Ash, J., & Miskell, J. (2020). Birds of Somalia. Bloomsbury Publishing.</ref><ref name= Carswell>Carswell, M., Pomeroy, D. E., Reynolds, J. & Tushabe H. (2005). ''Bird Atlas of Uganda''. London: British Ornithologists' Union and British Ornithological Club.</ref><ref>Stevenson, T., & Fanshawe, J. (2002). ''Field Guide to the Birds of East Africa: Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi''. T. & AD Poyser.</ref> In [[Southern Africa]], the bateleur is found quite widely, being found almost throughout, where habitat is favorable, [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Malawi]] and [[Mozambique]]. Additionally, they may range [[Botswana]] in all but southernmost portion also being found still in northern and eastern [[Namibia]] and northwestern [[South Africa]], where its range has contracted considerably from as far south once as the [[Cape Province]] to almost entirely to being found exclusively within [[protected area]]s north of the [[Orange River]] excepting a portion of [[Kruger National Park]].<ref name= GRIN/><ref name= Dean>Dean, W. R. J. (2000). ''The Birds of Angola: an Annotated Checklist''. BOU Checklist No. 18.</ref><ref name= Dowsett>Dowsett, R. J., Aspinwall, D. R., & Dowsett-Lemaire, F. (2008). ''The Birds of Zambia: an Atlas and Handbook''. Tauraco Press.</ref><ref name= Dowsett-Lemaire>Dowsett-Lemaire, F. & Dowsett, R. J. (2006). ''The Birds of Malawi. An Atlas and Handbook''. Tauraco Press.</ref><ref name= Penry>Penry, H. (1994). ''Bird Atlas of Botswana''. University of Kwazulu Natal Press.</ref><ref name= Irwin>Irwin, M. P. S. (1981). ''The Birds of Zimbabwe''. Quest Pub.</ref><ref name= Reduction>Watson, R. T. (1983). Range reduction of the Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus and the development of agriculture in South Africa. In Proceedings of the Bird and Man symposium. Witwatersrand Bird Club, Johannesburg.</ref> The species is possibly extirpated from [[Eswatini]] in southern Africa.<ref name= Monadjem>Monadjem, A., & Rasmussen, M. W. (2008). ''Nest distribution and conservation status of eagles, selected hawks and owls in Swaziland''. Gabar, 19, 1-22.</ref> The bateleur is regarded as a vagrant in the countries of [[Tunisia]], [[Cyprus]] and rarely [[Egypt]], [[Israel]] and [[Iraq]].<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref>Willis, E.O. & Oniki, Y. (1993). ''An observation of Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus in northern Tunisia''. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 113:62-64.</ref><ref>Balmer, D. & Betton, K. (2007). ''Around the region''. Sandgrouse 29:122-128. van den Berg, A.B. 2007. WP reports. Dutch Birding 29:168-183.</ref> In April 2012 a juvenile bateleur was seen in [[Algeciras]] in southern Spain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://birdcadiz.com/terathopius-ecaudatus-aguila-volatinera-bateleur-1|website=BirdCadiz.com|title=Terathopius ecaudatus (Águila Volatinera – Bateleur)}}</ref> In 2015 and 2022, juveniles spotted as far north as [[Black Sea]] coast of [[Turkey]] in the cities of [[Istanbul]] and [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinop]] respectively.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://bolge10.tarimorman.gov.tr/Sayfalar/Detay.aspx?TermStoreId=368e785b-af33-487d-a98d-c11d5495130b&TermSetId=872be9f1-ad62-4514-b2c2-93a9e851a62e&TermId=fb841593-eb13-4a7b-90e6-762d1dc46795&UrlSuffix=1111 | title=Türkiye' de İlk Defa 2015 Yılında Görüntülenen Cambaz Kartal Yıllar Sonra Bu Defa Sinop' ta Görüntülendi… }}</ref>
===Habitat===
[[File:Bateleur (young and adult) at Savuti - Botswana - panoramio.jpg|thumb|right|An adult and juvenile in characteristic [[savanna]] habitat in [[Botswana]].]]
The bateleur is a common to fairly common resident or nomadic<ref name=":1" /> bird of the partially open [[savanna]] country and of [[woodland]] within Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Borrow/> During breeding, it tends to require closed-canopy savannah-woodland habitats, including [[Acacia]] savanna as well as [[mopane]] and [[miombo woodland]]s. They may too acclimate to [[thornveld]] and overall various fairly [[shrub]]by areas.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Penry/> It tends to rarely occur in heavily [[forest]]ed and [[Montane ecosystems|mountainous]] habitats. However, while the species can forage extensively in largely treeless habitats such as treeless savanna but is nearly as rare in pure [[desert]] lacking arborescent growth as it is in [[tropical rainforest]]s.<ref name=":0">Simmons, R. E., and C. J. Brown. "Bateleur ''Terathopius ecaudatus''." ''The Atlas of Southern African Birds'' 1 (1997): 202-203.</ref> Bateleurs are seldom to be found around extensive [[wetland]]s but may regularly be found near [[Depression (geology)|watering holes]].<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> Although often in fairly dry savanna habitats, in Kenya it is reportedly absent from areas where the rainfall is under {{convert|250|mm|in|abbr=on}} annually, probably because it limits the growth of the leafy trees that they require for nesting.<ref>Lewis, A., & Pomeroy, D. (2017). ''A bird atlas of Kenya''. Routledge.</ref> In Ethiopia, it tends to be associated with well-wooded areas.<ref name= Ash/> Habitat tends to be most closely studied in southern Africa.<ref name= Roberts/> It is mostly common found in broad-leaved woodland in the [[Okavango Delta]] in Botswana. In Namibia it is often found over tall woodland near [[Riparian zone|drainage lines]], and over [[ephemeral river]]s in north-eastern Namibia and within the more arid [[Etosha National Park]].<ref name=":0" /> In Zambia, it is found in a variety of habitats from woodlands to open plains but avoids the most densely wooded areas.<ref name= Dowsett/> Reportedly in Malawi, it is often associated with [[Forest–savanna mosaic]]s but is sometimes regularly seen over [[Agricultural land|cultivated areas]] and even may be seen flying over [[Urbanization|large cities]].<ref name= Dowsett-Lemaire/> To the contrary, in Mozambique it is said to avoid areas with a dense human population.<ref name= Parker>Parker, V. (2005). ''The Atlas of the Birds of central Mozambique''. Endangered Wildlife Trust and the Avian Demography Unit.</ref> The species can occur from sea level up to {{convert|4500|m|ft|abbr=on}}, but not normally a mountain-dwelling species and mainly occurs below {{convert|3000|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> This is supported in Zimbabwe, where the bateleur is relatively common but appears to largely avoid the extensive amount of hilly and rugged areas present in that country.<ref name= Irwin/>
==Behaviour==
[[File:Terathopius ecaudatus (45250338024).jpg|thumb|right|A juvenile bateleur flying while carrying a bird's foot in its mouth.]]
This bateleur is unusually conspicuous due to its propensity for gliding flights over favorable habitats in much of Africa.<ref name= Steyn/> The bird spends a considerable amount of time on the wing, particularly in low-altitude flights.<ref>Kemp, A. C. & Begg, K. S. (2001). ''Comparison of time-activity budgets and population structure for 18 large-bird species in the Kruger National Park, South Africa''. Ostrich: 72, 3-4: 179-184.</ref> Due to the conspicuous behaviour and colorful plumage, the bateleur is frequently described in superlatives such as "one of the most beautiful and spectacular things that flies".<ref name= Brown/> This species tends to take off with unusually fast, shallow beats for a bird of this relative large size.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> After take-off, the bateleur sails at a mean speed of about {{convert|50|to|60|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}. They often rock from side-to-side with the wings held in a strong [[Dihedral angle|dihedral]] with very limiting flapping, vaguely recalling the flight of the American [[turkey vulture]] (''Cathares aura'') although the flight is generally more forceful, fast and acrobatic than that species and at times can be evocative of a huge [[falcon]].<ref>Mallon, J. M., Bildstein, K. L., & Katzner, T. E. (2016). ''In-flight turbulence benefits soaring birds''. The Auk: Ornithological Advances, 133(1), 79-85.</ref><ref>Watson, R. T. (2011). ''19. Bateleur''. In: ''The Eagle Watchers'' (pp. 159-166). Cornell University Press.</ref> Although the species tends to fly fairly low, bateleurs can soar and circle quite high as well.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Clark/> Engaged in its aforementioned dihedral flight it is often cants continuously from side-to-side, likely the origin of which it was given its common name (loosely "tumbler", "balancer" or "tightrope walker") of French derivation.<ref name= Brown/> Various flying embellishments may be undertaken nearly aseasonally.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn2/> Although not typically given to forward somersault nor to loop-the-loop, bateleurs may with some regularity perform a rapid 360 degrees sideways roll.<ref name= Brown/> They are often given to flying with more embellishments when in the presence of another bateleur, even with juveniles provoking one another entirely uncoupled seemingly from breeding courtship or territorial displays.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> Typical home ranges of around {{convert|40|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} were reported per pair in [[Kruger National Park]] and these were considered unusually small by overall species standards.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> Intruders to whom this behaviour is displayed always submit and submission is shown by retreating to a safe upper boundary (elevation). Males and females both display this behaviour in all stages of the breeding cycle. This behaviour is mainly shown to members of the same sex and particularly to non-adults, as it is thought that they may have a greater ability to take over another bird's territory (having greater competitive ability for limited food resources).<ref name= Display/>
The bateleur is generally a solitary bird. However, juveniles may accompany one or both parents for about three months and loose congregations of as many as 40-50 or more have been record of mainly immatures. These tend to be [[Aggregation (ethology)|aggregations]] of otherwise unassociated immature bateleurs attracted to rich feeding areas such as newly-discovered [[carrion]], [[Wildfire|bush fires]], recently burnt areas or temporary [[Flooding|floods]] and occasionally by [[termite]] emergences.<ref name= BOTW/><ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> In the wild bateleurs are shy of man and sensitive to disturbance at the nest, easily abandoning the structure.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Roberts bird guide : illustrating nearly 1,000 species in Southern Africa|last=Chittenden, Hugh|others=Davies, Greg (Ornithologist), Weiersbye, Ingrid,, John Voelcker Bird Book Fund., Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology (Cape Town, South Africa)|isbn=9781920602017|edition= Second|___location=Cape Town|oclc=958354485|year = 2016}}</ref> In captivity, however, they become unusually tame.<ref>Moreau, R. E. "On the Bateleur, especially at the Nest." ''Ibis''87, no. 2 (1945): 224-249.</ref> Bateleur eagles are among a group of raptors that secrete a clear, salty fluid from their [[nares]] whilst eating. According to Schmidt-Nielson's 1964 hypothesis, this is due to the general necessity for birds to use an extrarenal mechanism of salt secretion to aid water reabsorption.<ref>Cade, T.J. & Greenwald, L. (1964). ''Nasal Salt Secretion in Falconiform Birds''. The Condor, Vol.68, No.4, p.338-350</ref>
===Nomadism and dispersals===
Generally, as in most raptors found as breeding residents in Africa, the bateleur is considered sedentary and territorial but it is a species that requires very large home ranges.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> However, in general the species neither as staunchly residential nor sedentary as many other Sub-Saharan African raptors.<ref name= Steyn2/><ref name= Dynamics>Watson, R. T. (1990). ''Population dynamics of the Bateleur in the Kruger National Park''. Ostrich, 61(1-2), 5-12.</ref> Both immature and sometimes adult bateleurs are considered clearly [[Nomadism|nomadic]].<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref>Urban, E. K. (1984). ''Birds of Prey of Southern Africa''. 639-641.</ref> At times, the bateleur is even regarded as an "irruptive or local [[Bird migration|migrant]]".<ref name= GRIN/><ref>Bildstein, K. L. (2006). ''Migrating Raptors of the World: their Ecology & Conservation''. Cornell University Press.</ref> Some regular north-to-south movements may occur in [[West Africa]] and may occur transequatorially in East Africa to avoid [[Wet season|heavy rains]].<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> In Kruger, immatures are driven out by adults on territory during the breeding season and then often wander widely before returning for the non-breeding season.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> Recoveries of juveniles in southern Africa show that individuals have been recovered at assorted distances from their nests of origin ranging from as far as {{convert|30|to|285|km|mi|abbr=on}} away. It was noted that in some cases, heavier rainfall may have caused farther afield dispersals.<ref name= Oatley>Oatley, T. B., Oschadleus, H. D., Navarro, R. A. & Underhill, L. G. (1998). ''Review of ring recoveries of birds of prey in southern Africa: 1948–1998''. Endangered Wildlife Trust, Johannesburg.</ref>
===Thermoregulation===
[[File:Bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus) male ... (51066378211).jpg|thumb|left|Bateleur sunbathing by a waterhole]]
Bateleurs seem to devote an exceptional amount of time to [[thermoregulation]] frequently spending much of its day variously [[Sunning (behaviour)|sunning]], to warm up, and [[bathing]], to cool off.<ref name= Steyn2/> These eagles are frequently seen to enter water-bodies for a bath and then open their wings to often sunbathe. Standing upright and holding their wings straight out to the sides and tipped vertically, a classic 'phoenix' pose as they turn to follow the sun.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.krugerpark.co.za/africa_bateleur_eagle.html|title=Bataleur Eagle {{!}} ''Terathopius ecaudatus'' {{!}} Africa...|website=www.krugerpark.co.za|access-date=2019-07-29}}</ref> Bateleurs will stand on the ground with their wings spread, exposing the feathers to direct sunlight, warming the oils in the feathers. The bird will then spread the oils with its beak to improve its aerodynamics. In some countries, local nicknames of the species may include as the "[[Conifer]] eagle" or "[[Pine]] eagle" due to its feathers resembling a conifer cone when fluffed up and engaging in thermoregulatory behaviour.<ref>Reid, D. (2014). ''Bateleur sunbathing at Punda Maria''. Biodiversity Observations, 33-36.</ref><ref>Grier, J. W. (1975). ''Avian Spread-winged Sunbathing in Thermoregulation and Drying''. Grier.</ref><ref>Cade, T. J. (1973). ''Sun-bathing as a thermoregulatory aid in birds''. The Condor, 75(1), 106-108.</ref> At times, this is described as a "striking heraldic posture".<ref name= Steyn/> Bateleurs may also be seen "praying" allowing ants to crawl over the wings and feathers, collecting bits of food, dead feather and skin material. When covered in ants, the bateleur then ruffles its feathers, startling the ants, which react by secreting [[formic acid]] as self-defence. This in turn kills the ticks and fleas, possibly ridding the host of its parasites.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hphpublishing.co.za/blogs/news/praying-bateleur-do-you-know-why-bateleur-eagles-do-this|title=Praying Bateleur? Do you know why Bateleur Eagles do this?|last=Africa|first=HPH Publishing South|website=HPH Publishing South Africa|date=5 October 2017 |language=en|access-date=2019-07-29}}</ref>
==Dietary biology==
[[File:Terathopius ecaudatus (32103734558).jpg|thumb|right|A bateleur feeding on a [[hare]].]]
The bateleur is a dietary generalist. This species generally forages from the flight, flying mostly low and straight whilst scanning the ground, periodically banking and retracing sections of the track when possible foods are spotted. Their hunting range can be truly enormous ranging in some cases up to {{convert|55|to|200|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=":1" /> Bateleurs may spend up to 8–9 hours or up to 80% of daylight on the wing, perhaps largely for hunting and foraging purposes, and have reported having even covered as much as {{convert|300|to|500|km|mi|abbr=on}} in a single day.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> When potential prey or food is spotted, they then descend in tight spirals to check it out.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> The bateleur is a very effective discoverer of [[carrion]] at all times and often is the first to come to large carcasses or [[roadkill]]s.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= GRIN/> Juveniles appear to attend large carrion much more than adults and dietary studies appear to support that carrion is rather more significant to the foods of juvenile and immature bateleurs compared to adults.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Smeenk/> Despite an aptitude for [[Scavenger|scavenging]], descriptions of this eagle as "not a very rapacious species" are erroneous as it has been found to a highly powerful predator for its size and one that is often rather active at pursuing living prey, with seemingly most food consumed during the breeding season being prey that the bateleur has itself killed.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Smeenk/> Bateleurs kill most prey on the ground with a steep stoop on partially closed wings. On the evidence, they may alter their stoop onto prey with a slow drop with raised wings, rather in a gentle descent like a [[parachute]], largely when taking slower moving prey such as some reptiles.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Watson>Watson, R.T. (1986). ''Biology, ecology and population dynamics of the Bateleur''. Ph.D. dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa.</ref><ref name= Watson2>Watson, R. T. (2000). ''Flight, foraging and food of the Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus: an aerodynamically specialized, opportunistic forager''. Raptors at Risk, 65-75.</ref> Additionally, they can also take birds on the wing.<ref name= Watson/> As occasional [[Kleptoparasitism|kleptoparasites]], they sometimes aerially pirate foods from other raptors. Alternately, they may try to intercept other raptors' kills while the raptor is feeding on them, whether it be on the ground, in a tree or on a rock, or even immediately after the kill is made.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/> These piratical attacks are sometimes carried out against large carrion eaters like vultures and even against larger eagles, and in them, they may drive their target to the ground, with interlocking talons or trading shallow blows with their feet.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Watson/> Bateleurs also hunt [[insect]]s by walking on the ground, particularly after grassfires, and will patrol for small carcasses alongside roads.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/>
Bateleurs forage almost entirely based on opportunity and have no particular specialization on any particular prey type.<ref name= Steyn/> As a result, a wide prey spectrum has been reported, with around 160 prey species known, they thus rival [[martial eagle]]s (''Polemaetus bellicosus'') and perhaps just slightly behind [[tawny eagle]]s (''Aquila rapax'') as the most diversified feeder known among African eagles.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Roberts/><ref name= Smeenk/><ref name= Watson/> Among their prey, [[mammal]]s, [[bird]]s and [[reptile]]s, roughly in that order, seem to be considerably preferred over other prey taxa.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Watson/> Based on morphology, their long middle toes have been cited as an indication that they originally diversified to become a bird-eater but a rather small degree of sexual dimorphism between males and females indicates a preference for mammal eating.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref>Sustaita, D. (2008). ''Musculoskeletal underpinnings to differences in killing behavior between North American accipiters (Falconiformes: Accipitridae) and falcons (Falconidae)''. Journal of Morphology, 269(3), 283-301.</ref><ref>Kozłowski, J. (1989). ''Sexual size dimorphism: a life history perspective''. Oikos, 54(2), 253-255.</ref> By the most complete picture of the bateleurs diet was a compilation study that compiled 1879 prey items from differing parts of the range.<ref name= Watson/> In it was found that bateleurs derived 54.6% of the diet from mammals, with perhaps two-thirds to about half of the diet being mammalian carrion, along with 23.7% of the diet being from birds, 17.8% from reptiles, 1.9% from [[fish]], 1.8% from [[invertebrate]]s and an extremely small amount (about 0.2%) of [[amphibian]] food.<ref name= Watson/> Predominantly, within the compilation study, preys were unidentified to species, with 58.4% of the carrion sources, 26.9% of live mammals, genera, or families, and 22.2% of birds unidentified to species.<ref name= Watson/>
[[File:Claw (32395287647).jpg|thumb|right|The markedly rough, large and short-clawed foot of a captive adult bateleur.]]
Differing study areas show differing prey results for bateleurs.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Watson/> In a woodland-based study of nesting birds in [[Zimbabwe]], 175 prey items were found for bateleurs with the diet seemingly dominated by prey appearing to be taken alive and relatively large prey at that. The primary prey in the study were found to be [[scrub hare]] (''Lepus saxatilis'') (at 26.3% of the prey by number), [[Cape hyrax]] (''Procavia capensis'') (at 10.3%), [[Gambian pouched rat]] (''Cricetomys gambianus'') (6.85%), [[brown greater galago]] (''Otolemur crassicaudatus'') (6.28%) and [[helmeted guineafowl]] (''Numida meleagris'') (4.57%).<ref name= Vernon>Vernon, C.J. (1980). ''Prey remains from nests of Bateleur Eagles''. Honeyguide, 103/104: 22-25.</ref> In the more hilly, [[Rock (geology)|rocky]] country of Zimbabwe, seemingly live prey was also preferred but a stronger prevalence of birds was detected among the 249 prey items. In this study, the main prey were scrub hares (22.8%), unidentified [[dove]]s (10%), [[glossy starling]]s (6.72%), other small birds of around {{convert|100|g|oz|abbr=on}} (6.69%), [[crested guineafowl]]s (''Guttera pucherani'') (5.43%) and unidentified mammals (5.02%).<ref name= Steyn3>Steyn, P. (1980). ''Breeding and Food of the Bateleur in Zimbabwe (Rhodesia)''. Ostrich, 51:168-178.</ref> In Kruger National Park, a much stronger preference for likely or verified carrion was detected in the bateleur's breeding season diet. Here, 731 food items in [[Veld|thornveld]] type habitat and 341 prey items in savanna type habitat were reviewed. It was estimated 31.6% of the diet was carrion was from medium-sized [[antelope]]s of around {{convert|20|to|40|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in weight, followed by small carrion sources of around {{convert|8|to|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}} to somewhat larger carrion from {{convert|54|kg|lb|abbr=on}} [[impala]] (''Aepyceros melampus''). Beyond carrion, the Kruger food study found that 16.4% of the total diet consisted of unidentified live mammals, 3.73% each by assorted dove species and [[lilac-breasted roller]]s (''Coracias caudatus''), 3% by glossy starlings and 1.6% by [[skink]]s.<ref name= Watson/> Further variation was found in the diet farther north in [[Tsavo East National Park]] in Kenya. Of 139 prey items from the nest areas of 2 pairs, mostly live prey predominated again, here led by [[Kirk's dik-dik]]s (''Madoqua kirkii'') at 19.42%, unidentified [[snake]]s at 18.7%, cape hares at 4.3%, ''[[Crocidura]]'' shrews at 3.59%, [[ungulate]] carrion at 3.59%, ''[[Streptopelia]]'' doves at 3.59%, [[common dwarf mongoose]] (''Helogale parvula'') at 2.87% and [[red-crested korhaan]] (''Lophotis ruficrista'') at 2.87%.<ref name= Smeenk/> Without statistics, [[Cangandala National Park]] in Angola, the prey species reported at nests included brown greater galago, [[greater cane rat]] (''Thryonomys swinderianus''), Gambian pouched rat, and unidentified hares.<ref name= Dean/> Unfortunately, detailed dietary studies have only been conducted in southern and eastern Africa and details of the diet are unknown elsewhere, however it is assumed the species is a generalist and opportunist throughout its range.<ref name= Heyman>Heyman, P., Brown, L., Urban, E. K., & Newman, K. B. (2020). ''The Birds of Africa: Volume I''. Bloomsbury Publishing.</ref>
[[File:Terathopius ecaudatus in Kruger National Park 02.jpg|thumb|left|Juvenile bateleur with avian prey.]]
In general, a picture emerges that the primary food sources of bateleurs are live-taken medium-sized mammals, carrion of generally larger mammal species, rather smallish bird prey, and a small diversity of reptiles.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Steyn2/><ref name= Watson/> When selecting mammals, small prey such as [[rodent]]s and [[shrew]]s are by no means neglected but a preference for relatively large rodents tends to be found.<ref name= Steyn/> These may consist of assorted [[Mouse|mice]], [[gerbil]]s and [[Woodland dormouse|dormice]] to [[Xerini|ground squirrel]]s, [[bush squirrel]]s and [[vlei rat]]s to very large rodents such as [[Gambian pouched rat]]s, greater and [[lesser cane rat]] (''Thryonomys gregorianus'') and [[South African springhare]]s (''Pedetes capensis'') although certainly any consumption of adult [[Cape porcupine]] (''Hystrix africaeaustralis'') is derived from carrion.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Steyn2/><ref name= Smeenk/><ref name= Watson/><ref>Fanson, B. G., Fanson, K. V., & Brown, J. S. (2010). ''Ecological factors affecting the foraging behaviour of Xerus rutilus''. African Zoology, 45(2), 265-272.</ref> Additionally, most African species of [[hare]] as well as, more secondarily, [[Southern African hedgehog|hedgehogs]] and [[Short-snouted elephant shrew|elephant shrews]] and a variety of smallish [[Carnivora|carnivorous mammal]]s.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Watson/><ref name= Steyn3/><ref name= Kingdon>Kingdon, J., Happold, D., Butynski, T., Hoffmann, M., Happold, M., & Kalina, J. (2013). ''Mammals of Africa''. A&C Black.</ref><ref>Ogen-Odoi, A. A., & Dilworth, T. G. (1984). ''Effects of grassland burning on the savanna hare-predator relationships in Uganda''. African Journal of Ecology, 22(2), 101-106.</ref> The latter may include live prey species including several species of [[mongoose]], from dwarf to [[banded mongoose]] (''Mungos mungo'') and [[Selous's mongoose]] (''Paracynictis selousi''), both about the same body mass as a bateleur, and at least four species of [[genet (animal)|genet]]s as well as [[striped polecat]]s (''Ictonyx striatus'').<ref name= Steyn2/><ref name= Watson/><ref name= Steyn3/><ref name= Kingdon/><ref>Clutton-Brock, T. H., Gaynor, D., McIlrath, G. M., Maccoll, A. D. C., Kansky, R., Chadwick, P., & Brotherton, P. N. M. (1999). ''Predation, group size and mortality in a cooperative mongoose, Suricata suricatta''. Journal of Animal Ecology, 68(4), 672-683.</ref> Over 30 mammal species have been identified as foods for bateleurs exclusive from carrion, including various larger food species, with carrion of ungulates ranging in size from that of [[Sharpe's grysbok]] (''Raphicerus sharpei'') to [[African buffalo]] (''Syncerus caffer'') and the carrion of carnivorans from the size of [[jackal]]s to that of [[lion]]s (''Panthera leo'').<ref name= Watson/><ref name= Watson2/> In compilation studies, the most often fed-on ungulates by bateleurs that were identified to species were reported to be [[impala]] and [[steenbok]] (''Raphicerus campestris''), at 4.2% and 2.2% of the total foods, respectively .<ref name= Watson/><ref name= Watson2/> Bateleurs have been reported to opportunistically scavenge on human remains, as was reportedly witnessed during the [[South African Border War]].<ref name= Steyn/>
Outside of [[galago]]s, among [[primate]] foods most monkeys observed in the diet such as [[baboon]]s and [[vervet monkey]]s (''Chlorocebus pygerythrus'') are thought to be largely scavenged as carrion.<ref name= Watson/><ref name= Watson2/> However, studies of [[king colobus]] (''Colobus polykomos'') and [[Angola colobus]] (''Colobus angolensis'') in Central and southeastern Africa (both where few details are known of bateleurs' diets), it was mentioned bateleurs may be a potential predator of troops based on the anti-predator activity and vocalizations of these species provoked by bateleurs.<ref>Poirier-Poulin, S., & Teichroeb, J. A. (2020). ''The vocal repertoire of an African colobine, Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii: a multi-level society compared to congeners in stable groups''. Behaviour, 157(7), 597-628.</ref><ref>Walek, M. L. (1978). ''Vocalizations of the black and white colobus monkey (Colobus polykomos Zimmerman 1780)''. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 49(2), 227-239.</ref> The bateleur, using its large, powerful feet, does not shy away from very large prey and has been known to regularly kill mammals heavier than itself including scrub hare estimated to weigh {{convert|2600|g|lb|abbr=on}}, springhares estimated to weigh {{convert|3000|g|lb|abbr=on}}, Cape hyrax estimated to weigh {{convert|3800|g|lb|abbr=on}}, Kirk's dik diks estimated to weigh {{convert|4000|g|lb|abbr=on}} and [[greater cane rat]]s estimated to weigh {{convert|4500|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Smeenk/><ref name= Watson/> Even more impressive mammalian kills have been suspected, with instances where reportedly adults [[black-backed jackal]]s (''Canis mesomelas''), [[honey badger]]s (''Mellivora capensis''), and [[aardwolf]] (''Protelas cristatus''), any of which may weigh around twice the aforementioned large mammal prey for bateleurs, may have been unexpectedly killed by bateleurs.<ref name= GRIN/><ref name= Smeenk/><ref name= Watson2/> Furthermore, an instance of attempted predation in Tanzania on an adult honey badger was witnessed, ending with both the bateleur and badger dying from the ensuing fight.<ref name =Moreau>Moreau, R.E. (1945). ''On the Bateleur, especially at the nest''. Ibis, 87: 224-249.</ref>
[[File:Bateleur Eagle with Kill.jpg|thumb|right|Male at [[Maasai Mara National Reserve|Maasai Mara]] with a [[coqui francolin]] kill.]]
In all, a considerable diversity of birds and their eggs may be taken by bateleurs, perhaps around 80 species being known in their prey spectrum.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Roberts/><ref name= Watson/><ref>Ferguson-Lees, J., & Christie, D. A. (2001). Raptors of the world. Houghton Mifflin.</ref> They often focus on rather small, if normally live caught, birds compared to other eagles of a [[Tawny eagle|similar size]].<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Watson/> Bateleurs may show a special liking for [[pigeon]]s and [[dove]]s as prey, although only about a half dozen have been identified to species. Doves usually of the genus ''[[Streptopelia]]'' were found to be the most prominent avian prey in compilation studies, accounting for 17.6% of known avian prey and 4.25% of the total foods in several large bateleur food studies.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name=":1" /><ref name= Watson/><ref name= San>Fact sheets: ''Bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus)'', San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance Library.</ref> Much other similar avian prey, commonly those weighing around {{convert|80|to|300|g|oz|abbr=on}}, including a surprising diversity of [[nightjar]]s (perhaps since they are prone to end up as [[roadkill]] due to their predilection for resting on roads by night) and [[shorebird]]s like [[lapwing]]s, other [[plover]]s, [[sandpiper]]s and [[White-winged tern|terns]] in addition to [[kingfisher]]s (up to the size of the [[giant kingfisher]] (''Megaceryle maxima'')), [[Coraciidae|roller]]s, [[hoopoe]]s, small [[hornbill]]s, [[parakeet]]s and some [[passerine]]s, usually those with a conspicuous presence on the savanna such as [[shrike]]s, [[Ploceidae|weaver]]s and [[starling]]s.,<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Steyn2/><ref name= Smeenk/><ref name= Ash/><ref name= Watson/><ref name= Steyn3/><ref>Steyn, P. (1971). ''Notes on the breeding biology of the Freckled Nightjar''. Ostrich, 42(S1), 179-188.</ref><ref>Ward, D. (1989). ''Behaviour associated with breeding of crowned, blackwinged and lesser blackwinged plovers''. Ostrich, 60(4), 141-150.</ref><ref>Kemp, A. C. (1976). ''Breeding biology of the same species of hornbills''. Transvaal Museum Memoirs, 20(1), 19-29.</ref> Unlike many other eagles of similar or larger size, there are few instances of [[waterfowl]] or large waders (i.e. [[heron]], [[stork]]s, [[flamingo]]es, etc.) falling prey to bateleurs although at least one [[African spoonbill]] (''Platalea alba'') was recorded as bateleur prey.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Watson/><ref name= Watson2/> The largest typical avian prey tends to be assorted [[Galliformes|gamebirds]], with most common [[guineafowl]], [[spurfowl]] and [[francolin]], smaller available species of [[bustard]] and some [[quail]] known in their diet. The largest of these avian prey species attacked by bateleurs top out around {{convert|1200|to|1800|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Steyn2/><ref name= Smeenk/><ref name= Watson/><ref name= Steyn3/> The reason for the disinterest in mid-sized to large avian prey of sizes comparable to some mammals and reptiles are known to have been taken by bateleurs is not clear, as the bateleur does not, in general, appear to shy away from difficult-to-capture birds nor to large and dangerous prey of other animal classes.<ref name= Steyn2/><ref name= Watson/><ref name= Steyn3/>
[[File:Bateleur eagle striking a young jackal.jpg|thumb|left|A bateleur depicted killing a young [[jackal]].]]
The bateleur was once reported to be a very common predator of reptiles like their cousins the snake eagles.<ref name= Steyn/> Although this is somewhat erroneous, bateleurs do not infrequently include reptiles in their diet.<ref name= Watson/> As much as 30% of the diet can be reptilian, mainly snakes.<ref name= Roberts/><ref name= Smeenk/><ref name= Watson/> Some reptiles taken are small and innocuous such as a few species of [[plated lizard]]s and a few species of [[colubrid]] snakes.<ref name= Roberts/><ref name= Watson/> However, like their cousins, the bateleur does not seem to shy away from [[venomous snake]]s nor other large or formidable reptiles. They have been known to take [[puff adder]] (''Bitis arietans''), [[boomslang]]s (''Dispholidus typus''), [[Egyptian cobra]]s (''Naja haje'') and unidentified [[mamba]]s, with the latter actually reported to be the most prominent known reptile prey in compilation studies, accounting for 18.9% of reported reptile prey and 3.35% of total prey.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Watson/><ref name= Watson2/><ref name= San/> They can take sizable snakes, even adult puff adders which can grow much heavier than the eagle themselves.<ref name =Moreau/> However, the bateleur is not immune to venom nor is as well specialized to dispatching venomous snakes as are snake eagles, and, in one case, a mutual killing recorded between a puff adder and a bateleur was reported.<ref name= Steyn/> Sizable, and far from defenseless, if not venomous reptiles known in the prey spectrum may include [[monitor lizard]]s including [[Nile monitor|Nile]] (''Varanus niloticus'') and [[savannah monitor]]s (''Varanus exanthematicus''), some [[terrapin]]s and [[tortoise]]s and [[African rock python]]s (''Python sebae''), although excepting small, young ones, these types of reptilian prey are perhaps in many cases consumed after they are already deceased, such as via roadkills.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Steyn2/><ref name= Watson/><ref name= San/> Nevertheless, bateleurs occasionally hunt small tortoises and monitor lizards, and in one instance, live predation on an adult monitor lizard about 1.4 m in length has been reported.<ref>Nicolai, B. (2013). ''Gaukler Terathopius ecaudatus frisst Schildkröte''. Ornithol. Jber. Mus. Heineanum, 31: 91-92.</ref><ref name= Steyn3/> The bateleur is known to carry snakes to the nest in the style of ordinary snake eagles, with the dead snake being half swallowed and subsequently extracted by the capturing bird's mate, usually the female at the nest.<ref name= Steyn/> Seldom identified prey may include assorted, and almost entirely unidentified, [[insect]]s and [[crab]]s.<ref>Ferguson-Lees, J., & Christie, D. A. (2001). Raptors of the world. Houghton Mifflin.</ref> Mostly [[Swarm behaviour|swarming]] social insects seem to attract bateleurs, including [[locust]]s.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Watson/> It was recently verified that bateleurs will semi-regularly visit [[termite]] mounds to hunt down [[alate]]s, although such feeding has been inferred in the past.<ref>Hagemeyer, N. D., & Bond, M. L. (2014). ''First observations of termite insectivory in the bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus)''. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 126(3), 611-613.</ref> Other prey can include a rare amphibian, none of which are known to be identified to species or family.<ref name= Watson/><ref name= Watson2/> Although [[fish]] are not typically taken, as much as 1.1% of the diet locally can consist of large ''[[Clarias]]'' [[catfish]] and it is likely that stranded fish are not neglected when opportuned upon.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Roberts/><ref name= Watson/>
===Interspecific predatory relationships===
The bateleur seems to adapt to living in the highly competitive continent of Africa by foraging with a lack of specialization, with a seeming lack of discrimination regarding the prey item/food source nor its origin although its highly aerial and free-ranging foraging mode is quite unique.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/> The bateleur, nonetheless, must face considerable and intense competition from other birds of prey especially.<ref name= Steyn/> The range of other raptors, especially other eagles and vultures, may appear to be daunting.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Roberts/> One of the most similar eagles to regularly encounter the bateleur is the [[tawny eagle]]. These two species overlap in many significant ways, being similar in body mass and predatory prowess as well as in nesting habitat, tendency to attack a wide size range of prey (including large prey) and general disposition. Furthermore, both of these eagles show ability to freely change feeding methods between live predation, scavenging on carrion and piracy.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Herholdt/> In Tsavo East National Park, bateleurs were studied along with tawny eagles, significantly larger martial eagles and slightly smaller [[African hawk-eagle]]s (''Aquila spilogaster'').<ref name= Smeenk/> Here all four largish eagles relied primarily upon Kirk's dik dik for food but were mostly slightly staggered in breeding season, with the bateleur nesting on average earlier than the other eagles.<ref name= Smeenk/> The diet was by far most similar with that tawny eagle in Tsavo East, overlapping 66% in prey species and 72% in prey weight. Meanwhile, the diet overlapped 32% in species and 50% in weight with martial eagles and 37% in species and 57% in weight with African hawk-eagles. The one discrepancy, which is noted in other studies as well, is that the bateleur tends to focus on smaller birds than tawny eagles when selecting avian prey.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Smeenk/><ref name= Tarboton>Tarboton, W.R. & Allan, D.G. (1984). ''The status and conservation of birds of prey in the Transvaal''. Transvaal Museum Monograph No. 3. Pretoria.</ref> Bateleurs also bear an advantage over tawny eagles in their ability forage in open habitats, with the absence of perches, due to their aerial foraging methods.<ref name= Smeenk/> However, data indicates that the tawny eagles is dominant over bateleurs typically at disputed kills or carrion.<ref name= Steyn/><ref>Watson, R. T., & Watson, C. (1987). ''Interspecific piracy between Tawny Eagles and Bateleurs: how common is it''. Gabar, 2, 9-11.</ref> One study accrued 26 instances of tawny eagles displacing bateleurs against only 5 where bateleurs displaced tawny eagles, giving illustration to the tawny eagles dominance. Frequently, the bateleur waits until the tawny eagle is done eating before it does so itself if both are at a carcass site.<ref name= Watson3/>
[[File:Tawny Eagle (Aquila rapax) and Young Bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus) (6017682851).jpg|thumb|left|A juvenile bateleur with a [[tawny eagle]] (''Aquila rapax''), a similar eagle in life history.]]
Bateleurs may encounter a huge range of other scavengers when coming to carrion. Most clearly [[Old World vulture|vultures]] are often present at carrion. However, due to their smaller size, the tawny eagle and especially the bateleur can begin foraging for carrion earlier in the morning, while the vultures must wait for [[Vertical draft|updraft]]s to undertake flight.<ref name= Mundy>Mundy, P.J. (1982). ''The comparative biology of southern African vultures''. Johannesburg. Vulture Study Group.</ref><ref name= Ogada>{{cite journal |last1=Ogada |first1=D.L. |last2=Monadjem |first2=A. |last3=McNally |first3=L. |last4=Kane |first4=A. |last5=Jackson |first5=A.L. |year=2014 |title=''Vultures acquire information on carcass ___location from scavenging eagles'' |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=281 |issue=1793 |pages=20141072 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2014.1072|pmid=25209935 |pmc=4173674 }}</ref> Bateleurs in particular are considered most likely to find a carcass first before other scavengers.<ref name= Ogada/><ref name= Houston>Houston, D. C. (1980). ''Interrelations of African scavenging animals''. In Proc. IV Pan.-Afr. orn. congr (pp. 307-312).</ref> This was verified in a study in [[Maasai Mara]] where it was additionally found that scavengers kept to body size in terms of hierarchy. The descending order of scavenger dominance was stated to rank starting with the [[spotted hyena]]s (''Crocuta croctua'') at the top and [[black-backed jackal]]s and [[Free-ranging dog|feral dogs]] (''Canis lupus familiaris''), then the [[lappet-faced vulture]] (''Torgos tracheliotos''), the [[Rüppell's vulture]] (''Gyps rueppellii''), followed by all other vultures with the tawny eagle and the bateleur in the second most and the most subordinate scavenger positions.<ref name= Kendall>Kendall, C. J. (2013). ''Alternative strategies in avian scavengers: how subordinate species foil the despotic distribution''. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 67(3), 383-393.</ref> Therefore, the bateleur is considered a scavenger with high search efficiency but low competitive ability.<ref name= Ogada/><ref name= Houston/><ref name= Kendall/><ref>Dean, W. R. J., & MacDonald, I. A. W. (1981). ''A review of African birds feeding in association with mammals''. Ostrich, 52(3), 135-155.</ref> However, the bateleur does benefit from the larger scavengers, being less able to access a large carcass, at best feeding on the eyes of said carcass unless it is already otherwise torn asunder such as large carnivore prey or roadkills.<ref name= GRIN/><ref name= Houston/> With the epidemic-level reduction of vultures in Africa, it was found in Maasai Mara that both bateleurs and tawny eagles have been found to actually increase in sighting frequency in sync with the vanishing numbers of remaining vultures, with the number of bateleur sightings increasing by 52%.<ref>Virani, M. Z., Kendall, C., Njoroge, P., & Thomsett, S. (2011). ''Major declines in the abundance of vultures and other scavenging raptors in and around the Masai Mara ecosystem, Kenya''. Biological Conservation, 144(2), 746-752.</ref> To the contrary of the expected hierarchy, cases are known where bateleurs have attacked and dominated much larger scavenging birds including [[white-backed vulture]]s (''Gyps africanus'') and [[Bearded vulture|bearded vulure]]s (''Gypaetus barbatus''), with these having been successfully displaced or lost carrion to a bateleur.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Roberts/> Even more impressively, cases where bateleurs interacting with much larger, more powerful martial eagles have involved instances where the bateleurs have attacked, pirated and even brought to ground in clashes that appear to end in a drawl. However, the martial eagle occupies a notably higher [[trophic level]] than the bateleurs and is not considered subservient to bateleurs due its even greater predatory prowess.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Steyn2/><ref name= Watson/> Similarly, instances of considerable competition have been reported between bateleurs and [[African fish eagle]]s (''Haliaeetus vocifer''), which are similarly prone to opportunistic piracy and aggressive interspecific relations. However, the two species are partitioned by habitat and primary prey.<ref>Krüger, O. (1997). ''Population density and intra-and interspecific competition of the African Fish Eagle Haliæeetus vocifer in Kyambura Game Reserve, southwest Uganda''. Ibis, 139(1), 19-24.</ref>
It is uncommon-to-rare but not unprecedented that bateleurs may prey on other raptors.<ref name= Steyn/><ref>de Visser, S. N., Freymann, B. P., & Olff, H. (2011). ''The Serengeti food web: empirical quantification and analysis of topological changes under increasing human impact''. Journal of animal ecology, 80(2), 484-494.</ref> Bateleurs have been documented preying on [[black-winged kite]]s (''Elanus caeruleus''), wintering [[lesser spotted eagle]]s (''Clanga pomarina''), [[gabar goshawk]]s (''Micronisus gabar''), [[Western barn owl|barn owl]]s (''Tyto alba''), [[spotted eagle-owl]]s (''Bubo africanus'') and [[peregrine falcon]]s (''Falco peregrinus'').<ref name= Watson/><ref name= Steyn3/><ref name= San/><ref>Hustler, K. (1983). ''Breeding biology of the Peregrine Falcon in Zimbabwe''. Ostrich, 54(3), 161-171.</ref> Additionally, they were considered a likely potential predator upon nestlings of the [[white-backed vulture]].<ref>Maphalala, M. I., & Monadjem, A. (2017). ''White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus parental care and chick growth rates assessed by camera traps and morphometric measurements''. Ostrich, 88(2), 123-129.</ref> Certainly the most impressive instance of intraguild predation documented as committed by bateleurs is when one was seen killing an adult [[Verreaux's eagle owl]] (''Bubo lacteus''), a formidable top predator among owls and possibly the largest avian prey ever reported for a bateleur.<ref name= Steyn/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WNqk8-BEbek |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/WNqk8-BEbek |archive-date=2021-12-19 |url-status=live|title=Bateleur kills a Giant Eagle Owl in Kruger National Park |date=9 December 2018 |publisher=YouTube |accessdate=2021-10-17}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The predators of mature bateleurs themselves are not well-documented and in fact, Verreaux's eagle owls may the only species verified to repeatedly prey upon bateleurs, but this is probably due to rare predator identification at bateleur nests.<ref>Brown, L. H. (1965). ''Observations on Verreaux's Eagle Owl Bubo lacteus (Temminck) in Kenya''. Journal of East African Natural History, 1965(111), 101-107.</ref><ref>Cooper, J. E. (1973). ''Post-mortem findings in East African birds of prey''. Journal of wildlife diseases, 9(4), 368-375.</ref> Bateleurs are usually considered [[apex predator]]s.<ref>Jenkins, A. R., De Goede, K. H., Sebele, L., & Diamond, M. (2013). ''Brokering a settlement between eagles and industry: sustainable management of large raptors nesting on power infrastructure''. Bird Conservation International, 23(2), 232-246.</ref> By contrast, bateleur nestlings are vulnerable to predation compared to other raptors. Though adult bateleurs can simply leave the nest or crouch below the nest rim to reduce nest detectability to many predators, they can be very aggressive toward conspecifics as well as other raptors, and occasionally human intruders. However, due to their unique foraging mode which takes them far from the nest for long periods of the day, the physical defense is largely unable. Thus, chicks are presumed to be vulnerable to a huge range of predators although very few are properly identified. Based on other eagles in Africa, these are likely to include various sizes of mammalian carnivores, snakes, monitors and various [[birds of prey]], including even perhaps much smaller species and vultures due to the long periods bateleur eaglets are left unprotected.<ref name= Display/><ref name= Steyn2/><ref name= Watson3>Watson, R. T. (1988). ''The influence of nestling predation on nest site selection and behaviour of the bateleur''. African Zoology, 23(3), 143-149.</ref><ref>Murn, C. (2014). ''Observations of predatory behavior by white-headed vultures''. Journal of Raptor Research.</ref>
==Breeding==
[[File:Bateleurs (Terathopius ecaudatus) couple (female left) (14047542781).jpg|thumb|right|A probable breeding pair with the female on the left.]]
Bateleurs are long-lived species, slow-maturing, slow-breeding species,<ref name=":0" /> Bateleurs court each other or re-establish existing pair bonds what is considered, a "spectacular" courtship display.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/> During the courtship display, an exaggerated flight is undertaken, in which the male dives down at the female who rolls to present him her claws. Additionally, he sometimes flies with legs dangling loosely, during which the wings may be flapped to create a conspicuous ''whup-whup-whup'' noise like a loose sail in the breeze. Very infrequently, a male bateleur may make a 360 degree lateral roll, accompanied by loud whup-whup noises, at times display may involve 2 males with a single female, but during breeding only one male is usually actively courtship. A further chasing flight reported is not necessarily nuptial and may be performed by birds of the same size and by an adult or an immature and in some cases is linked to the sociality of the species.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Steyn2/><ref name= Watson/> The bateleur is usually rather monogamous and likely, with the survivorship of each mate, mates for life.<ref name= Steyn/> However, rare instances of possible [[Polygyny in animals|polygyny]] have been reported.<ref>Ford, N. L. (1983). ''Variation in mate fidelity in monogamous birds''. Current ornithology, 329-356.</ref> The bateleur breeding season tends to fall from September to May in [[West Africa]], however juveniles have also been recorded in [[Mauritania]] in September.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Isenmann/><ref name= Grimes>Grimes, L. G. (1987). ''The Birds of Ghana: an Annotated Check-list (No. 9)''. British Ornithologists' Union.</ref> Reportedly, the nesting season can be virtually any month in [[East Africa]] but chiefly is some time around December–August, which also is the corresponding peak breeding time in [[Southern Africa]], with nesting as late as August to October in the southern stretches of the continent considered unusual.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Dowsett/><ref name= Dowsett-Lemaire/><ref name= Irwin/><ref name= Britton>Britton, P.L. (1980). ''Birds of East Africa: their habitat, status and distribution''. EANHS, Nairobi.</ref><ref name= Brown3>Brown, L. H. (1969). ''Some factors affecting breeding in eagles''. Ostrich, 40(S1), 157-167.</ref> In [[Somalia]], the breeding season however fell from July to December while in Ethiopia there was no detectable peak whatsoever.<ref name= Ash/><ref name= Ash2/>
===Nests===
[[File:Terathopius ecaudatus (45974485971).jpg|thumb|left|A bateleur on its nest.]]
Nests are located in fairly large trees, sometimes near a watercourse, either in [[Hill|hilly terrain]] or open [[Plain (geography)|flat country]]. At times, bateleurs are adaptable and perhaps even favor towards nesting near manmade openings such as roads or paths.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/> Nests are typically at {{convert|10|to|15|m|ft|abbr=on}} above the ground but in extreme may be from {{convert|7|to|25|m|ft|abbr=on}} high.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/> The nest is normally within the canopy in the fork of the main trunk or a large lateral branch so that it is shaded for much of the day.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Irwin/> A variety of tree species may be used. In southern Africa, favored trees tend to ''[[Adansonia]]'' and especially ''[[Acacia]]'' trees. ''[[Senegalia nigrescens]]'' trees may too be popular.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Irwin/><ref name=":2" /> Bateleurs usually nest on structures made by themselves but one nest was reported in on a [[buffalo weaver]] nest and was difficult to observe.<ref name= Steyn/> Furthermore, old nest of other birds may be used, in one case a [[Wahlberg's eagle]] (''Hieraaetus wahlbergi'') nest taken over and added to deepen it.<ref name= Steyn/> The nest is a solid structure of medium-sized sticks, measuring about {{convert|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} across, {{convert|30|cm|in|abbr=on}} deep with a leafy cup of about {{convert|25|cm|in|abbr=on}} across. Snake eagles and their kin tend to build relatively small if bulky nests relative to their size and the bateleur is no exception, with their nest size being about half that of in diameter of a similarly-sized eagle like the [[tawny eagle]].<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Heyman/> Nests tend to be lined with green leaves by the bateleur pair.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> Both sexes of bateleur are known to contribute to the building or repair of a nest, a process that typically takes about 1–2 months, though sometimes nest construction can be reportedly protracted even in years where no breeding occurs.<ref name= Steyn/> They often subsequently use a new nest in the same general area in consecutive breeding seasons, usually not more than {{convert|1|to|3|km|mi|abbr=on}} away, and may reuse a nest they built previously. There is much variation in this regard, from 1 nest being used in 5 consecutive years to no nest reusage in 3 recorded years.<ref name= Steyn/> Nests built by bateleurs tend to be favored by [[lanner falcon]]s (''Falco biarmicus''), probably in part because the eagle's young are fledged by July–August when lanners tend to lay; however 1 nestling was persistently mobbed by a lanner during its last week at the nest.<ref name= Steyn/> In ranching country in Zimbabwe, nests are spaced {{convert|13|to|16|km|mi|abbr=on}} apart.<ref name= Steyn/> In Mozambique, nesting spacing was found to be about {{convert|5|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref>Tarboton, W. (2001). ''A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds''. Struik, Cape Town</ref>
===Eggs and development of young===
In this species, only one egg is ever laid.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Dowsett/><ref name= Dowsett-Lemaire/> Their eggs are quite large for the size of the bird, being broadly oval and usually an unspotted chalky white but sometimes with a few red stains or indistinct reddish markings, which may be cosmetic from feeding and defecating of the parents. The bateleur's egg is quite similar in size and coloration to most snake eagles, which also generally lay a single egg.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/><ref>Mori, D., Vyas, R., & Upadhyay, K. (2017). ''Breeding biology of the Short-toed Snake Eagle Circaetus gallicus''. Indian Birds, 12(6), 149-156.</ref> A bateleur egg may measure from {{convert|74.2|to|87|mm|in|abbr=on}} in height, with an average of {{convert|77.4|mm|in|abbr=on}} in a sample of 24 and {{convert|79.1|mm|in|abbr=on}} in a sample of 50, by {{convert|57|to|68.1|mm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter, with an average of {{convert|62.3|mm|in|abbr=on}} in 24 and {{convert|62.7|mm|in|abbr=on}} in 50. The eggs are comparable in size to those of martial and [[crowned eagle]]s (''Stephanoaetus cornatus''), eagles of easily up to twice the body size of a bateleur.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Steyn2/><ref name= Brown3/> The female bateleur normally incubates alone, though rarely males are seen to do so as well.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Watson/> The female is fed by the male but takes spells off in which she probably feeds on her own kills and the male may take over incubation, although reports of instances where he may do the majority of incubation are probably inaccurate.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/> While the elastic breeding season suggests an indifference to climatic concerns relative to the [[wet season]] and [[dry season]], the bateleur is usually considered an eagle that lays earlier in the year than overlapping eagles.<ref name= Smeenk/><ref>Virani, M., & Watson, R. T. (1998). ''Raptors in the East African tropics and western Indian Ocean islands: state of ecological knowledge and conservation status''. Journal of Raptor Research, 32, 28-39.</ref><ref>Moreau, R. E. (1950). ''The breeding seasons of African birds—1. Land birds''. Ibis, 92(2), 223-267.</ref> The incubation stage lasts for 52 to 59 days, averaging about 55 days, and may the longest of any African raptor. Reports of incubation lasting for only 42–43 days are probably erroneous.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Brown3/>
The hatchling is highly [[Altriciality|altricial]] and very feeble at first, perhaps even more so than most other eagles, being unable to lift its own heavy head and possesses a deeply wrinkled cere.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/> The small eaglet is initially covered in creamy down with a chocolate-brown patch behind the eye that matches the rest of the down colour above with creamy flanks.<ref name= Brown/> At about 2 weeks, the young eaglet becomes somewhat more active and the down develops a patchy appearance.<ref name= Steyn/> At 3 weeks, the eaglet has a downy white head but the down colour above is dark brown, with the first brown feathers sprouting on back of head, secondaries and scapulars.<ref name= Brown/> By 4 weeks, they no longer have any white down and brown feathers grow especially the back and wing ones; while a week later, the feathers continue emerge and the secondaries outgrow the primaries. Thence at 7 weeks, the feathering of the foreparts occurs rapidly, being complete by 35 days, but the wing and tail feathers are still growing, the last remaining down being on underwing coverts.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/> The young eaglet resembles those of snake eagles in appearance and feather growth pattern, particularly the retarded growth of the primary feathers, and in general coloring become greyer as the eaglet ages.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/> The nestling may first stand at about 5 weeks as well as engage in wing-flapping.<ref name= Brown/> Pre-independence juveniles may perch or lie in prone position before they can fly well.<ref name= Steyn/> The stage at which the young first feeds itself is dictated by what prey is brought; if it is large, the parents will feed the young to 40 days, but small fragments will be eaten unaided by the downy young.<ref name= Steyn/> Around 6 weeks is when the eaglet can typically feed itself for the first time.<ref name= Brown/> At 9 weeks, eaglet bateleurs have been recorded doing effective threat displays against humans.<ref name= Brown/> Fledgling typically occurs around 90–125 days with reported extremes at as little as 93 to as much as 194 days.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/> The young often returns to the nest after its first flight and continues to do so. The young bateleurs become independent quickly within about a week in some case and in others remain closely by and dependent on their parents for about 2–4 months. The young bateleurs may follow their parents around in flight until they are fed. Coaxing behaviour by parents has been recorded (keeping away food until they fly to it, perhaps gradually encouraging the young eagle to go farther afield).<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/> After leaving the nest area, the young bateleurs often wander widely, for example one was recorded to have covered {{convert|1347|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Steyn/> When soaring near another bateleur nest, young bateleurs are often fiercely attacked by adult males.<ref name= Brown/> There are some reports, even frequent reports it is said, of immature bateleurs staying to help incubate the eggs although generally this presumably rare.<ref name= Brown/><ref>Grimes, L. G. (1976). ''The occurrence of cooperative breeding behaviour in African birds''. Ostrich, 47(1), 1-15.</ref>
===Parental behaviour===
When the nest is approached, at times bateleurs will react forcibly, engaging in aggressive barks, sometimes diving down from flight at the intruder with loud flapping wings. When disturbed in this way, however bateleurs very often depart and they will often not return to the nest for up to several hours. Generally, it seem to be more likely than almost any other African eagle to desert their young.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Watson/> During the incubation and nestling period, the male is more demonstrative than the female at the nest, sometimes doing the distraction display and regular dive-bomb attacks if the nest tree is climbed, the female more commonly flies away in the distance. Once a lone male [[baboon]] climbed a nest tree, the female bateleur sat and incubated while the male dive bombed it. When this failed to drive it off, the male settled on a branch between the baboon and the nest and threatened the monkey with raised wings, the baboon was never dislodged but did not harass the eagles at the nest.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/> Bateleur parents are highly sensitive to breeding from human disturbance, oddly they may permit and adapt to regular inspections of the nest but resent an attempts to hide or conceal photographic equipment nearby and regular desert the nest even with a small nestling, thus nest photography should be avoided.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Watson/> The ease with which bateleurs are flushed away from their nest appears to lead to uncommonly high nest predation rates, while many other eagle, including from other parts of the world, either sit tightly on their nest until the danger level becomes too high or attack ferociously at the potential threat.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Watson3/><ref>Morrison, J. L., Terry, M., & Kennedy, P. L. (2006). ''Potential factors influencing nest defense in diurnal North American raptors''. Journal of Raptor Research, 40(2), 98-110.</ref> The nestling is careful tended to by female, as she is at the nest 82% of the time up to the time the eaglet is 10 days in one Kenya study, her attendance thence drops to 47% from 10–20 days, then after 30 days, dropped to about 5% and from 60 days about 1%.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/> When the young is at later stages of maturity, the female tends to only engage in very brief prey deliveries.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/> Both sexes bring prey and feed the young though the male takes a bigger share of this than in many eagles.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn/> After 30 days, the eaglet is often left by itself on the nest throughout the night.<ref name= Brown/> The eaglet is fed nearly every day early on but only every 2–3 days later on, especially after leaving the nest.<ref name= Brown/>
===Breeding success and failures===
It is estimated that the bateleur produces a mean of 0.47 chicks per nest per year.<ref name="Watson 1990">Watson, R. T. (1990). ''Breeding Biology of the Bateleur''. Ostrich, 61:1-2, p13-23. DOI: 10.1080/00306525.1990.9633933.</ref> In East Africa, the bateleur tends not to breed every year and the replacement rate is about 0.5 per annum.<ref name= Brown/> In southern Africa, the bateleur typically breeds every year whether or not they are successful in raising their eaglet.<ref name= Steyn/> At 4 nests in Zimbabwe, a replacement rate of 0.81 young per pair per annum, with local figures often being higher where they live more free from human disturbance. It was found that Zimbabwe failures were only known to be from infertile or lost eggs.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Steyn2/> In Kruger National Park, the predation of Verreaux's eagle-owls may considerably lower nesting success.<ref name= Steyn/> Furthermore in Kruger, it was found that 33% of the population of bateleurs were young birds while the remaining 67% were adults, meaning that younger birds are presumably underpopulated.<ref name= Dynamics/> Elsewhere, even lower numbers, around 25-30%, of the population is young bateleurs.<ref name= Brown/> The population, or at least in southern Africa, seems to be roughly even in terms of sex ratio, with an even number of males and females.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Dynamics/> In the [[Kalahari Gemsbok National Park]], 13 pairs of bateleurs were recorded to produce only 0.33 young per pair. There was evidence of a 13% decline in active nesting territories of bateleurs in the Kalahari Gemsbok area during the seven year study, and at least a 40% decline over the previous 10 years. Vacated nesting territories were not reoccupied by the species. There was found to be seemingly no safe buffer zone around the park, due perhaps to persecution in the adjacent farmlands, when potential mortality of foraging bateleur from the protected park enter these areas, as well as nesting site disturbance, could have been part of the reason for this decline. Poisoned and suspected poisoned bateleurs have been found in the Park during the study period.<ref name= Herholdt/> The few that survive their early years may expect a mean estimated lifespan of around 12–14 years and in some cases may manage to live as long as 27 years.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Roberts/> The annual adult survival rate is estimated at 95%, while the annual juvenile survival rate is estimated at 75%.<ref name= Roberts/>
==Conservation==
[[File:Terathopius ecaudatus01.png|thumb|left|A bateleur in "heraldic" pose.]]
Bateleurs are a wide ranging species but have shown rather strong declines.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /><ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> Per estimates from the 1990s, extrapolated from an average of {{convert|150|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} per pair, it was projected that the total population could have been around 180,000 birds including young ones.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> However, it is likely that the species numbers far lower than that.<ref name= GRIN/> Currently, the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]] estimates broadly from 10,000 to 100,000 total individuals.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> The numbers in [[Southern Africa]] have shown the most dramatic and drastic known reductions.<ref name= GRIN/> At one time, the species numbers at 2000-2500 pairs in the former [[Transvaal Province]] alone which was down to around 420 to 470 pairs by the 1990s.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Tarboton/> More recently it was estimated that there are less than 700 pairs in the entire region of Southern Africa, although that number may be too excessively conservative.<ref name= GRIN/><ref name= Parker/><ref name= Barnes>Barnes, K. N., ed. (2000). ''The Eskom Red Data Book of birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland''. Johannesburg: BirdLife South Africa.</ref> In all the bateleur has declined by an estimated 75% in Southern Africa.<ref name= Watson4>Watson, R. A. & Maritz, A. W. A. (2000). ''Terathopius ecaudatus Bateleur''. Pp. 74-76 in G.H. Verdoorn, K.L. Bildstein, and S. Ellis (eds.), Selected African Falconiformes conservation assessment and management plan. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, Apple Valley, MN.</ref> The species is considered threatened in [[Zimbabwe]], [[Namibia]], [[Eswatini]] and [[South Africa]] and still considered not uncommon but probably declining in [[Malawi]], [[Zambia]], [[Mozambique]] and [[Botswana]].<ref name= Dowsett/><ref name= Penry/><ref name= Dowsett-Lemaire/><ref name= Monadjem/><ref>Simmons, R. E., & Brown, C. J. (2006). ''Birds to Watch in Namibia: Red, rare and endemic species''. National Biodiversity Programme, Windhoek, Namibia.</ref><ref>Hartley, R. (1998). ''Raptor migration and conservation in Zimbabwe''. Torgos, 28: 135-150.</ref> Declines are not endemic to Southern Africa for bateleurs, with declines strongly detected as well in [[Ivory Coast]] and [[Sudan]].<ref name= Watson4/> Addition countries that have reported strongly declining numbers are in [[Togo]], [[Niger]] and [[Nigeria]].<ref name= Cheke/><ref>Jensen, F.P., Christensen, K.D. & Petersen, B.S. (2008). ''The avifauna of southeast Niger''. Malimbus 30: 30-54.</ref><ref>Gustafsson, R., Hjort, C., Ottosson, U., & Hall, P. (2003). ''Birds at Lake Chad and in the Sahel of NE Nigeria''.</ref> Where bateleurs were once common in road surveys in Central-West Africa, none were detected in newer road surveys from the 2000s in the same areas.<ref>Rondeau, G., & Thiollay, J. M. (2004). ''West African vulture decline''. Vulture news, 51: 13-33.</ref> Claims of an increase in potential numbers of bateleur in Uganda are not verified.<ref name= Carswell/>
Decline of the species and the reduction in range is suspected to have been moderately rapid over the past three generations. Generally, throughout the range, the bateleur is considered much more common in [[protected area]]s.<ref name= GRIN/><ref name= Watson4/> However even in several protected areas, numbers of bateleurs seem to decreasing.<ref>Herholdt, J. J., & De Villiers, D. J. (1991). ''Breeding success and population density of the Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park''. Gabar, 6: 3-6.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thiollay |first=Jean-Marc |date=2006-04-13|title=''The decline of raptors in West Africa: long-term assessment and the role of protected areas''|journal=Ibis|language=en|volume=148|issue=2|pages=240–254|doi=10.1111/j.1474-919x.2006.00531.x|issn=0019-1019}}</ref> The declines of the species are almost entirely due to [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic causes]].<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= GRIN/> These include but are not limited to [[habitat destruction]], the [[poison]]ing of carcasses, [[persecution]] through [[Poaching|shooting]] and possibly [[pesticide]] use.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref>Ogada, D. L. (2014). ''The power of poison: pesticide poisoning of Africa’s wildlife''. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1322(1), 1-20.</ref> Poisoning of carcasses is a major issue for scavenging animals, especially birds like vultures, in Africa.<ref>Margalida, A., Ogada, D., & Botha, A. (2019). ''Protect African vultures from poison''. Science, 365(6458), 1089-1090.</ref><ref name= Dropping>Ogada, D. L., Keesing, F., & Virani, M. Z. (2012). ''Dropping dead: causes and consequences of vulture population declines worldwide''. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1249(1), 57-71.</ref> Zambian bateleurs may suffer from deliberate poisonings as well as those in Eswatini, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The bateleur's wide foraging areas and their ability to locate very small pieces of carrion, makes them highly susceptible to poison-laced carcasses even from a small proportion of farmers who use poisons. Bateleurs and other eagles are not usually the direct target of these poisoning operations, which in some cases may be directed to unfavored mammals like jackals or in other cases directed towards vultures by [[Poaching|poachers]] to hide their illegal wildlife killings.<ref name= GRIN/><ref name= Dowsett/><ref name= Irwin/><ref name= Parker/><ref name= Dropping/> The decline of South African bateleurs is primarily linked with poisonings, primarily from large-scale farming operations.<ref name= Watson/><ref>Brown, C.J. (1988). ''Scavenging raptors on farmlands: what is their future?'' African Wildlife, 42: 103-105.</ref><ref>Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, University of Cape Town, S. A. (1989). ''Strychnine poison and the conservation of avian scavengers in the Karoo, South Africa''. South African Journal of Wildlife Research-24-month delayed open access, 19(3), 102-106.</ref> It is possible that bateleurs may suffer from the effects of [[DDT]] though it is found in a small sample of 3 eggs from South Africa that they evidenced low subcritical levels of DDT metabolites, probably not enough to effect overall populations.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Watson4/> However, it is projected that pesticide use may be harming populations in Zambia as well as in Botswana.<ref name= Penry/><ref name= Dowsett/> Ongoing persecution is both serious and unsustainable, beyond poisoning, such killings are known to extent to ongoing shooting and trapping.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /><ref name= GRIN/><ref name= Watson4/> Some trapping occurs of the species for its feathers which are used in medicine by [[muti|traditional healers]] for predicting future events<ref name=":0" /> Less well known but probably occurring declines may be due to flying into manmade objects including wire collisions, [[reservoir]] drownings and road-killings.<ref>Anderson, M. D. (2000). ''Raptor conservation in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa''. Ostrich, 71(1-2), 25-32.</ref> Additionally, shrinking habitat has been found to be a prevalent threat to bateleurs due largely to expanding human settlements and intensifying livestock agriculture.<ref name= GRIN/><ref name= Parker/> A further effect from humans is regular disturbance at bateleur nests, although not typically as deliberate as many other threats, this is causing the breeding success rates to plummet farther.<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= GRIN/><ref name= Watson4/> No large scale actions are underway but they are possibly protected in Yemen as an endangered species.<ref name=":1" /> It is proposed to implement education and awareness campaigns across its range to reduce the use of poisoned baits. Regular population monitoring is being carried out.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/en|title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|website=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|access-date=2019-07-29}}</ref>
==Heraldic and mythological status==
The bateleur plays a prominent role in African heraldic and mythological cultures probably due to its spectacular colours and conspicuous and bold behaviour.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Steyn2/> As a result it is likely that the bateleur is the basis for the "Zimbabwe Bird" which has been prominent since ancient times in Zimbabwean culture and continuously used in heraldic forms including most prominently being featured on the Zimbabwe flag.<ref>Hubbard, P. (2009). ''The Zimbabwe birds: Interpretation and symbolism''. Honeyguide: Journal of Birdlife Zimbabwe, 55(2), 109-116.</ref><ref>Msimanga, A. (2000). ''The role of birds in the culture of the Ndebele people of Zimbabwe''. Ostrich, 71(1-2), 22-24.</ref> A South African myth was that when bateleurs "cries in flight, the rain will fall".<ref>Brunton, S., Badenhorst, S., & Schoeman, M. H. (2013). ''Ritual fauna from Ratho Kroonkop: a second millennium AD rain control site in the Shashe-Limpopo Confluence area of South Africa''. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 48(1), 111-132.</ref> The admiration and mythologizing of bateleurs is also known in other areas beyond Zimbabwe, including among those in Southern Africa who speak [[Tswana language]] as well as elsewhere dating back to the [[Iron Age]] with various with the bateleur variously known as ''kgwadira'' and ''petleke'', and may often in mythology may fulfill the role intelligent servant to their masters, which were considered vultures.<ref>Wilmsen, E. N. (2014). ''Myths, gender, birds, beads: A reading of Iron Age hill sites in interior Southern Africa''. Africa, 84(3), 398-423.</ref><ref>Matjila, D. S. (2015). ''Birds as subjects in Setswana folklore: Depiction of their relationship to man''. South African Journal of African Languages, 35(1), 105-111.</ref> In East and Central Africa, the bateleur has been referred to variously as ''gawarakko'' and ''nkona'' and in the [[Lake Tanganyika]] was considered an essential possession of [[sultan]]s whether the birds were dead or alive.<ref>Savà, G., & Tosco, M. (2015). ''The Ongota language–and two ways of looking at the marginal and hunting-gathering peoples of East Africa''.</ref><ref>Grant, C. H. B. (1925). ''Uha in Tanganyika territory''. The Geographical Journal, 66(5), 411-422.</ref>
==Media==
<gallery>
File:A Bateleur Eagle mid blink.jpg|A Bateleur blinking showing off the nictitating membrane
File:Bukázó sas 1.jpg|{{center|1=A female sunwarming in a zoo}}
File:Bateleur Eagle.jpg|{{center|1=Immature}}
File:Terathopius ecaudatus.ogv|{{center|1=A female perched on a gloved hand in [[Disney's Animal Kingdom]]}}
File:Bateleur.jpg|{{center|1=Female in Texas}}
File:Terathopius ecaudatus -Chobe River front, Botswana -juvenile.jpg|{{center|1=Two juveniles in Botswana}}
File:Bateleur Eagle skeleton.jpg|Skeleton of a bateleur eagle ([[Museum of Osteology]])
</gallery>
{{Commons}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* Bateleur - [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/146.pdf Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds].
{{commons category|Terathopius ecaudatus}}
{{Wikispecies|Terathopius ecaudatus}}
{{Circaetinae}}
{{Accipitrimorphae|A.|state=collapsed}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q726387}}
[[Category:Circaetinae]]
[[Category:
[[Category:Birds of the Middle East]]
[[Category:Eagles]]
[[Category:
[[Category:Near threatened biota of Africa]]
[[Category:Near threatened biota of Asia]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1800]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
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