Content deleted Content added
Stubbed, wikified, adjusted image, added category |
TreeReader (talk | contribs) added aute name |
||
| (251 intermediate revisions by more than 100 users not shown) | |||
Line 1:
{{short description|Species of plant}}
{{speciesbox
| name = Paper mulberry
| image = Murier.jpg
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn |author1=Shao, Q. |author2=Zhao, L. |author3=Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) |author4=IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group |name-list-style=amp |title=''Broussonetia papyrifera'' |page=e.T49834580A147629611 |year=2019 |access-date=30 August 2022}}</ref>
| taxon = Broussonetia papyrifera
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Étienne Pierre Ventenat|Vent.]]
| synonyms =
{{Species list
|Broussonetia elegans|K.Koch<ref>K. Koch Dendrologie 2(2): 440 1873</ref>
|Morus papyrifera|L.
|Papyrius papyrifera|(L.) Kuntze
}}
| synonyms_ref =
}}
{{infobox Chinese
|t=構樹
|s=构树
|p=gòushù
|mi={{IPAc-cmn|g|ou|4|.|sh|u|4}}
}}
The '''paper mulberry''' ('''''Broussonetia papyrifera''''', [[synonym (taxonomy)|syn.]] ''Morus papyrifera'' L.) is a species of [[flowering plant]] in the family [[Moraceae]]. It is native to Asia,<ref name=fna>[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=200006341 ''Broussonetia papyrifera''.] Flora of North America.</ref> where its range includes mainland China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, Southeast Asia, [[Myanmar]], and India.<ref name=kew>{{Cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:850861-1 |title=''Broussonetia papyrifera'' (paper mulberry) |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=1 October 2017}}</ref> It is widely cultivated elsewhere and it grows as an [[introduced species]] in New Zealand, parts of Europe, the United States,<ref name=kew/> and Africa.<ref name=grin>{{GRIN | access-date = 17 December 2017}}</ref> Other common names include '''aute''' and '''tapa cloth tree'''.<ref name=kew/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Aute plant {{!}} Māori weaving and tukutuku – te raranga me te whatu {{!}} Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/photograph/43471/aute-plant |access-date=2025-08-01 |website=teara.govt.nz |language=en}}</ref>
==Origin==
Paper mulberry was used among ancient [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesians]] in making [[barkcloth]]. It originates from [[subtropical]] regions in mainland Asia and is one of the best examples for the mainstream [["Out of Taiwan" hypothesis]] of the [[Austronesian expansion]]. Various genetic studies have traced the origins of paper mulberry populations in the [[Remote Pacific]] all the way to [[Taiwan]] via [[New Guinea]] and [[Sulawesi]]. In the [[Philippines]], which was along the expansion path, paper mulberries are mostly descendants of modern introductions in 1935. Ancient introductions of paper mulberry presumably went extinct in prehistory due to their replacement with hand-woven fabrics, given that paper mulberry generally only survives under human cultivation. However, its absence in the Philippines further underlines its origins in Taiwan, and not within island Southeast Asia. Additionally, paper mulberry populations in New Guinea also show genetic inflow from another expansion out of [[Indochina]] and [[South China]].<ref name="Chang2015"/><ref name="Seelenfreund2010">{{cite journal |last1=Seelenfreund |first1=Daniela |last2=Clarke |first2=Andrew C. |last3=Oyanedel-Giaverini |first3=Naria Factina |last4=Piña-Muñoz |first4=Ricardo |last5=Lobos |first5=Sergio |last6=Matisoo-Smith |first6=Lisa |last7=Seelenfreund |first7=A. |title=Paper mulberry (''Broussonetia papyrifera'') as a commensal model for human mobility in Oceania: Anthropological, botanical and genetic considerations |journal=New Zealand Journal of Botany |date=September 2010 |volume=48 |issue=3–4 |pages=231–247 |doi=10.1080/0028825X.2010.520323|bibcode=2010NZJB...48..231S |hdl=10533/143279 |s2cid=83993320 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="González-Lorca">{{cite journal |last1=González-Lorca |first1=J. |last2=Rivera-Hutinel |first2=A. |last3=Moncada |first3=X. |last4=Lobos |first4=S. |last5=Seelenfreund |first5=D. |last6=Seelenfreund |first6=A. |title=Ancient and modern introduction of ''Broussonetia papyrifera'' ([L.] Vent.; Moraceae) into the Pacific: genetic, geographical and historical evidence |journal=New Zealand Journal of Botany |date=2 April 2015 |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=75–89 |doi=10.1080/0028825X.2015.1010546|s2cid=54664583 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2015NZJB...53...75G }}</ref>
It is believed to be the most widely transported fiber crop in prehistory, having been transported along with the full range of the Austronesian expansion, as opposed to most of the other commensal crops in Oceania. Paper mulberry is present in almost every island or island group in Polynesia, including [[Rapa Nui]] and [[Aotearoa]]. Some populations have gone recently extinct after they stopped being cultivated, such as in the [[Cook Islands]] and [[Mangareva]], although accounts and prepared barkcloth and [[herbarium]] specimens of them exist in museum collections gathered by Europeans during the [[European colonisation of Southeast Asia|colonial era]]. They were spread by Polynesians primarily through [[vegetative propagation]] with cuttings and root shoots. They were rarely cultivated from seeds, as most plants were harvested prior to flowering, when the stems reach around {{convert|1|in|cm|abbr=on}} in diameter, as described by 18th-century European accounts. If the [[feral]] plants reproduced sexually is unknown, as the plants are [[dioecious]] and require both male and female specimens to be present in one island.<ref name="Chang2015">{{cite journal |last1=Chang |first1=Chi-Shan |last2=Liu |first2=Hsiao-Lei |last3=Moncada |first3=Ximena |last4=Seelenfreund |first4=Andrea |last5=Seelenfreund |first5=Daniela |last6=Chung |first6=Kuo-Fang |title=A holistic picture of Austronesian migrations revealed by phylogeography of Pacific paper mulberry |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=2015 |volume=112 |issue=44 |pages=13537–13542 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1503205112|pmid=26438853 |pmc=4640734 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11213537C |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Seelenfreund2010"/> The tree was introduced to [[New Zealand]] by early [[Māori people|Māori]] settlers (oral histories mention the ''[[Ōtūrereao]]'', ''[[Tainui (canoe)|Tainui]]'' and ''[[Aotea (canoe)|Aotea]]'' canoes as being sources).<ref name="Neich">{{Cite Q|Q58677501}}</ref> The tree was commonly seen during the voyages of [[James Cook]] in the 1770s, however the tree likely became extinct <ref name=":0" /> by the 1840s, due to reduced cultivation and predation by pigs and cattle who fed on the tree.<ref name="Neich"/> It was reintroduced to New Zealand from Japanese plants during European colonisation.<ref name="Neich"/>
==Description==
This species is a [[deciduous]] [[shrub]] or [[tree]] usually growing {{convert|10|–|20|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall, but known to reach {{convert|35|m|ft|abbr=on}} at times. The leaves are variable in shape, even on one individual. The blades may be lobed or unlobed, but they usually have toothed edges, lightly hairy, pale undersides, and a rough texture. They are up to about {{convert|15|–|20|cm|in|abbr=on}} long. The species has male and female flowers on separate plants. The staminate [[inflorescence]] is a [[catkin]] up to {{convert|8|cm|in|abbr=on}} long with fuzzy male flowers. The [[pistillate flower|pistillate]] inflorescence is a spherical head up to about {{convert|2|cm|in|abbr=on}} wide with greenish female flowers trailing long [[gynoecium|styles]]. The [[infructescence]] is a spherical [[multiple fruit|cluster]] {{convert|2|–|3|cm|in|abbr=on}} wide containing many red or orange fruits. Each individual protruding fruit in the cluster is a [[drupe]].<ref name=fna/><ref name=kew/>
==Uses==
This plant has been cultivated in Asia and some [[Pacific Islands]] for many centuries for food, [[fiber]], and medicine.<ref name=kew/>
===Barkcloth===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 220
| image_style = border:none;
| image1 = Hawaiian kapa, 18th century, Cook-Foster Collection at Georg-August University in Göttingen, Germany.jpg
| image2 = Fijian royal tapa cloth, 19th century, Neiman Marcus Collection rotated.jpg
|footer = '''Left''': 18th century ''kapa'' from [[Hawaii]]<br>'''Right''': 19th century royal ''tapa'' from [[Fiji]]
}}
Paper mulberry is primarily used in the Pacific Islands to make [[barkcloth]] (''[[Tapa cloth|tapa]]'' in most Polynesian languages).<ref name="Chang2015"/><ref name="Seelenfreund2010"/> Barkcloth can also be made from other members of the mulberry family ([[Moraceae]]), including ''[[Ficus]]'' (figs) and ''[[Artocarpus]]''. Barkcloth was also occasionally made from ''[[Pipturus]]'' nettles, especially in [[Hawaii]]. However, the highest quality of barkcloth was from paper mulberry.<ref name="Osmond1998">{{cite book |first1=Meredith |last1=Osmond |editor1-first=Malcolm |editor1-last=Ross |editor2-first=Andrew |editor2-last=Pawley |editor3-first=Meredith |editor3-last=Osmond |title=The lexicon of Proto Oceanic : The culture and environment of ancestral Oceanic society |volume=1: Material Culture |chapter=Horticultural practices |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |year=1998 |doi=10.15144/PL-C152.115 |pages=115–142 |chapter-url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/146170/1/PL-C152.pdf}}</ref>
Barkcloth was mainly used for clothing among ancient Austronesians and is traditionally made using characteristic stone or wooden beaters, which are among the most common artifacts found in Austronesian archaeological sites. Numerous archaeological remains of barkcloth beaters in southern China have been regarded as evidence that the pre-Taiwan Austronesian homelands were located in the region prior to the [[southward expansion of the Han Dynasty]], particularly around the [[Pearl River Delta]]. The oldest such remains are from the Dingmo Site in [[Guangxi]], dated to around 7,900 [[Before Present|BP]].<ref name="Li2014">{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Dawei |last2=Wang |first2=Wei |last3=Tian |first3=Feng |last4=Liao |first4=Wei |last5=Bae |first5=Christopher J. |title=The oldest bark cloth beater in southern China (Dingmo, Bubing basin, Guangxi) |journal=Quaternary International |date=December 2014 |volume=354 |pages=184–189 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2014.06.062 |bibcode=2014QuInt.354..184L }}</ref> Barkcloth remained an important source of clothing fabrics in pre-colonial Melanesia, Polynesia, and parts of Indonesia. However, it has been mostly replaced by woven fiber clothing in most of Island Southeast Asia and Micronesia.<ref name="Osmond1998"/> It is still worn ceremonially in parts of Polynesia and Melanesia. It is also used to make bags and [[bedding]].<ref name=kew/>
Although numerous names are used for paper mulberry throughout Austronesia, none are [[cognate]]s, thus a [[Proto-Oceanic]] term cannot be reconstructed. In most of Polynesia, the term for barkcloth can be reconstructed from [[Proto-Nuclear-Polynesian]] ''*taba'', meaning "bark", with cognates including [[Wayan language|Wayan]] ''taba''; [[Tongan language|Tongan]], [[Samoan language|Samoan]], [[Mangareva language|Mangareva]], and [[Rarotongan language|Rarotongan]] ''tapa''; and [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] ''kapa''. Other terms widely used for barkcloth and paper mulberry are derived from the [[Proto-Polynesian]] reconstructed word ''*siapo'', with cognates including [[Niue language|Niue]], [[Tongan language|Tongan]], and [[Marquesan language|Marquesan]] ''hiapo''; and [[Samoan language|Samoan]] and [[Futunan language|East Futunan]] ''siapo''.<ref name="Osmond1998"/> The term for barkcloth beater, however, can be reconstructed more extensively back to [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian]] ''*ikay'', with cognates including [[Uma language|Uma]] ''ike''; [[Sa'a language|Sa'a]] ''iki''; [[Bauan language|Bauan]], [[Tongan language|Tongan]], and [[Futunan language|East Futunan]] ''ike''; and [[Samoan language|Samoan]] and [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] ''iʻe''.<ref name="Osmond1998"/><ref>Blust, Robert & Trussel, Steve (work-in-progress). [https://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-s_i1.htm#12512 *ikay], ''Austronesian Comparative Dictionary'', web edition.</ref>
In New Zealand, traditional Polynesian methods for producing barkcloth (''aute'') <ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Chitham |first=Karl |title=Crafting Aotearoa : a cultural history of making in New Zealand and the wider Moana Oceania |date=2019 |publisher=Te Papa Press |others=Kolokesa Uafā Māhina-Tuai, Damian Skinner, Rigel Sorzano |isbn=978-0-9941362-7-5 |___location=Wellington, New Zealand |pages=66 |oclc=1118996645}}</ref> were retained by early settlers, despite the tree not growing as large in temperate New Zealand.<ref name="Neich"/> Presumably the tree was used by early [[Māori people|Māori]] for cloth, however by the 1770s, the primary use was to create a soft, white cloth used for [[Fillet (clothing)|fillet]]s or in ear piercings by high-status men.<ref name="Neich"/> Barkcloth textiles disappeared from use in the early 19th century, coinciding with the tree's disappearance from New Zealand.<ref name="Neich"/> There has been however an emerging interest in reviving the ancient art by learning from the Hawaiians.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aute: Making Māori Tapa Cloth |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/nz-society/audio/201779062/aute-making-maori-tapa-cloth |website=New Zealand Society |publisher=[[Radio New Zealand]] |date=17 November 2015}}</ref>
===Paper===
[[File:Japanese paper-making process; April 2008 (02).jpg|thumb|Japanese washi papermaking process]]
The paper mulberry was a significant [[fiber crop]] in the [[history of paper]]. Known for its durability and longevity, it continues to be used in various traditional and contemporary paper-making practices today. It has been used for [[papermaking]] in China since sometime between the 2nd and 8th century, and in Korea, the oldest existing block print in the world (c. 751 AD) is printed on ''[[Korean paper|hanji]]'' paper using its fibers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yi |first=Sŭng-ch'ŏl |title=Hanji |date=2012 |publisher=Hyŏnamsa |isbn=978-89-323-1619-2 |edition=Ch'op'an |___location=Sŏul-si}}</ref> High quality Korean ''Hanji'' and Japanese ''[[Washi]]'' are typically made from the inner bark of the paper mulberry, which is pounded and mixed with water to produce a paste, and dried into sheets.<ref name="kew" />
===Other uses===
The wood of the plant is useful for making [[furniture]] and utensils, and the roots can be used as [[rope]].<ref name=kew/> The fruit and cooked leaves are edible.<ref name=kew/>
The fruit, leaves, and bark have been used in systems of [[traditional medicine]].<ref name=kew/> For example, the bark and fruit of the species, known locally as ''jangli toot'', are used as a [[laxative]] and [[antipyretic]] in rural [[Pakistan]].<ref>Hussain, K., et al. (2008). [http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=ebl&sei-redir=1&referer=http%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fscholar%3Fstart%3D70%26q%3DBroussonetia%2Bpapyrifera%26hl%3Den%26as_sdt%3D0%2C5#search=%22Broussonetia%20papyrifera%22 An ethnobotanical survey of important wild medicinal plants of Hattar district Haripur, Pakistan.] ''Ethnobotanical Leaflets'' 12, 29-35.</ref>
The species is used as an [[ornamental plant]]. It tolerates disturbance and [[air pollution]], so it has been useful as a landscaping plant on roadsides. It is a [[pioneer species]] that easily fills forest clearings, and it has been considered for [[reforestation]] efforts.<ref name=kew/> It grows well in many [[climate]] types.<ref name=fl>Morgan, E. C. and W. A. Overholt. [http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in498 Wildland Weeds: Paper Mulberry, ''Broussonetia papyrifera''.] ENY-702. Entomology and Nematology. Florida Cooperative Extension Service. University of Florida IFAS. Published 2004, revised 2013.</ref>
==Invasive weed==
The ability of the plant to readily colonize available habitat, particularly disturbed areas, has helped it become an invasive species in some regions. It spreads rapidly when male and female individuals grow together and seeds are produced.<ref name=kew/> [[Seed dispersal]] is accomplished by animals that eat the fruits, and the plants can form wide, dense stands via their spreading root systems.<ref name=fl/>
This is considered to be one of the worst [[weed]]s in Pakistan, one of the most significant invasive plants on the [[Pampas]] in [[Argentina]], and a dominant invasive in the forests of [[Uganda]].<ref name=fl/>
The [[pollen]] is [[allergen]]ic.<ref name=kew/> It is reportedly a main culprit of inhalant allergy in [[Islamabad]], where the species is a very common urban weed.<ref>Malik, R. N. and S. Z. Husain. (2007). [http://www.pakbs.org/pjbot/PDFs/39(4)/PJB39(4)1045.pdf ''Broussonetia papyrifera'' (L.) L'hér. Ex Vent.: an environmental constraint on the Himalayan foothills vegetation.] ''Pakistan Journal of Botany'' 39(4), 1045-53.</ref> The pollen allergy and asthma caused by this plant sends thousands of patients to hospitals in Islamabad during March. The species should not be taken to other areas without due consideration of the potential of male plants to shed their injurious pollen.
==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed">
Gelso da carta - autunno.JPG|Form
Broussonetia papyrifera - Botanischer Garten Freiburg - DSC06385.jpg|Pistillate flowers
Broussonetia papyrifera - fleurs mâles.jpg|Staminate flowers
Papiermaulbeerbaum blickwinkel.jpg|Fruit
Broussonetia papyrifera fruits.jpg|Fruit
Broussonetia papyrifera MHNT Texture of the trunk.jpg|Texture of the trunk
Starr 061106-1467 Broussonetia papyrifera.jpg|Preparing tapa
</gallery>
==See also==
*[[Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Broussonetia papyrifera|''Broussonetia papyrifera''}}
* {{Wikispecies-inline|Broussonetia papyrifera|''Broussonetia papyrifera''}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q389185|from2=Q21977496}}
[[Category:Moraceae]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Fiber plants]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Flora of tropical Asia]]
[[Category:Flora of China]]
[[Category:Flora of Eastern Asia]]
[[Category:Papermaking]]
[[Category:Dioecious plants]]
[[Category:Austronesian agriculture]]
| |||