Afghan Civil War (1989–1992): Difference between revisions

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Latest revision as of 11:00, 17 August 2025

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{{short description|Civil war in Afghanistan (1989–1992)}}

{{Infobox Military Conflict

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}

|conflict=Afghan Civil War <small>(1989-1992 period)

{{Infobox military conflict

|partof=the [[Afghan Civil War]]

| conflict = First Afghan Civil War

|date=[[1989]]&ndash;[[1992]]

| partof = the [[Cold War]], [[Revolutions of 1989]], [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union]], and [[Afghan conflict]]

|place=[[Afghanistan]]

|result=Collapse ofimage the [[Democratic Republic = Political map of Afghanistan]] in 1989.png

| image_size = 370px

|combatant1= [[Image:Flag of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan.svg|22px]] [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]]

| caption = Political situation in Afghanistan in 1989, following the Soviet withdrawal

|combatant2= [[Image:Flag of Afghanistan 1992 free.png|22px]] [[Mujahideen#Afghan Mujahideen|Mujahideen]]<br>{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Pakistan]]

| date = 15 February 1989 – 27 April 1992<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=02|day1=15|year1=1989|month2=04|day2=27|year2=1992}})

|commander1= [[Mohammad Najibullah]]

| place = [[Republic of Afghanistan (1987–1992)|Afghanistan]] (with some [[Afghan SCUD attacks in Pakistan|spillover into Pakistan]])

|commander2= [[Ahmed Shah Massoud]],<br>[[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]]

| result = {{ublist|[[Afghan mujahideen|Afghan Interim Government]] victory}}

|strength1=

* Dissolution of the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan|Homeland Party Government]]

|strength2=

* The [[Peshawar Accord]] leads to the creation of the [[Islamic State of Afghanistan]] on 28 April 1992

|casualties1=

* [[Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)|Continued civil war]] among [[Mujahideen]] forces

|casualties2=

| combatant1 = {{flagicon image|Flag of Afghanistan (1987–1992).svg}} '''[[Republic of Afghanistan (1987–1992)|Republic of Afghanistan]]'''<br />'''Supported by:'''

|notes=

{{plainlist|

*{{flagicon|Soviet Union}} [[Soviet Union]] ([[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|until 1991]])

*{{flagicon|India}} [[India]]}}

{{tree list}}

*{{flagicon|CIS|1992}} [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (from 1991)<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Gibson |first=Joshua James |title=An Unsustainable Arrangement: The Collapse of the Republic of Afghanistan in 1992 |date=2015 |type=MA thesis |publisher=Ohio State University |url=http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1429894687 |access-date=12 November 2022}}</ref>

** {{flagicon|Tajikistan|1991}} [[Tajikistan]]

** {{flagicon|Turkmenistan|1991}} [[Turkmenistan]]

** {{flagicon|Uzbekistan}} [[Uzbekistan]]

{{tree list/end}}

| combatant2 = {{tree list}}

* {{flagicon image|Flag of Afghan Interim Government in exile (1988-1992).svg}} [[Afghan Mujahideen|'''Afghan Interim Government''']]<ref name="Refugees">{{Cite web |last=Refugees |first=United Nations High Commissioner for |title=Refworld {{!}} Afghanistan: The Forgotten War: Human Rights Abuses and Violations of the Laws of War Since the Soviet Withdrawal |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/45c9a5d12.html |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=Refworld |language=en}}</ref>

** {{flagicon image|Flag of Jamiat-e Islami.svg}} [[Jamiat-e Islami]]

** {{flagicon image|Flag of Hezbi Islami Gulbuddin.svg}} [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]] (until July 1989)<ref name="Refugees">{{Cite web |last=Refugees |first=United Nations High Commissioner for |title=Refworld {{!}} Afghanistan: The Forgotten War: Human Rights Abuses and Violations of the Laws of War Since the Soviet Withdrawal |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/45c9a5d12.html |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=Refworld |language=en}}</ref>

** {{flagicon image|Flag of the National Islamic Front of Afghanistan.svg}} [[National Islamic Front of Afghanistan]]

** {{flagicon image|BlackFlag.svg}} [[Islamic Dawah Organisation of Afghanistan|Ittehad-e Islami]]

** [[File:Logo of Hezb-e Islami Khalis.svg|20px|link=]] [[Hezb-i Islami Khalis]]

** [[Islamic and National Revolution Movement of Afghanistan|Harakat-i Inqilab-i Islami]]{{sfn|Goodson|2011|p=189}}

----

'''Independent Factions''':

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Afghanistan (1978-1980).svg}} [[Khalq]] (1990)<ref name="Coll">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/in-afghanistan-dinner-and-then-a-coup|title=In Afghanistan, Dinner and Then a Coup|first=Steve|last=Coll|magazine=The New Yorker |date=28 November 2012|publisher=|via=www.newyorker.com}}</ref>

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Hezbi Islami Gulbuddin.svg}} [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]] (from July 1989)<ref name="Refugees">{{Cite web |last=Refugees |first=United Nations High Commissioner for |title=Refworld {{!}} Afghanistan: The Forgotten War: Human Rights Abuses and Violations of the Laws of War Since the Soviet Withdrawal |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/45c9a5d12.html |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=Refworld |language=en}}</ref><br />{{flagicon|Afghanistan|1978a}} [[Junbish-i Milli]] (from 1992)

{{tree list/end}}

----

'''Foreign Mujahideen:'''

* {{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} [[Al Qaeda]]<ref name="TANAI">{{cite news|url=https://www.rebellionresearch.com/what-happened-in-the-battle-of-jalalabad|title=What Happened In The Battle Of Jalalabad?|date=5 April 2022|newspaper=rebellionresearch|access-date=20 December 2019}}</ref>

* {{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} [[Maktab al-Khidamat]]

----''Various factions also fought among each other''<br />

'''Supported by:'''<br />{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Pakistan]]{{Clear}}{{flag|United States}}{{Clear}}{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}{{Clear}}{{Clear}}{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom]]{{Clear}}{{flagicon|China}} [[China]]{{Clear}}{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Germany]]{{Clear}}{{flagicon|Iran}} [[Iran]]

| commander1 = {{flagicon|Afghanistan|1987}} [[Mohammad Najibullah]] <br />{{flagicon|Afghanistan|1987}} [[Shahnawaz Tanai]] (until 1990) (attempted coup, fled Afghanistan)<br />{{flagicon|Afghanistan|1987}} [[Nazar Mohammad (Afghan communist)|Nazar Mohammed]] (attempted coup, fled Afghanistan)<br />{{flagicon|Afghanistan|1987}} [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] (until 1991){{AWOL}}<br />{{flagicon|Afghanistan|1987}} [[Mohammad Aslam Watanjar]] <br />{{flagicon|Afghanistan|1987}} [[Mohammad Nabi Azimi]] <br />{{flagicon|Afghanistan|1987}} [[Nur ul-Haq Ulumi]] <br />{{flagicon|Afghanistan|1987}} [[Abdul Jabar Qahraman]] <br />{{flagicon|Afghanistan|1987}} General [[Barakzai]]{{KIA}}<ref name="TANAI" /><br />{{flagicon|Afghanistan|1987}} Khushal Peroz<br />{{flagicon|Afghanistan|1987}} [[Ismatullah Muslim]]<br />{{flagicon|Afghanistan|1987}} [[Fazal Haq Khaliqyar]]<br />{{flagicon|Soviet Union}} [[Makhmut Gareev]]

| commander2 = {{plainlist|

*{{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Flag of Jamiat-e Islami.svg}} [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]]}}

*{{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Flag of Jamiat-e Islami.svg}} [[Burhanuddin Rabbani]]}}

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jamiat-e Islami.svg}} [[Ahmad Zia Massoud]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jamiat-e Islami.svg}} Din Mohammad Jurat

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jamiat-e Islami.svg}} [[Atta Muhammad Nur]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jamiat-e Islami.svg}} [[Abdullah Abdullah]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jamiat-e Islami.svg}} [[Mullah Naqib|Naqib Alikozai]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jamiat-e Islami.svg}} [[Mohammed Fahim]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jamiat-e Islami.svg}} [[Ismail Khan]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jamiat-e Islami.svg}} [[Bibi Ayesha]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jamiat-e Islami.svg}} [[Saleh Mohammad Registani|Saleh Registani]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Hezbi Islami Gulbuddin.svg}} [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Hezbi Islami Gulbuddin.svg}} [[Fazal Haq Mujahid]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Pakistan.svg}} [[Hamid Gul]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} [[Abdullah Azzam]]{{KIA}}

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} [[Osama bin Laden]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]]

**{{flagicon image|Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg}} [[Ibn Al-Khattab]]

*{{flagicon image|Logo of Hezb-e Islami Khalis.svg}} [[Mulavi Younas Khalis]]

*{{flagicon image|Logo of Hezb-e Islami Khalis.svg}} [[Amin Wardak]]

*{{flagicon image|Logo of Hezb-e Islami Khalis.svg}} [[Abdul Haq (Afghan leader)|Abdul Haq]]

*{{flagicon image|Logo of Hezb-e Islami Khalis.svg}} [[Haji Abdul Qadeer]]

*{{flagicon image|Logo of Hezb-e Islami Khalis.svg}} [[Jalaluddin Haqqani]]

*{{flagicon image|BlackFlag.svg}} [[Abdul Rasul Sayyaf]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} [[Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi|Mohammad Nabi]]

*{{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} [[Sibghatullah Mojaddedi]]}}

*{{flagicon image|Flag of the National Islamic Front of Afghanistan.svg}} [[Ahmed Gailani]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of the National Islamic Front of Afghanistan.svg}} [[Abdul Rahim Wardak]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} [[Muhammad Asif Muhsini]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Hezbe Wahdat.svg}} [[Abdul Ali Mazari]]

*{{flagicon image|Flag of Afghanistan (1978-1980).svg}} [[Shahnawaz Tanai]] (from 1990)<ref name="Coll">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/in-afghanistan-dinner-and-then-a-coup|title=In Afghanistan, Dinner and Then a Coup|first=Steve|last=Coll|magazine=The New Yorker |date=28 November 2012|publisher=|via=www.newyorker.com}}</ref>}}<br /><hr>

{{flagicon|Afghanistan|1978a}} [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] (from 1992)

| strength1 = '''Afghan Army:'''

150,000 (1990)<ref name="mepc.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.mepc.org/articles-commentary/commentary/lessons-soviet-withdrawal-afghanistan|title=Lessons of the Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan – Middle East Policy Council|website=www.MEPC.org|date=9 March 2011 |access-date=17 May 2017}}</ref><br />'''[[Afghan Air Force (1978–1992)|Afghan Air Force]]:'''<br />

20,000 (1989)

'''National Guard:'''

* Presidential Guard: 10,000 (1989)<ref name="mepc.org" />

'''[[Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|All forces under the control of the Republic Of Afghanistan]]:'''

Around 515,000 (1990),{{sfn|Barfield|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fqRFCkpTdUcC&pg=PA245 245]}} including paramilitary [[Sarandoy]], and [[KHAD]]

'''[[Militia]] forces:'''

up to 170,000 (1991){{sfn|Barfield|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fqRFCkpTdUcC&pg=PA245 245]}}

| strength2 = '''[[Mujahadeen]]:'''

Unknown <br />

'''[[Pakistan]]:''' 5,000

| casualties1 = 14,864 killed (per [[UCDP]])

| notes =

| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Afghanistan}}

}}

{{Campaignbox Afghanistan}}

The '''[[1989]] to [[1992]]''' phase of the '''[[Afghan Civil War]]''' began after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan, leaving the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] to fend for itself against the Mujahadeen. After several years of fighting, the government fell in 1992.

== Timeline ==

By 1992 [[Muhammad Najibullah]], who had been [[President of Afghanistan]] for almost 6 years, agreed to step down in favor of a transitional government. The [[United Nations]] presented a plan to Najibullah, saying that as soon as he resigns, a multi-national [[United Nations]] [[peacekeeping]] force would be sent quickly to stabalize the situation in [[Afghanistan]]. But the [[mujahideen]] filled the vacuum. Najibullah tried to flee [[Kabul]], but his departure was blocked by [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]]'s [[militia]] in [[Kabul International Airport]]. Najibullah sought sanctuary in the [[United Nations]] compound in [[Kabul]].

The '''Afghan Civil War of 1989–1992''' ([[Pashto]]: له ۱۹۸۹ څخه تر ۱۹۹۲ پوري د افغانستان کورنۍ جګړه), also known as the '''First Afghan Civil War''', took place between the [[Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan]] and the end of the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] on 15 February 1989 until 27 April 1992, ending the day after the proclamation of the [[Peshawar Accord]]s proclaiming a new interim Afghan government which was supposed to start serving on 28 April 1992.

Different Mujahideen groups entered Kabul from different directions. [[Hezbi Islami]] made the first move and entered the city from the south. [[Hekmatyar]] had asked other mujahideen groups such as [[Harakat-Inqilab-i-Islami]] and [[Khalis faction]] to join him while entering [[Kabul]] but he did not have any luck in convincing them. Hekmatyar's men had numeric superiority but lacked technical and strategic advantage. They were armed with light weapons such as the [[AK-47]] and [[RPG-7]]. The Hezb had acquired some surrendered weapons from Afghan Army on the way to Kabul but were not sufficient enough. As they entered the city's southern sector, they faced no resistance. [[Hekmatyar]] aired a statement in the radio urging that the '' Lions had entered [[Kabul]] to liberate its people''. The advance was slow and steady until the [[Jamiat Islami]] entered the city from the north.

[[Mujahideen]] groups, some of them ostensibly united as part of the "[[Mujahideen|Afghan Interim Government]]", in the years 1989–1992 proclaimed as their conviction that they were battling the hostile "[[Puppet state|puppet regime]]" of the [[Republic of Afghanistan (1987–1992)|Republic of Afghanistan]] in [[Kabul]].<ref name="Stenersen2">[https://www.prio.org/utility/Download.ashx?x=228 'Mujahidin vs. Communists: Revisiting the battles of Jalalabad and Khost] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802084503/https://www.prio.org/utility/Download.ashx?x=228|date=2018-08-02}}. By Anne Stenersen: a Paper presented at the conference ''COIN in Afghanistan: From Mughals to the Americans'', Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), 12–13 February 2012. Retrieved 1 February 2018.</ref> In March 1989, the "[[Afghan mujahideen|Afghan Interim Government]]" in cooperation with the Pakistani [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI) attacked the city of [[Jalalabad]] but they were defeated by June in what is now known as the [[Battle of Jalalabad (1989)|Battle of Jalalabad]]. [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar|Hekmatyar's]] [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin|Hezbi Islami]] would pull their support for the Afghan Interim Government following the loss in Jalalabad.

In March 1991, a mujahideen coalition quickly conquered the city of [[Khost]]. In March 1992, having lost the last remnants of Soviet support, President [[Mohammad Najibullah]] agreed to step aside and make way for a mujahideen coalition government. One mujahideen group, [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]], refused to confer and discuss a coalition government under the Pakistani sponsored [[Peshawar Accords|Peshawar Peace Accords]] and invaded Kabul with the help of [[Khalq]]ist Generals. This triggered a civil war, starting on 25 April 1992, between initially three, but within weeks five or six mujahideen groups or armies.

== Background (1978–1989) ==

{{Main|Afghanistan#PDPA coup d'état and Soviet war|Soviet–Afghan War}}

In October 1978, opponents of the reforms of the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] (PDPA) government, including modernizing traditional Islamic civil and marriage laws, changing the national flag to a Soviet-style [[Red flag (politics)|red flag]], and forcing land reform, started a revolt, and called themselves '[[mujahideen]]'.

In spite of a [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] resolution condemning the 1979 USSR invasion and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] demanding immediate Soviet withdrawal, the Russians stayed until early 1989. They managed to take control of major cities and strategic installations, thus acerbating nationalistic feelings among rebels who drew Soviet troops into war with urban uprisings and tribal armies. The Soviets leveled villages, destroyed irrigation ditches and laid millions of mines in an attempt to root out the mujahideen rebels. In those nine years, between 500,000 and 2 million Afghans were killed and millions were displaced, and in large numbers fled into neighboring countries.

The new Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], taking charge in 1985, pressured by [[China|the People's Republic of China]], in 1987 announced his intention to withdraw from Afghanistan, which withdrawal took place between May 1988 and February 1989.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

The mujahideen resistance movement had started chaotically in 1978 and had always stayed highly segmented along regional, ethnic, tribal and religious lines: after four years the mujahideen operated from an estimated 4,000 bases, a typical commander leading a few hundred men. In 1985, seven larger [[Sunni Islam]]ic rebel groups had coordinated their fight against the Soviets, who were also known as the Pakistani backed [[Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen|Peshawar 7 Mujahideen Alliance]]. After the Soviets had left Afghanistan in February 1989, some smaller groups put down arms or joined the government however the larger mujahideen groups continued their fight against the PDPA-government of President [[Mohammad Najibullah]], who was still massively supported by the Soviet Union,<ref name=marshall /><ref name="Stenersen2" /> and establish a Islamist government. Many of these larger Mujahedeen groups such as [[Jamiat-e Islami|Jamiat]] had existed years before the PDPA seized power. Leaders such as [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] and [[Jalaluddin Haqqani]] attempted uprisings (with Pakistani support) in 1974 against the government of [[Mohammad Daoud Khan|Daoud Khan]]. These uprisings failed and many of these groups fled to Pakistan to be trained by the ISI in a future insurgency against the Daoud Khan government, which would be overthrown by [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan|PDPA]] military officers only 4 years later.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 July 2012 |title=Mohammed Daoud Khan |url=http://www.historyinanhour.com/2012/07/18/mohammed-daoud-khan-summary/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929064911/http://www.historyinanhour.com/2012/07/18/mohammed-daoud-khan-summary/ |archive-date=29 September 2018 |access-date=25 December 2014 |work=History in an Hour}}</ref>

=== Attacks between mujahideen groups (1987–1989) ===

According to published reports during the 1980s, [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]]'s [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]] developed a reputation for attacking other resistance forces, especially those of [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]], and raiding or blocking their food and arms supplies as well as caravans of relief organizations.<ref name="Newspaper article">{{cite news |url = http://www.huffingtonpost.com/elizabeth-gould/gulbuddin-hekmatyar-the-m_b_525305.html|title = Gulbuddin Hekmatyar – The Master of Darkness| publisher = Huffington Post|first=Elizabeth|last=Gould|date=5 April 2010}}</ref> According to author Steve Coll, Hekmatyar attacked Ahmad Shah Massoud so often that Washington (who was supporting him through Pakistan) "feared he might be a secret [[KGB]] plant whose mission was to sow disruption within the anti-communist resistance."<ref name="Newspaper article" /> Reports suggest that Hekmatyar's commanders were saving their men and weapons to establish Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin as the dominant organization once the Soviets departed.<ref name="Newspaper article" />

In 1989, Hekmatyar's forces once again conducted an attack on forces of [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]], this time targeting Massoud and the senior leadership of [[Shura-e Nazar]] – Massoud's military and political alliance of 130 northern commanders.<ref name="Documentary">{{dead link|date=January 2018}} {{cite web |year=1989 |title=Afghanistan – the Squandered Victory |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-YGVQm_fALY |publisher=BBC}}</ref> While they were not able to kill or injure Massoud, Hekmatyar's forces tortured to death 30 of Massoud's men, some of whom were close friends of Massoud.<ref name="Documentary" /> Survivors describe the torture as pulling their eyes out, cutting their ears and noses off, and cutting their stomachs open.<ref name="Documentary" /> Massoud consequently ordered an operation to hunt down the murderers. Shura-e Nazar were able to capture the assassins, but instead of revenge killings, Massoud sent them to Peshawar to have them tried before a court.<ref name="Documentary" /> The courts sentenced them to death.

[[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] for the sake of Afghan unity declared: "My message to Hekmatyar's people is that without a united front we cannot succeed, we cannot achieve anything in Afghanistan."<ref name="Documentary" /> [[Roy Gutman]] of the [[United States Institute of Peace]] considered Massoud "the only Afghan leader with an integrated vision".<ref name="Gutman_Book2">{{cite book |last=Roy Gutman |url=https://archive.org/details/howwemissedstory00gutm/page/304 |title=How We Missed the Story: Osama Bin Laden, the Taliban and the Hijacking of Afghanistan |publisher=United States Institute of Peace Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-60127-024-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/howwemissedstory00gutm/page/304 304] |author-link=Roy Gutman}}</ref>

Through this period (1987–89) both Massoud and Hekmatyar had been frequently fighting each other and killing each other's officers, and Massoud's rhetoric was rarely matched by action. In 1988, for instance, Massoud's forces attacked Hekmatyar loyalists in [[Badakhshan Province]]. In 1989, Massoud arrested and executed one of Hekmatyar's local officers, Jamal Agha, whom he accused of having murdered a number of [[Jamiat-e-Islami]] commandants: Mohammad Izzatullah, Mohammad Islamuddin, Mulla Abdul-Wadoud, and Payinda Mohammad.

However, Hekmatyar's supporters accused Massoud of having killed these commandants to centralize his authority in Jamiat's ranks and framed Jamal, whom they claimed had good relations with the victims. This was stated by [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]] supporter Mohammad Tanwir Halim in his book published in 2013. However, this version of the story is uncorroborated and Hekmatyar was widely unpopular in any case for his vicious murders, though this was not necessarily true of his commanders some of whom like Abdul-Rauf Safi, Abdul-Sabour Farid and perhaps Jamal enjoyed decent relations with other groups. Massoud later appointed Abdul-Rauf Safi as Kabul commandant. Hekmatyar's supporters also accused Massoud of treachery because of his ceasefires with Soviet forces and in this they had the support of Jamaat leader Mohammad Eshaq who also criticized Massoud for his ceasefire with the Soviets during the second half of the occupation. It appears that Massoud was trying to form a base independent of Pakistan, and in this endeavour he did make deals with governments traditionally hostile to the mujahideen, including India and the Soviets however the Soviet forces by request of Afghan President [[Mohammad Najibullah]] attacked Massoud's forces before withdrawing during [[:ru:Операция «Тайфун» (1989)#:~:text=Операция «Тайфу́н» — предпоследняя плановая,центральных и северных провинциях страны».|Operation Typhoon]], killing over 600 members of Jamiat.

However, accusations of treachery by both sides seem far-fetched. The Pakistani coordinator, Mohammed Yousaf, does not challenge Massoud's version of Jamal story despite Pakistan's hostility towards Massoud, and in any case it has become a fait accompli. Similarly, Palestinian mujahideen leader [[Abdullah Azzam]] claimed that Massoud was a legendary fighter, though Azzam notably rarely criticized any mujahideen leaders to avoid friction.

== Main participants ==

=== Republic of Afghanistan ===

==== PDPA/DRA government ====

After the [[Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan|Soviet withdrawal]] on 15 February 1989, the government of President [[Mohammad Najibullah]] and his [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] (PDPA) was on its own. The U.S. intelligence agencies expected the regime to collapse within three to six months.<ref name="Dixon">{{cite news |first=Norm |last=Dixon |title=Revolution and counter-revolution in Afghanistan |url=http://www.greenleft.org.au/2001/475/24709 |publisher=www.greenleft.org |date=2001-12-12 |access-date=2007-07-27 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121202045144/http://www.greenleft.org.au/node/23708 |archive-date=2012-12-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

However, this estimation did not take into account several assets available to the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] (DRA) government. The first of these was the large quantities of military hardware donated by the Soviet Union. In 1989, the army and pro-government [[Militia|militias]] and [[Paramilitary|paramilitaries]] still had 1,568 [[tank]]s, 828 [[armoured personnel carrier]]s, 4,880 [[artillery]] pieces, 126 modern fighter-bombers and 14 [[attack helicopter]]s. Also, the DRA continued to receive massive aid from the Soviet Union, valued between two and six billion dollars a year, and Soviet military advisors were still present in Afghanistan.<ref name=marshall>{{cite book|last=Marshall |first=A.|url=http://www.defac.ac.uk/colleges/csrc/document-listings/ca/06%2829%29AM.pdf |title=Phased Withdrawal, Conflict Resolution and State Reconstruction |date=2006 |publisher=Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Conflict Studies Research Centre |access-date=2008-02-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201033319/http://www.defac.ac.uk/colleges/csrc/document-listings/ca/06%2829%29AM.pdf |archive-date=2007-12-01 |isbn=1-905058-74-8 }}</ref> The government forces also came to rely on the use of large quantities of [[Scud missile]]s: between 1988 and 1992 more than 2,000 of these were fired by the [[99th Missile Brigade]] of the [[Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Afghan Armed Forces]]. It was the largest amount of ballistic missiles used since [[World War II]]. This considerable amount of firepower was sufficient to keep the [[Afghan mujahideen|mujahideen]] at bay. The [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|DRA]] heavily relied on keeping the [[Salang Pass]] open to supply its troops.<ref name=":0" />

'''99th Missile Brigade:'''

The [[99th Missile Brigade]] was responsible for Kabul's [[Scud missile|Scud Missile]] arsenal; the Brigade consisted of Afghans as well as five Soviet volunteers. The Brigade launched around 2,000 missiles between 1989 and 1992.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=imp_navigator |date=2017-08-30 |title="Эльбрус" за Кушкой |url=https://imp-navigator.livejournal.com/654953.html |access-date=2023-06-17 |website=Юрий Лямин}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Герой Афганистана |url=https://afganets.ru/joom25/veterany-segodnya/vashi-vospominaniya/605-geroj-afganistana |access-date=2023-06-17 |website=afganets.ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Zaloga |first=Steven J. |title=Scud Ballistic Missile and Launch Systems 1955–2005: No. 120 |date=2006-02-28 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |others=Lee Ray, Jim Laurier |isbn=978-1-84176-947-9 |edition=Illustrated |___location=Oxford |language=English}}</ref><ref name="youtube.com">{{Citation |title=The Most Concentrated Ballistic Missile Campaign Since the V2 Attacks on London... | date=6 May 2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DfZ9SJ-0SGY |access-date=2023-06-17 |language=en}}</ref> The brigade was founded in the 1980s during the [[Soviet–Afghan War]], with resources to the brigade increasing drastically following the Soviet withdrawal. Members of the [[99th Missile Brigade|99th]] participated in the [[Battle of Jalalabad (1989)|Battle of Jalalabad]], the [[Siege of Khost]] as well as a few retaliatory strikes against Pakistan for violating the Afghan airspace.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

==== Abdul Rashid Dostum (Jowzjani militia) ====

[[Abdul Rashid Dostum]]'s [[Jowzjan]]i militia, officially called the [[53rd Division (Afghanistan)|53rd Infantry Division]], was the most effective pro-government [[militia]]. Numbering 40,000 men drawn from the [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]] minority, it took its orders directly from [[Mohammad Najibullah|Najibullah]], who used it as a strategic [[Military reserve|reserve force]] and [[paramilitary]]. After 1989, this force was the only one capable of carrying out offensive operations.<ref>Marshall, p. 3</ref>

=== Mujahideen ===

==== Ahmad Shah Massoud (Jamiat-e Islami) ====

The U.S. provided [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] with little to no support despite [[The Wall Street Journal]] calling him "the Afghan who won the Cold War", and the one ego was primarily responsible for the mujahideen victory. Massoud instead did get support from the [[United Kingdom]] specifically [[MI6]] and direct support with the [[Special Air Service|SAS]]. Part of the reason why he still got only minor support was that the U.S. permitted its funding and arms distribution to be administered by [[Pakistan]] which favored [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]] who considered himself the archenemy of Massoud. Massoud was also seen as "too independent". The Pakistanis did however grant a base of operations in Pakistan and assisted Jamiat forces militarily during the [[Badaber uprising|Badaber Uprising]]. Primary advocates for still supporting Massoud instead were State Department's [[Edmund McWilliams]] and Peter Tomsen, who were on the ground in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Others included two [[The Heritage Foundation|Heritage Foundation]] neoconservative foreign policy analysts, [[Michael Johns (policy analyst)|Michael Johns]] and James A. Phillips, both of whom championed Massoud as the Afghan resistance leader most worthy of U.S. support under the [[Reagan Doctrine]].<ref name=Phill>Phillips, James A. (18 May 1992). {{unfit|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060118175119/http://www.heritage.org/Research/MiddleEast/bu181.cfm "Winning the Endgame in Afghanistan"]}}, Heritage Foundation Backgrounder #181.</ref><ref name=Johns>Johns, Michael (19 January 2008). [https://michaeljohnsonfreedomandprosperity.blogspot.com/2008/01/charlie-wilsons-war-was-really-americas.html "Charlie Wilson's War Was Really America's War"].</ref>

==== Gulbuddin Hekmatyar (Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin) ====

During the [[Soviet–Afghan War|anti-Soviet war]] (1979–89), the United States had allowed Pakistan to funnel much American military aid to [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]]'s party [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]].<ref name=Phill />

The U.S. permitted its funding and arms distribution to be administered by Pakistan, which favored [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]].<ref name=Phill /><ref name=Johns />

According to the U.S. Special Envoy to Afghanistan in 1989–1992, [[Peter Tomsen]], Gulbuddin Hekmatyar was hired in 1990 by the Pakistani [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI) to conquer and rule Afghanistan in the benefit of Pakistani interests, a plan which was delayed until 1992 as a result of US pressure to cancel it.<ref name=Tomsen,405>{{cite book|last=Tomsen|first=Peter|title=The Wars of Afghanistan: Messianic Terrorism, Tribal Conflicts, and the Failures of Great Powers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Dz9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA405|year=2011|publisher=PublicAffairs|isbn=978-1-58648-763-8|pages=405–408}}</ref>

==== Abdul Rasul Sayyaf (Ittehad-e Islami) ====

One of the beneficiaries of [[Saudi Arabia]]n support, especially financial, was [[Abdul Rasul Sayyaf]] and his army [[Islamic Dawah Organisation of Afghanistan|Islamic Union for the Liberation of Afghanistan]], also called Ittehad-e Islami.<ref name=Phill /><ref name=Johns />

==== Jalaluddin Haqqani (Haqqani network) ====

Another beneficiary of Saudi Arabian support, especially financial, was [[Jalaluddin Haqqani]] who had had strong contacts to Arab fighters in the war against the Soviets.<ref name=Phill /><ref name=Johns />

== Battle of Jalalabad ==

{{Further|Battle of Jalalabad (1989)}}

In the spring of 1989, the [[Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen|Seven-Party (Afghanistan mujahideen) Union in Peshawar]]<ref name="Stenersen2">[https://www.prio.org/utility/Download.ashx?x=228 'Mujahidin vs. Communists: Revisiting the battles of Jalalabad and Khost] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802084503/https://www.prio.org/utility/Download.ashx?x=228|date=2018-08-02}}. By Anne Stenersen: a Paper presented at the conference ''COIN in Afghanistan: From Mughals to the Americans'', Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), 12–13 February 2012. Retrieved 1 February 2018.</ref> supported by the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Pakistani intelligence agency ''ISI'']] attacked [[Jalalabad]].<ref name="Stenersen2" /><ref name="Abbas2">{{Cite news |last=Nasir |first=Abbas |date=18 August 2015 |title=The legacy of Pakistan's loved and loathed Hamid Gul |work=Al-Jazeera |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2015/08/legacy-pakistan-loved-loathed-hamid-gul-150817114006616.html |access-date=4 January 2017 |quote=His commitment to jihad – to an Islamic revolution transcending national boundaries, was such that he dreamed one day the "green Islamic flag" would flutter not just over Pakistan and Afghanistan, but also over territories represented by the (former Soviet Union) Central Asian republics. After the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, as the director-general of the Pakistan's intelligence organisation, Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) directorate, an impatient Gul wanted to establish a government of the so-called Mujahideen on Afghan soil. He then ordered an assault using non-state actors on Jalalabad, the first major urban centre across the Khyber Pass from Pakistan, with the aim capturing it and declaring it as the seat of the new administration. This was the spring of 1989 and a furious prime minister, Benazir Bhutto – who was kept in the dark by ... Gul and ... Mirza Aslam Beg – demanded that Gul be removed from the ISI.}}</ref> The ISI's Director Gul wanted to see a mujahideen government over Afghanistan,<ref name="Abbas2" /> led by Hekmatyar.<ref name="Kaplan,1782">Kaplan, p. 178</ref>

Analysts disagree as to whether Pakistan's Prime Minister [[Benazir Bhutto]] was totally kept in the dark about the ISI's plan to overthrow the Afghan government<ref name="Abbas2">{{Cite news |last=Nasir |first=Abbas |date=18 August 2015 |title=The legacy of Pakistan's loved and loathed Hamid Gul |work=Al-Jazeera |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2015/08/legacy-pakistan-loved-loathed-hamid-gul-150817114006616.html |access-date=4 January 2017 |quote=His commitment to jihad – to an Islamic revolution transcending national boundaries, was such that he dreamed one day the "green Islamic flag" would flutter not just over Pakistan and Afghanistan, but also over territories represented by the (former Soviet Union) Central Asian republics. After the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, as the director-general of the Pakistan's intelligence organisation, Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) directorate, an impatient Gul wanted to establish a government of the so-called Mujahideen on Afghan soil. He then ordered an assault using non-state actors on Jalalabad, the first major urban centre across the Khyber Pass from Pakistan, with the aim capturing it and declaring it as the seat of the new administration. This was the spring of 1989 and a furious prime minister, Benazir Bhutto – who was kept in the dark by ... Gul and ... Mirza Aslam Beg – demanded that Gul be removed from the ISI.}}</ref> or was one of the instigators of this attack.<ref name="Kaplan,1782">Kaplan, p. 178</ref> One analyst stated that also [[United States Ambassador to Pakistan]] [[Robert B. Oakley]] was exhortating{{Clarify|reason=How?|date=February 2018}} this mujahideen attack.<ref name="Kaplan,1782" /> The Americans reportedly were motivated by their wish to humiliate the Marxists and send them out of Afghanistan "clinging to their helicopters", and thus avenge [[Fall of Saigon|the fall of South Vietnam]]; Pakistan wished to establish a friendly government in [[Kabul]] that would not back [[Baloch nationalism|Baluch]] and [[Pashtun nationalism|Pashtun]] separatists in western Pakistan.<ref>{{Citation |title=Battle of Jalalabad – Operation Jalalabad – Pak-Afg war, 1989 | date=13 October 2021 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wRsU76LEJNM |access-date=2023-05-20 |language=en}}</ref> The plan was for [[Jamiat-e Islami|Masoud's forces]] to close the [[Salang Pass|Salang pass]] paralyzing the Afghan government's supply lines.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Afghanistan – Rebels Without A Cause (1989) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QgAsk1LeT1s |access-date=2023-06-17 |language=en}}</ref> The plan was to establish an interim government in Jalalabad which would be recognized by western nations as the legitimate government of Afghanistan.<ref name=":0" />

=== Battle begins ===

Involved in the operation were forces of Hekmatyar's [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]], Abdul Rasul Sayyaf's [[Islamic Dawah Organisation of Afghanistan|Ittehad-e Islami]] and Arab fighters, totalling 10,000 men. The attack began on 5 March 1989, and went well at first for the mujahideen, who captured the Jalalabad airfield before being counterattacked.<ref name="Wright">{{cite book |last1=Wright |first1=Lawrence |url=https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig |title=The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11 |date=2006 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-0-375-41486-2 |___location=New York}}</ref>{{rp|138}} When government troops started to surrender, the attacking forces were soon blocked by the main [[Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Afghan army]] positions held by the 11th Division, that were protected by [[bunker]]s, barbed wire and minefields. The government troops could count on intensive air support, as the Afghan air force flew 20 sorties a day over the battlefield. [[An-12]] transport aircraft, modified to carry bombs, flew at high altitude out of range of the [[FIM-92 Stinger|Stinger missiles]] used by the mujahideen; [[cluster bomb]]s were used intensively.<ref name="Wright" />{{rp|139}}

Three [[Scud missile|Scud]] firing batteries, deployed around Kabul, the [[99th Missile Brigade]] fired more than 400 [[missile]]s in support of the Jalalabad garrison.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Despite their imprecision, these weapons had a severe effect on the morale of the mujahedeen, who could do nothing to prevent them.<ref name="Yousaf2">{{cite web |author1=Yousaf, Mohammad |author2=Adkin, Mark |title=Afghanistan – The bear trap – Defeat of a superpower |url=http://www.sovietsdefeatinafghanistan.com/beartrap/english/18.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008093842/http://www.sovietsdefeatinafghanistan.com/beartrap/english/18.htm |archive-date=2007-10-08 |access-date=2007-07-27 |publisher=sovietsdefeatinafghanistan.com}}</ref><ref name="youtube.com" /> The Battle of Jalalabad is considered to be the most concentrated [[ballistic missile]] campaign since the [[V-2 rocket|V2]] Attacks on [[London]] in the [[World War II|Second World War]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name="youtube.com" />

By the middle of May, they had made no headway against the defences of Jalalabad, and were running low on ammunition. In July, they were unable to prevent the [[Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Afghan Army]] from recapturing the army base Samarkhel, Jalalabad was still firmly in the hands of Najibullah's government. The mujahideen suffered an estimated 3,000 casualties during this battle, 300 of which were Arab fighters.<ref name="Marshall, p.72">Marshall, p. 7</ref> An estimated 12,000–15,000 civilians were killed, while 10,000 had fled the fighting.<ref name="Gutman_Book2" /> The [[Afghan Army]] suffered around 1,500 casualties during the battle.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oliker |first=Olga |date=2011-10-13 |title=Building Afghanistan's Security Forces in Wartime: The Soviet Experience |url=https://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG1078.html |language=en}}</ref>

=== Aftermath ===

Contrary to American and Pakistani expectations, this battle proved that the [[Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Afghan Army]] could fight without Soviet help, and greatly increased the confidence of government supporters. Conversely, the morale of the mujahideen involved in the attack slumped and many local commanders of Hekmatyar and Sayyaf concluded truces with the government.<ref>{{cite news |date=1989-08-29 |title=Rebels without a cause |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/asia/afghanistan/segment_8-29-89.html |url-status=dead |access-date=2007-07-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110210639/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/asia/afghanistan/segment_8-29-89.html |archive-date=2012-11-10}}</ref> The failure of the Battle can be attributed to the failure of [[Ahmad Shah Massoud|Ahmad Shah Masoud's]] forces to close the [[Salang Pass]] allowing [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Kabul]] to supply their forces.<ref name=":0" /> In the words of Brigadier-General Mohammed Yousaf, an officer of the ISI, "the [[jihad]] never recovered from Jalalabad".<ref name="Yousaf2" /> In particular of course Pakistan's plans to promote Hekmatyar were also harmed. Both the Pakistani and the American governments were frustrated with the outcome. As a result of this failure, General [[Hamid Gul]] was immediately sacked by Pakistani Prime Minister [[Benazir Bhutto]], and replaced with General Shamsur Rahman Kallu as the Director-General of the ''ISI''. Kallu pursued a more classical policy of support to the Afghan guerillas.<ref name="Yousaf2" /> In this respect he cut off the barrier that his predecessors, [[Akhtar Abdur Rahman]] and Gul had placed between the mujahideen and the American secret service, which for the first time had direct access to the mujahedeen. The former Pakistani spies, such as Gul, had argued that this gave the United States an opportunity to both undercut Pakistan's interests as well as to weave discord among the mujahideen (something which Pakistan's promotion of Hekmatyar had of course done as well).{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

Indeed, with direct American access to the mujahideen – in particular that of the envoy [[Peter Tomsen]], whose attitude towards independent Afghans was arrogant and arguably hostile in that he deemed them dangerous extremists without direct US supervision – any segment of mujahideen unity crumbled. Traditionally independent mujahideen leaders, such as [[Yunus Khalis]], [[Jalaluddin Haqqani]], who had tried to unite the mujahideen rivals Massoud and Hekmatyar, now moved closer towards Pakistan because of their suspicion of the United States' intentions. (See also [[Haqqani network]]). Others, like Abdul Haq and Massoud, instead favoured the United States because of their tense relations with Pakistan. While Abdul Haq remained hostile towards the communist government and its militias, Massoud would go on to make controversial alliances with former communist figures. Massoud claimed that this was an attempt to unite Afghanistan, but his enemies such as Hekmatyar attacked him for this. Hekmatyar's push were also supported by Pakistan, so that by 1990 there was a definite (if loose) pair of competing axes – one promoted by Pakistan and including Hekmatyar, but also other mujahidin leaders such as Khalis, Jalaluddin Haqqani and other mujahideen leaders who were unsympathetic to Hekmatyar – and the other promoted by the United States and led by Massoud, but also including other leaders such as Abdul Haq who were unsympathetic to Massoud.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

The government forces further proved their worth in April 1990, during an offensive against a fortified complex at [[Paghman]]. After a heavy bombardment and an assault that lasted until the end of June, the [[Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Afghan Army]], spearheaded by Dostum's militia, was able to clear the mujahideen entrenchments.<ref name="Marshall, p.72">Marshall, p. 7</ref>

=== Domestic criticism ===

The Jalalabad operation was seen as a grave mistake by some mujahideen leaders such as [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] and [[Abdul Haq (Afghan leader)|Abdul Haq]], who did not believe the mujahideen had the capacity to capture a major city in conventional warfare.<ref>[[Robert D. Kaplan|Kaplan, Robert D.]] (2001); ''Soldiers of God: With Islamic Warriors in Afghanistan And Pakistan''; Vintage Departures; {{ISBN|1-4000-3025-0}}, p. 166</ref> Neither Massoud nor Haq claimed to have participated in the attack on Jalalabad. Massoud even said it was by BBC radio that he learned about the operation.<ref name="Documentary" /> This is contradictory however as it has been stated Massoud was tasked with closing the Salang Pass, which he failed to do, thus leading to the failure to take Jalalabad.<ref>{{Citation |title=Afghanistan: The Squandered Victory (1989) | date=8 April 2016 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WGhHvZFL5bk |access-date=2023-05-20 |language=en}}</ref> Haq advocated the pursuit of coordinated [[guerilla warfare]], that would gradually weaken the communist regime and cause its collapse through internal divisions. Abdul Haq was also quoted as asking: "How is that we Afghans, who never lost a war, must take military instructions from the Pakistanis, who never won one?"<ref name="Gutman_Book2" /> [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] criticized the go-it-alone attitude of Pakistan and their Afghan followers stating: "The damage caused by our (Mujahideen forces) lack of a unified command is obvious. There is a total lack of coordination, which means we are not launching simultaneous offensives on different fronts. As a result, the government can concentrate its resources and pick us off one by one. And that is what has happened at Jalalabad."<ref name="Documentary" />

== Enmity ''Jamiat-e Islami'' vs ''Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin'' ==

In June 1990, battles between [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]]'s [[Jamiat-e Islami]] and [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]]'s [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]] in [[Logar Province|Logar]] and [[Parwan Province|Parwan]] caused hundreds of casualties on each side.<ref name=Saikal-213>{{cite book|last1=Saikal|first1=Amin|title=Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival|date=2012|publisher=I.B.Tauris|page=214|isbn=978-1-78076-122-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RaTrVFoWvU8C&q=Jamiat-e%20Islami%20afghanistan&pg=PA384|access-date=2 November 2014}}</ref>

== Mujahideen's conquest of Khost (1991) ==

{{See also|Siege of Khost}}

In two weeks' time (14–31 March 1991), mujahideen forces conquered the city of [[Khost]] in eastern Afghanistan on the Kabul DRA Government. The battle was organized by the National Commanders' Shura (NCS) led by [[Jalaluddin Haqqani]] and with representatives from all parties of the [[Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen|Seven-Party (mujahideen) Union]], including [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]] and [[Abdul Rasul Sayyaf]]. One reason why the mujahideen succeeded here, was that once the Soviet Army had left the country, supplying the Government forces in Khost through the air had become too difficult. When the Government's garrison had run out of supplies, the DRA troops massively surrendered to the mujahidin.<ref name="Stenersen2" />

After an [[Siege of Khost|eleven-year siege, Khost fell]] to [[Jalaluddin Haqqani]]'s troops, that were in east Afghanistan, on 11 April 1991, following a negotiated surrender of the communist garrison. This was a coordinated effort where the final push came in an assault with [[Ibrahim Haqqani]] acting as stand-in for Jalaluddin, who had been abroad at the time to raise funds and links. The commandant Gul Aqa was captured. It was claimed that much of the garrison had switched sides because the mujahidin fighters were offering amnesty and lenient treatment, partly an indication of Haqqani's skilful diplomacy. There was considerable irritation by Haqqani's forces when some Pakistani outlets claimed that Hekmatyar had acted as leader, in spite of the similarly close relationship between Haqqani and Pakistani soldiers. At this time Pakistan were strongly in favour of Hekmatyar, who would be their primary proxy until 1994 when they switched to Taliban movement. However, the veteran Pakistani reporter Rahimulah Yusufzai confirmed that it had been a coordinated effort with Jalaluddin Haqqani as overall leader. Haqqani also offered to mediate between the bitter opponents Massoud and Hekmatyar, though this came to nought.<ref name="LoC2">{{dead link|date=January 2018}} [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0119) ''The Demise of the Soviet Union, 1991''] – [[Library of Congress]] country studies – Retrieved on 2007-08-21.</ref>

== Najibullah government weakens (March 1990–January 1992) ==

=== Internal dissensions ===

{{Further|1990 Afghan coup attempt}}

Despite its military successes, the communist regime of President [[Mohammad Najibullah]] was still plagued by its traditional internal divisions, namely the opposition between the [[Khalq]] and [[Parcham]] factions.

The DRA defense minister, [[Shahnawaz Tanai]], disagreed with Najibullah's policy of National Reconciliation with the mujahideen and was in favor of turning Kabul's [[99th Missile Brigade|Scud Launchers]] at Islamabad. He had also become convinced that his Khalq faction was losing its share of power in favour of Najibullah's Parcham. For these reasons he entered in secret negotiations with [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]], and plotted against Najibullah. Launched on 6 March 1990, his [[Coup d'état|coup]] failed, despite almost killing Najibullah, and Tanai was forced to flee to Pakistan, where he joined Hekmatyar. A severe repression followed, as Najibullah ordered the army to be purged of Tanai's supporters. In the ensuing fighting, several airports were bombarded, damaging 46 military aircraft.<ref name="marshall-p8">Marshall, p. 8</ref> This episode reinforced Najibullah's suspicions and led him to govern through his personal allies rather than the government apparatus, further deepening the rift between Khalqis and Parchamis.

=== Economic crisis ===

By 1992, Afghanistan was in dire straits. Reserves of [[natural gas]], Afghanistan's only export, had dried out since 1989, rendering the country completely dependent on Soviet aid. This amounted to 230,000 tons of food per year, but by 1991, the Soviet economy was itself faltering, preventing the Soviets from fulfilling their commitments.

In August 1991, following his [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991|arrival in power]], [[Boris Yeltsin]] announced that all direct assistance to Najibullah's regime would be curtailed. In January 1992, the [[Afghan Air Force (1978–1992)|Afghan Air Force]], which had proved vital to the survival of the regime, could no longer fly any aircraft for lack of fuel. The army was debilitated by food shortages, causing the desertion rate to rise by 60 percent between 1990 and 1991.<ref name=marshall-p8 />

The pro-government militias that had grown to replace the army in many of its assignments, were faithful to the regime only so long as it could deliver enough weapons to enable them to conserve their power. With the end of the Soviet aid, the government could no longer satisfy these demands, and the loyalty of the militias began to waver.

Finally, after negotiations between communist General [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] and [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]], the Junbish militia defected to the mujahideen. This reversal of fortunes effectively turned the tables in favor of the resistance, and forced Najibullah to resign.<ref name="LoC">{{dead link|date= February 2018}} [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0120) ''The Fall of Kabul, April 1992''] – [[Library of Congress]] country studies.</ref>

== Najibullah waning, mujahideen pursue coalition (March 1992) ==

The [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Soviet Union having dissolved in late 1991]] and [[Russia]] having decided to end fuel shipments to Afghanistan, by 1992 the Afghan regime of President [[Mohammad Najibullah]] began to collapse.<ref name=Corwin>Corwin, Phillip. "Doomed in Afghanistan: A U.N. Officer's memoir of the Fall of Kabul and Najibullah's Failed Escape." 1992. Rutgers University Press. (2003), 70–71</ref>

On 18 March 1992, Najibullah announced his willingness to resign in order to make way for a neutral interim government. This step made him lose internal control; his government broke into several factions.<ref name="LoC" />

General [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] of the [[Afghan National Army]] defected the next day, allied with [[Hezb-i Wahdat]] and [[Jamiat-e Islami]] mujahideen forces, and took control of [[Mazar-i-Sharif]].<ref name=BSH,ch.II>{{cite report |last=Sifton |first=John |title=Blood-Stained Hands: Past Atrocities in Kabul and Afghanistan's Legacy of Impunity (chapter II, Historical background) |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |date=6 July 2005 |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2005/07/06/blood-stained-hands/past-atrocities-kabul-and-afghanistans-legacy-impunity#7ea268 }}</ref>

At some point, the UN and senior leaders of several Afghan mujahideen parties decided to meet in [[Peshawar]], Pakistan, to try to form a new national Afghan coalition government.{{sfnp|Saikal|2004|page=214–215, 352}} [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]], another mujahideen<ref name=BSH,ch.II /> warlord in Afghanistan, supported by the United States and Pakistan during the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] (1979–89) and presumably hired by Pakistan's [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]] to conquer Afghanistan (see section [[Afghan Civil War (1989–92)#Participants civil war (1989–92)|Participants civil war 1989–92]]), soon opposed to such an endeavour,{{sfnp|Saikal|2004|page=215}} planning to capture Kabul alone. In a recorded radio conversation, mujahideen leader [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] invited Hekmatyar to come to the negotiations, but Hekmatyar replied: ''"We will march into Kabul with our naked sword. No one can stop us. ... Why should we meet the leaders?" ''<ref name="Webster University Press Book">{{cite book|last=Grad|first=Marcela|title=Massoud: An Intimate Portrait of the Legendary Afghan Leader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5iwLPQAACAAJ&pg=PP1|year=2009|publisher=Webster University Press|isbn=978-0-9821615-0-0}}</ref>{{sfnp|Gutman|2008|page=37}}

== Armies creep up to Kabul (1–14 April) ==

On 10 April 1992, the UN presented a plan to the mujahideen parties—of which they approved—to form a pre-interim council on 15 April to accept formal sovereignty from President [[Mohammad Najibullah]].<ref name=BSH,ch.II /> The plan was for the UN to fly that pre-interim council of community and tribal leaders into Kabul on 15 April and then fly Najibullah out of Kabul and out of Afghanistan.<ref name=BSH,ch.II /> Throughout the process, mujahideen forces would remain outside Kabul.<ref name=BSH,ch.II />

But on 14 April, [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] with his [[Jamiat-e Islami]] forces had conquered parts of [[Parwan Province]] just north of Kabul and had approximately 20,000 troops stationed around Kabul.<ref name=Corwin />

By mid-April, Massoud's forces ([[Jamiat-e Islami|Jamiat]])<ref name=BSH,ch.II /><ref name="LoC" /> along with forces of [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] ([[National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan|Junbish-e Melli-ye Islami]]),<ref name=BSH,ch.II /> [[Islamic and National Revolution Movement of Afghanistan|Harakat]],<ref name =Libr.ofCongr /> and some [[Isma'ilism|Ismaili]] troops led by [[Sayyid Mansor]]<ref name =Libr.ofCongr /> took control of [[Bagram Airfield|Bagram airbase]], 70&nbsp;km north of Kabul.<ref name=BSH,ch.II /><ref name =Libr.ofCongr>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+af0120%29 |title=The Fall of Kabul, April 1992 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]]}}</ref>

[[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]] with his [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]] troops moved up to the southern limits of Kabul.<ref name=BSH,ch.II /> Defecting government forces chose sides with those three mujahideen parties: [[Jamiat-e Islami]], [[National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan|Junbish-e Melli-ye Islami]] and [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]], offering them their support in case they'd decide to enter Kabul.<ref name=BSH,ch.II />

== Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin invades Kabul (15–23 April) ==

On 15 April 1992, President [[Mohammad Najibullah]] was ready to fulfill his role in the plan of 10 April (see above), but the mujahideen parties weren't any longer: some of them now objected against that 10 April agreement.<ref name=BSH,ch.II /> The UN on 15 April did not, as scheduled, fly a pre-interim council into Kabul; apparently, negotiations in Pakistan over such a council were still dragging.<ref name=BSH,ch.II />

On 16 April, Najibullah was toppled by a coalition of four ethnic [[Tajiks|Tajik]] generals, who invited mujahideen leader [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] to enter Kabul to become the new head of state right away, a proposal which Massoud declined.{{sfnp|Gutman|2008|page=34}}<ref name="nyt,24jan1992">[https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/18/world/afghan-guerrillas-order-kabul-army-to-surrender-city.html 'Afghan guerrillas order Kabul Army to surrender city'.] ''[[The New York Times]]'', 18 April 1992. Retrieved 24 January 2018.</ref> One of the putschists, Deputy Defense Minister [[Mohammad Nabi Azimi]], appeared on [[Afghanistan National Television]], saying: "I assure my countrymen that we will have peace in the very near future. There is no need for war anymore".<ref name=nyt,24jan1992 /><ref name="LoC" /> By 17 April 1992, troops of [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] controlled [[Hamid Karzai International Airport|Kabul International Airport]].<ref name="LoC" />

[[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]] on 17 April had moved close to Kabul and threatened to attack the city "if the present administration fails to transfer power to the mujahideen".<ref name=nyt,24jan1992 /> Not much later, [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]] government officials and generals from the [[Khalq]] faction including General [[Mohammad Aslam Watanjar|Aslam Watanjar]] and General [[Mohammed Rafie|Mohammed Rafi]] started to allow Hekmatyar's [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]] forces into Kabul.<ref name=BSH,ch.II /><ref name="Ватанджар">{{cite news|title=ВАТАНДЖАР Мохаммад Аслам|publisher=База персоналий "Кто есть кто в Центральной Азии"|url=http://www.centrasia.ru/person2.php?news=form&st=1063382970|language=ru|accessdate=2011-04-05|archivedate=2016-09-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923034337/http://www.centrasia.ru/person2.php?news=form&st=1063382970}}</ref>

== Militias fight in Kabul (24–27 April) ==

By 24 April 1992, [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]], leader of [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]], seemed on the verge of taking control of Kabul, which prompted [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]]'s and [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]]'s forces to also enter the town, to prevent the establishment of a Hekmatyar dictatorship.<ref name=BSH,ch.II /><ref name=Urban>{{cite news |first=Mark |last=Urban |author-link=Mark Urban |title=Afghanistan: power struggle |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/asia/afghanistan/afghan_4-28-92.html |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] |date=1992-04-28 |access-date=2007-07-27 |archive-date=2007-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709170253/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/asia/afghanistan/afghan_4-28-92.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 25 April, Hekmatyar with Khalqi allies attempted to overtake Kabul.<ref name=photius,peshawar /> But Massoud's and Dostum's forces were stronger and forced Hekmatyar with hard fighting out of Kabul by 27 April.<ref name=photius,peshawar>[https://photius.com/countries/afghanistan/government/afghanistan_government_the_peshawar_accord~72.html 'The Peshawar Accord, 25 April 1992']. Website photius.com. Text from 1997, purportedly sourced on The Library of Congress Country Studies (USA) and CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 22 December 2017.</ref><ref name=Corwin /> Hastily now, the mujahideen parties discussing in [[Peshawar]] (Pakistan) -- which did not include [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar|Hekmatyar]]'s [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]]—agreed<ref name=photius,peshawar /> on their [[Peshawar Accord]]s which they announced on 26 April,<ref name=BSH,ch.II /> proclaiming a leadership council assuring residual powers for the party leaders under an interim President [[Sibghatullah Mojaddedi]] or Mujaddidi (a religious leader) serving from 28 April to 28 June 1992.<ref name=photius,peshawar /> [[Jamiat-e Islami|Jamiat's]] leader [[Burhanuddin Rabbani]] would then succeed him as interim President until 28 October, and also in 1992 a national [[Shura#Shura and contemporary Muslim-majority states|shura]] was to ratify a provisional constitution<ref name=photius,peshawar /> and choose an interim government for eighteen months, followed by elections.<ref name=BSH,ch.II /> In these Peshawar Accords, Ahmad Shah Massoud was appointed as interim minister of defense for the Mujaddidi government.<ref name=BSH,ch.II />

By 27 April 1992, Hekmatyar's [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]] forces had been pushed south outside Kabul, but new mujahideen groups entered Kabul ([[Islamic Dawah Organisation of Afghanistan|Ittehad-e Islami]], [[Hezb-i Wahdat]], [[Islamic and National Revolution Movement of Afghanistan|Harakat]]), rivalling [[Jamiat-e Islami|Jamiat]] and [[Junbish-i Milli|Junbish]], all dividing among them the city which was still largely undamaged.<ref name=BSH,ch.II /> The interim Mujaddidi government was paralyzed right from the beginning which was 28 April 1992, due to rivalling groups contending for total power over Kabul and Afghanistan.<ref name=photius,peshawar />

== Aftermath ==

{{Main|Afghan Civil War (1992–96)|Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)|War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)}}

[[File:Kabul during civil war of fundamentalists 1993-2.jpg|thumb|[[Kabul]] one year after the resignation of [[Mohammad Najibullah|Dr Najibullah]]]]

The rest of April, and May–June 1992, civil war flared up over the control of Kabul, between at least five armies, most of them mujahideen (Islamic resistance parties), most of them sponsored by foreign states or intelligence agency: [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]], [[Jamiat-e Islami]], [[Junbish-i Milli]], [[Islamic Dawah Organisation of Afghanistan|Ittehad-e Islami]] and [[Hezb-i Wahdat]]. By the end of 1992, thousands had been killed, half a million residents had fled Kabul, the town badly damaged. Groups would form alliances and break them, peace accords were attempted and failed. War expanded over all Afghanistan. In November 1994, a new Islamic-inspired group and army, the [[Taliban]], entered the scene. They gradually gained the upper hand, and in September 1996 conquered Kabul. The only group that was left to oppose the Taliban, was Jamiat-e Islami, who was involved in a conflict with the Taliban between [[Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)|1996–2001]]. They defended from the north-east of the country and the Taliban were never able to control all of Afghanistan until their re-etablishment in 2021.

The Taliban ruled most of Afghanistan until October 2001 when they were dethroned by a coalition of the United States of America with the [[Northern Alliance]] consisting of [[Jamiat-e Islami]], [[Shura-e Nazar]], [[Junbish-i Milli]], the [[Eastern Shura]], [[Islamic Movement of Afghanistan|Harakat-e Islami]] and [[Hezb-e Wahdat]]. The UN and US fostered a new government led by [[Hamid Karzai]], who was succeeded in 2014 by [[Ashraf Ghani]]. Nevertheless, by August 2021 the Taliban had retaken control of Afghanistan again and re-established their Islamic Emirate.

== References ==

[[Jamiat Islami]] had allocated massive amount of weapons while overrunning the garrisons in [[Bagram]], [[Charikar]], [[Takhar]], [[Kunduz]], [[Fayzabad, Badakhshan|Fayzabad]] and other northern cities. Adding to that, all the forces of [[Junbish Milli]] had aligned themselves to [[Jamiat Islami|jamiat]], and the [[Parchami]] government of [[Afghanistan]] had decided to surrender all its weapons to Jamiat, instead of Hezb. All the Parchamis had fled abroad through the [[Jamiat Islami|Jamiat]] controlled areas. Jamiat had allocated massive stockpiles of heavy weapons such as [[T-64]], [[T-55]], [[Scud]] Missiles and [[MiG-21 Fishbed]].

{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

The forces of Hezb were very far from key points of the city such as the Presidential Palace, Prime Minister's Office, [[Kabul International Airport]], Defence Ministry, and many other important government offices, and much of the city lies in the North Bank of the [[Kabul River]]. The Jamiat forces quickly took control of these strategically important offices. Although Hezb forces got to the gates of Ministry of Justice and had got control of Ministry of Interior, they were quickly repulsed after bombing from the [[Afghan Air Force]], which were supported from the artilary shells fired from TV tower onto Jade Maiwand. Hundreds of Hezb Fighters were killed or taken prisoners including some foreign fighters.

* {{Cite book |last=Goodson |first=Larry P. |url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl00good |title=Afghanistan's endless war: state failure, regional politics, and the rise of the Taliban |date=2011 |orig-date=2001 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=978-0-295-80158-2 |___location=Seattle |oclc=1026403863}}

* {{Cite book |last=Gutman |first=Roy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9eqvc-Ru3cC&pg=PP1 |title=How we missed the story: Osama bin Laden, the Taliban, and the hijacking of Afghanistan |publisher=[[United States Institute of Peace]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-60127-024-5 |___location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=165478205}}

* {{Cite book |last=Barfield |first=Thomas J. |title=Afghanistan: a cultural and political history |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-691-14568-6 |series=Princeton studies in Muslim politics |___location=Princeton}}

* {{Cite book |last=Kaplan |first=Robert D. |author-link=Robert D. Kaplan |title=Soldiers of God: with Islamic warriors in Afghanistan and Pakistan |date=2001 |publisher=[[Vintage Books]] |isbn=978-1-4000-3025-5 |edition=1st |___location=New York}}

* {{Cite book |last=Saikal |first=Amin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DEIBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |title=Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-85771-478-7}}

== External links ==

In the western sector of the city, the Hezb forces crossed the [[Kabul River]] and arrived at the northern bank after taking control of the Karta i Seh area. While charging towards the Kote Sangi and Kabul University, Sayyaf's forces attacked Hezb forces from the Ghazi School area in a surprise move, and the Hezb forces were separated into two groups after being cut off by Jamiat forces.

Throughout the night, the exhausted and demoralized forces of Hezbk Islami, foughted on, some to the bitter end. After suffering heavy casualties, Hezb forces in the southern bank fled out of Kabul towards [[Logar]] and deserted their positions. There were two choices for the Hezb Forces who were surrounded in the Northern bank of the [[Kabul]] river, either to surrender or to fight to the death, and most of them chose the latter. Heavy shells were fired in the areas which they were holding. Many civilians fled, but those who were caught in the cross fire were not so unfortunate.

{{DRA topics}}

Kabul fell completely into Jamiat hands in [[April 30]], [[1992]]. [[Mohammad Najibullah]] tried to flee Kabul, but his departure was blocked by [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]]. On [[April 17]] [[1992]], he sought sanctuary in the [[UN]] compound in Kabul. President [[Burhanuddin Rabbani|Rabbani]] refused to let him leave the country, but made no attempt to arrest him properly.

{{Post-Cold War Asian conflicts}}

{{Fall of Communism}}

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